f!iflil ,tllllllll:. 1&--- The Impact of Human Activities on the Erosion and Accretion of the Nile Delta Coast ~ ---- ~ ~. a+i Alfy Morcos Fanos

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1 Journal of oastal Researh Fort Lauderdale, Florida Summer 1995 The mpat of Human Ativities on the Erosion and Aretion of the Nile Delta oast Alfy Moros Fanos oastal Researh nstitute 15 E-Pharaana Street E-Shalalat Alexandria, Egypt,tllllllll:. e f!fll '-"2 a+i 1&--- ABSTRAT FANOS, A. M., The impat of human ativities on the erosion and aretion of the Nile delta oast. Journal of oastal Researh, 11(3), Fort Lauderdale (Florida), SSN The Nile delta has ome into existene sine the last ie age. ts growth was mainly the result of the deposition of sediments arried by the old branhes of the Nile River under the influene of the dynami fores in the Mediterranean. At the beginning of this entury, the shoreline of the Nile delta began to experiene erosion in several areas espeially on the two promontories; i.e. the areas around the Rosetta and Damietta outlets. This erosion is in addition to that of the Burullus area whih has been ourring sine the 1th entury. Erosion in the delta inreased greatly after the onstrution of the High Aswan Dam in 1964 whih trapped Nile sediments in Nasser Lake. Members of the oastal Researh nstitute (Rl) have studied the aretion/erosion phenomena of the Nile delta sine Their researh has inluded the examination of the available maps and ontinuous monitoring of about 7 hydrographi profiles a number that was inreased to 8 in 198 and 15 in A omputer program was developed to analyze data olleted and the erosion/aretion pattern along the Nile was delineated. As a result, it was found that for adequate monitoring and assessment of erosion/aretion phenomena the oast an be divided into nine physiographi units. _ ADDTONA!..NDEX WORDS: deltai sediments. ontrol erosion, shoreline hange, shore profile, marine physiography, NTRODUTON When the famous Greek historian, Herodotus, visited Egypt more than 2, years ago, he was so impressed by the ontributions of the Nile to Egypt's development and to the ontinued survival of its people that he delared the ountry to be the gift of the Nile. Herodotus did not overstate the situation for even today the Nile ontinues to be the main fator that insures the livelihood of many Egyptians. Only three perent of Egypt is suitable for agriulture and that portion is along the banks of the river and in its delta. The delta was built over the enturies from the alluvium transported seaward by the river's many distributaries (Figure 1) (SAD, 1981; EL-AsKARY and FRHY, 1986; OUTELLER and STANLEY, 1987). These early distributaries, whih silted up over time, have been replaed by the two present branhes at Rosetta and Damietta (Figure 1). The entral headland of Burullus was formed by the very ative Sebenniti distributary about 1, 9361 reeived 7 November 1993; aepted in revision 18 July years ago (ORLOVA and ZENKOVH, 1974). Sine that time, the headland has been subjeted to erosion. Before the beginning of the 2th entury and prior to the building of a number of barrages, the low Aswan Dam and irrigation ontrol works (Figure 2) and the Nile delta's shoreline grew northward into the Mediterranean Sea. The two ities of Rosetta and Damietta, whih were established hundreds of years ago at the two outlets of the Nile, were bypassed by deposited sediments and are several kilometers south of the sea shore. Sine the beginning of the 2th entury deltai deposition has dereased and serious erosion has been ourring in several loations, suh as on the Rosetta and Ras E Bar promontories. This erosion inreased greatly following the onstrution of the Aswan High Dam in n the Rosetta area, the average rate of retreat on the western and eastern sides of the promontory was as muh as 147 mlyr and 48 mlyr, respetively, between 1964 and This oastal erosion aused by the loss of fluvially derived Nile sediments, land subsidene and rising sea level is now threatening large areas of low-lying northern delta areas with

2 822 Fanes M E T E R R A N E A N S E A ]!.. s "5 ::> 5. i5 '" '" '" :!' "5 l '? OJ Abu Quir Old Nile Brantles Fig. 1 General Map lor the Delta and the Old Branhes a iro Figure L General map for the Nile delta and the old bran hes. inreased salinization of ground water and inursion of salt water (STANLEY and WARNE, 1993). Erosion is not the only problem ourring along the Mediterranean oast of Egypt. ntensive shoaling of the estuaries of the delta's northern lakes hinders fishing and navigation and also disturbs the eosystems. The study of the aretion/erosion patterns along the delta's shoreline began in These studies inluded the examination of old maps of the area and the ontinuous monitoring of hydrographi profiles. n 1971 the number of profiles was 7 a number that was inreased to 8 in 198 and inreased again to 15 in omputer programs were developed to analyze the profiles and to alulate sediment budgets. The objetive of this paper is to doument the impats that the onstrution of the various water regulation works in the Nile system have had on the delta's shoreline. t also examines the effet of limate hange on the disharge of both water and sediment to the sea. NLE RVER DSHARGE AND SEDMENT LOAD The Nile River, whih is 6,3 km long, is the seond longest river in the world. t heads in Lake Plateau on the Equator and runs to the Mediterranean Sea. t has numerous tributaries; the two major ones are the White Nile whih drains Tanzania and Kenya and the Blue Nile whih drains the Ethiopian highlands. Human intervention in the flowof the Nile dates bak at least to Pharaoni times (NMAN and SOTT, 1984). Modifiation during reent times began with the onstrution of barrages some 2 km to the north of airo on the Damietta Branh (ompleted in 184) and on the Rosetta Branh (ompleted in 1861). These barrages were replaed in With their onstrution, perennial irrigation beame possible. Agriulture benefited from the inreased amount of silt and lay that ould be transferred to the fields. This same pratie was possible through the period of further Journal of oastal Researh, Vol., No. :1, 1995

3 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 823 onstrution whih inluded additional barrages and the Low Aswan Dam (Figure 2). However, with the onstrution of the High Aswan Dam in 1964 some of the benefits enjoyed earlier were eliminated beause the sediment load was subsequently trapped. Although the Low Aswan Dam and all the barrages had been provided with sluies, it was found that the dam trapped some sediment (HAMMAD et al., 1979). SHARAF EL DN (1977) alulated that 6 perent of the fresh water disharged through Aswan was used by irrigation or lost to evaporation before reahing the Mediterranean sea. Figure 3 shows the variation of water disharge at Aswan and that reahing the Mediterranean sea through the Damietta and Rosetta branhes between 186 and This urve shows that the water disharge was higher from 186 to 19 (11 x 1 9 m-/yr) than from 19 to 1991 (85 x 1 9 m't/yr). t has been onluded that suh a major hange in flooding was due to monsoonal limate hanges in Afria (NELSEN, 1971; HAS SAN, 1981; FARBRDGE, 1984). R/UNESO/UNDP (1978), using the long term reords of the Ministry of Publi Works and Water Resoures, onduted a study on the flutuation of the Nile's sediment load (Figure 3). There were major differenes in the sediment load before and after 19. During the period from 186 to 19 suspended load was higher (2 x 1 6 ton/yr) than from 19 to 1964 (16 x 1 6 toni yr) (Figure 3). The measurements also showed that the highest perent of suspended load was arried during the flood season in August (Table 1). Aording to QUELENNE and KRUK (1976), SMKA (197), HURST (1957), FAHMY (1974), and HAMMAD et al. (1979) the average annual suspended load of the Nile at Gaafra between 192 and 1963 was 16 x lot) ton/yr (Figure 3). NMAN and Sorn' (1984), using data for the period 1861 to 1964, estimated the sediment load of the free flowing Nile as follows: (1) Total sediment load (sand + silt + lay) ranged between 16 and 178 x 1 6 ton/yr. (2) Suspended load (silt + lay) totaled 112 x 1 6 ton/yr. The majority of this amount was transferred to agriultural fields. (3) Load of sand totaled 5-66 x 1 6 ton/yr whih is equivalent to 3-4 x 1 6 m:/yr. This amount went to the sea resulting in the growth of the delta northward. MEDTERRANEAN dfina N J Assiute Barrage 192 Nag Hammadi Barrage 193 Esna Barrage 198 Low High SEA Figure 2. t j.r." Regulation works and dams along the Nile River. Sine 1964, however, sediment has not been able to bypass the Aswan High Dam. The two results of this trapping of sediments behind the dam are the filling up of Lake Nasser (Figure 4) and severe erosion of the Nile delta's oast. Table 1. Water and suspended sediment haraeristis of the Nile River. Quantity July August Sept. Ot. Nov. Water, 1 9 m 3* Suspended sediment load, % of total** *Measured at Low Aswan Dam (HURST, 1957) **Estimated for at Gaafra some 3 km to the North of Aswan Low Dam (QUELENNE and KURK, 1976) 3 Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

4 824 Fanos 13 Suspended Sediment Load AX) X.J oo/yr ( ) 2 u.. :J U Q <1J f!l ro i: u Water [)shag? ljpslra:rn 7 the loahn d High Aswan Dam 6 -WJerD [hv.,nslream Aswan Dam 5 A Waler Dsharge 111 <t: " /-,/ \/"\ 4 -- Alerage Suspended E ro.", o ii\j\ 3 Sedirrent Load! i!. Water Dsharged b tre Sea 2 VT lliniet Roseta i Branhes 25 1 i " \..-.-!.\.'\... OT------, , ,r r----r--L...-_-----r--r--...,...-O ) 199:) 2JX) i 125 " ro o...j Figure 3. Variation of water disharge and suspended sediment with time a..,_._._._._. _. _.._. _. _. -'-??.S..!!l. _. -- _._. _._-_. _._.-'-'-'-'-' \ \ '... E 14 B Deposit Deposit s 12 s: '\ '(ij : : U ; "' _11"1 1 Deposit ean Nat "-1ean B _ral F ed Le\lel o.e Le\le' Distane from High Dam ( Km.) o U"l o Figure 4. Sedimentation in Lake Naser upstream High Aswan Dam. Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

5 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 825 MEDTERRANEAN SEA '",,,<9,".8, ,,..' -' 17.(,.-...!....'-'«J... Figure 6. Retreat of Rosetta Promontory during the period from 19 to Figure 5. Shore-line advane at Rosetta Promontory (15 19). LONG-TERM HANGES The long-term hange in the shoreline of the Nile delta and the impat of human onstrutions on it have been studied through the analyses of old maps (RNNESONNDP, 1978; EGYPTAN SURVEY DEPARTMENT, 1964) and loally olleted information (HLALY, 1971; KHAFAGY and FANOS, 1981ab; KHAFAGY el al., 1992). The first detailed and aurate survey of the oastal region was onduted during the presene of the Frenh Expeditionary Fore in 18. The shoreline of the two promontories of Rosetta and Damietta and of the entral headland at Burullus were mathed with the Frenh maps. The overlapping was possible beause the positions of the fixed points, suh as forts and lighthouses, were loated on old maps. The main observations and onlusions drawn for the three regions form the basis of the disussion below. ROSETTA PROMONTORY The Rosetta Promontory was built sine 5 1 AD when water from the anopi and Se benniti branhes was diverted naturally and artifiially into an existing anal known as the Rosetta branh (R/UNESO/UNDP, 1978). Advanes and retreats of the shoreline between 15 and 1991 are diagrammed in Figures 5 and 6. During this period of time, major hanges in the shoreline have ourred. The eastern and western sides of the promontory advaned 11 and 8.5 km, respetively, between 15 and 19 (Fig ure 5) whereas they retreated 4.4 and 5.8 km, respetively, between 19 and 1991 (Figure 6). The temporal variations in advane and retreat of the Rosetta Promontory are shown on Figure 7. Erosion that began about 19 averaged 2 m/yr until 1964 when it inreased to about 12 m/yr and 24 m/yr for the east and west sides of the promontory. These hanges reflet the onstrution of both the Low Aswan and High Aswan dams (Figure 7). Aretion also took plae to the east of the Journal of oastal Researh, Vol., No.3. [995

6 826 Fanos 11.S 1.: Q..-J 9 >- 8 E 't1 et Q:-.S ;:; Qj.s u :J 4 " ell ex " rtl Q. til rtl b.s il- N Q) (T) E Q. ' rtl ;U o s!e Qj til <t E a rtl l? u Q) i: 1l et til <t w L r ".2' (5.-J 1 E if) Time in Years u O-t L.. +1 r_...,... r +..,...i Figure 7. nrease and derease in the length of Rosetta Promontory during 16 to promontory in Abu Khashaba embayment (Figure 1) and on both sides of the outlet in the form of spits (Figure 6). These strutures were formed by the longshore urrents that prevail in the area (FANGS, 1986). DAMETTA PROMONTORY t is thought that the Damietta Branh ame into existene during the 1th entury AD (R/ UNESO/UNSP, 1978). The sediment brought to the mouth of the branh was direted to both the west and east under the ombined ation of the waves and urrents. The shoreline trend at this promontory for the period from 18 to 1992 is shown in Figures 8 and 9. hanges are similar to those of the Rosetta area in that there was advane before 19 and retreat subsequently. The average rates of advane and retreat are shown in Figure 1. The west side of the promontory, known as the Ras E Bar Peninsula, advaned at a rate of 3 m/yr between 18 and 19. t then retreated, at an average rate of 35 m/yr, between 19 and 1941 when a jetty was onstruted on the western side of the Branh. Although this jetty stabilized the northern part of Ras E Bar, the rest of the oast ontinued to be eroded although at a lesser rate of 1 m/yr. This rate was also influened through the onstrution of other protetive works inluding two groins and some detahed breakwaters (FANOS and KHAFAGY, 1992). On the east side of the promontory the rate of advane of the shoreline between 18 and 1912 was about 2 m/yr. Between 1912 and 1973 the rate of retreat was about 4 m/yr whereas between 1973 and 1991 it was 1 m/yr. The variation in rates is a refletion of the onstrution of the High Aswan Dam. The aretionary pattern east of the Damietta promontory is dominated by a spit whih grew beause of the transport of eroded sediments toward the east by longshore urrents (FANOS, 1986). BURULLUS HEADLAND The Burullus headland was built by the very ative Sebenneti Branh. t began eroding more than 1, years ago (R/UNESO/UNDP, 1978) when that branh began to derease in im- Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

7 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 827 MEDTERRANEAN SEA Sale Old Light house N Figure 8. Evolution of the shoreline and spit formation on the eastern side of Damietta Promontory. M E 1 ERR AN E AN SEA?-as..\ t)3( sea Q3',e\\3 e;,q(\?-e t-\,\e '((\(.' o KD 15J 2XX) m Figure 9. Shoreline hanges ( ) at Damietta Promontory (long-term). Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

8 828 Fanos Detat'ed - Breakwa rs Groins E.S x: (l...j >- 1 E et --.s.s u 18 :J u Q) : 18aJ s: \ Time in Years '1) 2XX) U 1 ll Q) ro e u os Figure 1. nrease and derease in the length of Damietta Promontory during the period 18 to portane and eventually died out. Sine then Burullus village was destroyed by erosion many times only to be built farther inland. The hanges ourring along the oast at the Burullus outlet between 181 and 1988 are shown in Figure 11; the erosion/aretion hanges through time are shown in Figure 12. Erosion ourred at an average rate of 1.1 m/yr between 181 and 199; between 199 and 1971 the rate was about 7 m/yr (Fig. 12). This may be due to the onstrution of the Low Aswan Dam in 192. n a jetty was built on the western side of the outlet and aretion began to our at about 7 m/yr. This jetty was an effetive trap until 1988 at whih time the sediment drifting alongshore began to bypass the jetty and to be deposited inside the inlet. n the jetty was lengthened about 15 m. The eastern shoreline of Burullus outlet was subjeted to erosion at an average rate of 2 m/yr between 181 and 199, a rate that inreased to an average of 11 m/yr during the period from 199 to Protetive strutures were added between 1936 and 1947 (FANos and KHAFAGY, 1992). They ulminated with the onstrution of a 6 m long onrete sea wall. However, erosion began again to the east of this wall and, averaging 15 m/yr between 1947 and 1964, reated an embayment with a urved shoreline. n 1964 erosion had reahed a band of sand dunes whih slowed up the reession rate to about 1 m/yr. SHORT TERM HANGES Short term hange has been studied through the analyses of the profile data olleted between 1981 and 199. The profiles examined, over the entire deltai oast from Abu Quir to Port Said. Spaing between adjaent profiles varies between.5 km to 1 km (Figure 13). The profiles were surveyed twie a year: one as "Spring profiles" during April and May and one as "Autumn profiles" during September and Otober. The spring profiles show the result of winter storm waves whereas the autumn profiles reflet the ation of summer swells. A summary of the analysis is depited in Fig- Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 1], No. 3, 1995

9 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 829 M E TERRANEAN onrete 5 E A Wall 'fj)':>..\1...:.:;:;<.;:.. '96.. '"...:.:.::.:..:::.::.,:...:.:...:....:...:... ':.:.--'::". _. _. - \ u s ( u \ u 5 o 5 loo 15 m Sale Figure 11. Shore-line hanges at Burullus Headland from 181 to AX) 1J >- dj :J (/) 1J :.!E OJ. >.s ]X) f 1J.s L[JJ a, (; L ' (/).. ' 5O Jl OJ 1 L"' U 7fJJ Em li) E o "' \ (JJJ tit <lj U <lj ::J \. E OJ <lj u, en "> () 2 V; ' \ ro t3 :; ro u...j () Q).J::. D 1:) W :-.., '1 OJ n;, -E 3: Q), - 3:, "' ro, en <t: f) <lj V; (u W \ <lj Q) \ V; Q) 3:.J::. :f <lj "' \ OJ "' W f) \ :5 t \ ' \.s 'O (; \ \ 3 ra ' 3 \ OJ. \.s "' '"6 2 u 1< Q) "" if) 2: UJ D:. Erosion ontinued ", on the Eastern Side of the, Sea WaJl \. -, 9 Figure 12. Erosion/aretion of shoreline at Burullus area. Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

10 83 Fa nos M E TE R R A NE A N 5 E A Figure 13. General layout of main profiles along the Nile delta oast. M E 1 T E R R A N 5 E A N t ffi] Aretion Erosion 1.6 X J m :.) :.8 51 ".6 ld o. E 2.2 e..!!! - Q2 <5 -o.! :i! :;..l! s ill " 2 ' g :> ld o'" -.6!J slane alorq <Xl 1:.1) zn zo 2 Base;"..(Km) Figure 14. hanges of ontour lines along the Nile delta oast. Journal of oastal Researh, Vol., No.:, 1991i

11 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 831 ures 14 and 15. The full analysis is given in KHAFAGY et al. (1992). Between 1981 and 199 the shoreline retreated along most of the oast, the major exeptions being for short distanes between Maadia and Rosetta, at Abu Khashaba, between the Kithener drain and New Damietta harbour, and the west of Port Said breakwater. The maximum retreat of the shoreline ours on the Rosetta promontory where it is about 7 m/yr. n ontrast it is about 5 m/yr at both the Burullus headland and Ras E Bar sea resort and about 8 m/yr to the east of the Damietta Branh. There are three regions that are subjeted to erosion from the shoreline to the - 6 m ontour; namely the Rosetta and Damietta promontories and the Baltim Sea resort whih is loated 1 km east of the Burullus outlet. There is aretion at ontours - 2, - 4, and - 6 m along other areas of the delta (Figure 14). The volume of sediment transported along the delta's shoreline in and beyond the breaker zone was omposed from the profile data. umulative volumes are depited in Figure Sb. A steeper upward slope indiates aelerated aretion whereas a more gentle slope shows that aretion is less than it was in the previous zone. A downward slope signifies erosion. The total volume of sediment moving along the shoreline between the shore and the - 6 m ontour is shown in Figure 15. The onlusions are: "' o rtl ::J '1 MEDTERRANEAN ME 2 8 <$2 xandraa. 12 iii 14 ro J? J 4 UJ 8 j SEA a - General b - Mass Map urve - Total Sediment \blume Figure 15. Mass urve total sedimentvolume from profile data along the Nile delta oast during the period from 1981 to 199. (1) Volumetri hanges appear to be independent of time. For example the volume hange during the mentioned period of time is not equal to the volume hange per year multiplied by the number of years. (2) Gross volume hange (aretion + erosion), whih amounted to 235 x 1 6 m'' in ten years, is far larger than the net volume hange (aretion-erosion), whih amounted to 13 x 1 6 m" during the same period of time. (3) n the breaker zone erosion predominates over aretion. (4) The net volume of sediment moving along the full length of the sediment is oming from or lost to depths beyond - 6 m. This onlusion argues for expanding the profiles seaward to the so-alled losure depth. (5) Profile hanges do not follow definite patterns exept at the Rosetta and Damietta promontories and to the east of the Burullus outlet where progressive erosion ours. (6) Analysis of the spring profiles shows that erosion along the shoreline ours as a result of the high waves of winter whereas it shows that there is a redistribution of sediment with aretion ourring during the summer swell season. NEARSHORE PHYSOGRAPH UNTS The seasonal harateristis of beah profile hanges suggest a number of physiographi units (Figure 16) inluding: (1) Abu Quir Bay from the Madiaa outlet to 6 km south of Rosetta outlet is an independent unit although its northern end ats as a sink for the erosive part of the Rosetta promontory. (2) The Rosetta promontory, about 15 km long, on both sides, is a separate unit that serves as a soure region for adjaent areas. (3) The Abu Khashaba zone ats as a sink for material eroded from the Rosetta promontory. (4) The setion from 4 km east of Abu Khashaba to the Burullus outlet is a unit where the shore alter- -lournal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

12 832 Fanos Damietta N 'f 1 nj t;) W Porl Said Alexandria f) f) '@ 3 S to l/l " '-.;;; nj f) nj "5 z?5 o.. Figure 16. Diagram showing the physiographi units. nates between aretion and erosion. (5) From the Burullus outlet to Kithener drain, erosion dominates although a usp is forming at Baltim Sea resort. (6) The setion from Kithener drain to the western breakwater of the new Damietta Harbour is nearly stable, although there are a few pokets of erosion and aretion. (7) Both sides of the Damietta promontory are erosive. (8) The zone from the Damietta spit for a distane of 15 km to the east is a sink for the material eroded from the promontory. t also serves as a soure for the 1 km streth to the east. (9) The setion further east appears to be an independent unit and serves as the major soure of sediment for the Port Said breakwater and hannel entrane. SUMMARY AND ONLUSONS This study shows that the advane and retreat of the Nile delta shoreline, about 24 km from west of Abu Quir to Port Said, orrelates losely with the quantity of sediment disharged to the sea, a ondition affeted by the onstrution of irrigation ontrol strutures and dams on the Nile River. This phenomenon has been affeted by the limati hangesthat have ourred in east Afria. t has been found that major hanges prevailed prior and subsequent to 19. Before 19, water and sediment disharge was not impeded by artifiial strutures and were high. After ontrol strutures were added to the system, lesser amounts of water and sediment reahed the sea and oastal erosion and retreat beame ommon. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is indebted to the Journal of oastal Researh reviewers who reviewed the manusript and offered suggestions and Dr. J Walker from Louisiana State University. Also, would like to thank Dr. harles W. Finkl for his ontinued support. LTERATlJRE TED OUTELLER, V. and STANLY, D.J., Late Quaternary stratigraphy and paleography of the eastern Nile delta, Egypt. Marine Geology, 27, R/lJNESO/lTNDP, oastal Protetion Studies. Final Tehnial Report, Volume. Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995

13 oastal hange in the Nile Delta 833 EGYPTAN SURVEY DEPT.,1964. Maps showing the oastal hanges along the Nile Delta oast (in arabi). EL-AsKARY, M.A. and FRHY, O.E., Depositional phases of Rosetta and Damietta promontories on the Nile Delta oast. Journal of Afria Earth Sienes, 5, FAHMY, A., A note on the effet of sediment on the apaity of the High Dam Reservoir. Researh and Experimental Station, Ministry of rrigation, airo (arabi text). FARBRDGE, R.W., The Nile floods as a global limati soil proxy. n: MORNER, A. and KARFEN, W. (eds.), limati hanges On a Yearly and Millennial Basis. Dordreht: Reidel Publishing, FANOS, A.M., Statistial analysis of longshore urrent data along the Nile Delta oast. Water Siene Journal (airo), 1, FANOS, A.M. and KHAFAGY, A.A., Protetion works along the Nile Delta oast. A paper presented in the oastal Engineering Pratie onferene (Long Beah, alifornia Marh 9-11, 1992). HAMMAD, H.Y.; MOBARK,.; KHAFAGY A.A., and SDKY, S., A short note on the sediment regime of the River Nile. Bulletin nstitute Oeanography and Fish A.R.E. (Alexandria) 7, HASSAN, F.A., Historial Nile floods and their impliations for limati hanges. Siene, 212, HLALY, N oastal investigations near Rosetta exit of the River Nile. Tehnial Report No. 54,1971, Suez anal Authority Researh enter. HURST, H.E., A suggested statistial model of some time series whih our in nature. Nature, 18 (4584), 494. NMAN, D.L. and SOTT, A.J The Nile littoral ell and man's impat on the oastal zone of the southeastern Mediterranean. SO Referene Series 84-31, University of alifornia, La Jolla. KHAFAGY, A.A. and FANOS, A.M., 1981a. Burullus headland beah profiles MSP/81/4. oastal Researh nstitute, Alexandria. KHAFAGY, A.A. and FANOS, A.M. 1981b. Ras E-Bar promontory beah profiles MSP/81/3. oastal Researh nstitute, Alexandria. KHAFAGY, A.A.; FANOS, A.M., and NAFFAA, M.F., Ten years beah profile data ( ). A Tehnial Report, oastal Researh nstitute, Alexandria. KHAFAGY, A.A.; NAFFAA, M.G.; FANOS, A.M., and DEAN, R.G., Nearshore oastal hanges along the Nile Delta Shores. Twenty-third oastal Engineering onferene (Venie, taly). NELSEN, E., The Nile regimes, ompilation and analysis of information and data published by the Egyptian Government. Tehnial Report No.1. Alexandria. Aademy of Sientifi Researh, oastal Erosion Studies. ORLOVA, O. and ZENKOVH, V.P., Erosion of the shores of the Nile Delta. Geoforum, 18, QUELENNE, R.E. and KRUK,.B., Nile suspended load and its importane for the Nile delta morphology. n: ltndp/uneso, Proeedings, Seminar on Nile Sedimentology (Aademy Siene Researh and Tehnology, Alexandria), pp SAD, R The Geologial Evolution of the Riner Nile. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1951P: SHARAF, EL DN, Effet of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile flood and on estuarine and oastal irulation pattern along the Mediterranean Egyptian oast. Limnology and Oeanography, 22:(2), SMKA, Y.M., 197. Degradation of the Nile Bed Due to the ntereption of Silt in the High Aswan Reservoir. Montreal: omission nternationale des Grandes Barrges, Dixieme ongress. STANLY, D.J. and WARNE, A.G., Nile delta: Reent geologial evolution and human impat. Siene, 26, Journal of oastal Researh, Vol. 11, No.3, 1995