FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE RISE OF ISLAM The Greco-Roman Civilization History of Politics and Economy: Book I

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1 FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE RISE OF ISLAM The Greco-Roman Civilization History of Politics and Economy: Book I CONTENTS Preface vii-viii Table of Contents, List of Tables, Figures, Photos and List of Maps ix-xvi Introduction to History of Politics and Economy 1 Introduction to Book I. the Greco-Roman Civilization 31 Chapter I. Politics and Religion The Ancient Near East: The Rise of Civilization 2. Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic World 3. The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire 4. The German Kingdoms, the Byzantine and the Persian Empires 5. Development of Religions: From Paganism to the Rise of Islam Chapter II. Economy and Society The First Phase of Civilization: Economy and Society 2. Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic Economy and Society 3. The Roman Empire: Economy and Society 4. The Germanic Kingdoms, the Byzantine and the Persian Empires Chapter III. Political Philosophy Philosophy of the Pre-Socratics 2. Philosophy of Socrates and Plato 3. Philosophy of Aristotle 4. Ancient Philosophy after Aristotle 5. The Early Christian Philosophy: The Latin Fathers Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments Economic Thought of the Ancient Near East 2. Economic Thought of Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic World 3. Economic Thought of the Roman Empire 4. Other Intellectual Developments till Ancient Civilization 5. Other Intellectual Developments of Roman Civilization 6. The Roman Military Structure and Campaigns Chapter V. Summary and Conclusion 505 Appendix: A Study of History by Arnold J. Toynbee Book I-VI Index of Persons, Places, and Subjects 541 ix

2 Chapter I. Politics and Religion from the Begging to the Rise of Islam 1. The Ancient Near East: The Rise of Civilization 39 Mesopotamia - The First Civilization; Ancient Egypt - The Gift of Nile; the Hittite Kingdom; The Sea Peoples, the Phoenicians, and the Hebrews; The Assyrian Empire; The Persian Empire; and Other Civilizations India and China 2. Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic World 59 Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece; The Rise of the Greek City-States: Sparta, Athens, the Greek Migration and Colonies; The Golden Age: The Greco-Persian Wars, Athenian Empire, Peloponnesian War; The Decline and Fall of Greece; The Rise of Macedonia and Alexander the Great; and The Four Hellenistic Kingdoms 3. The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire 87 The Etruscans and Early Rome; The Roman Republic: Social Order, the Law Makers, the Magistrates, and the Army The Roman Conquests: Wars in Italy, Hannibal against Rome, the Macedonian Wars; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic; The Roman Empire; and The Fall of the Western Roman Empire 4. The German Kingdoms, the Byzantine and the Persian Empires 111 Germanic Kingdoms: The Ostrogoths, Visigoths, the Franks, Anglo-Saxon, Vandals The Byzantine Empire, Persians, Arabs, and Avars 5. The Development of Religions: From Paganism to the Rise of Islam 123 Ancient Paganism; Greek Mythology and Hellenistic Religions; Zoroastrianism; Roman Myths and the Roman Gods 5-I. Judaism in Its Early Phases and the Hebrew Scriptures 5-II. Christianity: Early Christian Church, Latin West, Greek East; The Progress of Christianity; and the New Commandment 5-III. The Rise of Islam and the Kohran Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 152 x

3 Chapter II. Economy and Society from the Beginning to the Rise of Islam 1. The First Phase of Civilization 169 The Climate Change and Human Migration; The Stone and the Metal Ages; The Evolution of Human Society; Ancient Mesopotamia Economy and Society; Ancient Egypt Economy and Society Phoenician Trade in the Mediterranean; Assyrian Economy and Society; and Persian Economy and Society 2. Ancient Greek and Hellenistic Economy and Society 197 Spartan Economy and Society; Athenian Land and Agriculture; Industry, Commerce, and Finance in Athens; Society and the War of the Classes in Athens; and 2-1. Hellenistic Economy and Society: Greece and Macedonia, Egypt under the Ptolemies, Syria under the Seleucids, Pergamon under the Attalids, Disintegration of the Balance of Power, and Social and Economic Life in the Hellenistic World 3. The Roman Empire: Economy and Society 227 Economy and Society in Italy and the Civil War; The Policy of Augustus; The Judio-Claudian Dynasty Economy and Society; The Flavians and the Antonines: Commerce and Industry, Italy and the West Economy and Society, Asia and Africa Economy and Society, Economic and Social Policies; and The Third and Fourth Centuries Economy and Society 4. The Germanic Kingdoms, the Byzantine and the Persian Empires 253 Germanic Settlements and Agriculture Industry, Commerce, and Communications The Byzantine Economy and Society The Persians and the Arabs: Economy and Society Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 267 xi

4 Chapter III. Political Philosophy from the Beginning to the Rise of Islam 1. Philosophy of the Pre-Socratics 281 Early Ionian Philosophers; The Pythagorean Society; Xenophanes and Heraclitus; Parmenides and Zeno; Empedocles and Anaxagoras; The Atomists; and Pre0Socratic Philosophy 2. Philosophy of Socrates and Plato 299 The Sophists; Socrates; Minor Socratic Schools and Democritus; Life of Plato and his Works; Plato s Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology); Plato s Theory of Ideas (Ontology); Plato s Psychology and Ethics; Plato s Political Philosophy; and Plato s Cosmology 3. Philosophy of Aristotle 329 Life of Aristotle and his Works; Aristotle s Metaphysics; Aristotle s Ethics; Aristotle s Politics; Aristotle s Logic; Aristotle s Physics; and Aesthetics of Aristotle; 4. Ancient Philosophy after Aristotle 345 Cynicism; Skepticism; Epicureanism; The Stoics and Stoicism; The Roman Empire and Cultural Changes; and Plotinus and Neoplatonism 5. The Early Christian Philosophy: The Latin Fathers 371 Christianity during the First Four Centuries; Three Doctors of the Church; St. Augustine s Philosophy and Theology; and Boethius, St. Benedict, and Gregory the Great Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 389 xii

5 Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments 1. Economic Thought of the Ancient Near East 405 Economic Thought of Macedonia; Economic Thought of Ancient Egypt; and Economic Thought of the Jews 2. Economic Thought of Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic World 415 Homer, Hesiod, and Aesop s Fables; Xenophon s Oeconomicus; Plato s Economic Thought; Aristotle s Economic Thought; and Hellenistic Thinkers 3. Economic Thought of the Roman Empire 427 Roman Economic Thought; Christianity and Economic Thought; Labor Input in the Roman Imperial Economy; Roman Economic Thought in Production and Distribution; and Post-Roman Economic Thought 4. Other Intellectual Developments till Ancient Greece 445 Letters and Science in the Ancient Near East; Historiography of Ancient Greece; Literature in Ancient Greece; Education and Rhetoric in Ancient Greece; and Hellenistic Science and Literature 5. Other Intellectual Developments of Roman Civilization 459 Roman Historiography; Latin Literature; Roman Science and Technology; and Education in Ancient Rome 6. The Roman Military Structure and Campaigns 477 Military of Ancient Rome; Structural History of the Roman Army Historical Phases of the Roman Army The Roman Navy War History of the Roman Military Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 495 xiii

6 Chapter V. Summary and Interdisciplinary Conclusion 1. Summary 507 Politics and Religion Economy and Society Political Philosophy Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments 2. Conclusion 517 An Application of a Strategic Model for the Analysis of History Lessons from Interactions between Politics and Economy Lessons from Interactions between Theory and Practice 3. Appendix: A Study of History: Arnold J. Toynbee 526 The Geneses of Civilizations The Growths of Civilizations The Breakdowns of Civilizations The Integrations of Civilizations Endnotes and References 540 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND PHOTOS Photo The Greco-Roman Era (1000 B.C.-A.D. 490) Figure A Balanced Approach to History of Politics and Economy Table The Composition of Each Book with Four Chapters of Contents Table The Composition of a Series of Seven Books Photo Windfall: The Oil and Gas Sector Is Changing Photo I-0-1. Detail of Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus Photo I-0-2. Roman Gladiators: Gladiators in Combat Photo I-0-3. The Roman Coliseum from the Palatine Photo I-1-1. The Egyptian Campaign against the Sea Peoples at the Battle of Delta Photo I-1-2. Ancient Persia in Depth Photo I-2-1. Death Mask, known as the Mask of Agamemnon Photo I-2-2. The Hoplite Phalanx in Greece (ca B.C.) Photo I-2-3. The Greek Hoplites marching in a Phalanx Formation xiv

7 Figure I-5-1. World Religion Symbols Table I-5-1. Religions Timeline Photo I-5-1. An Ancient Temple devoted to the god Zeus Table I-5-2. A Basic Comparison of Deities Photo I-5-2. Judaism: Moses receiving the Torah Photo I-5-3. The covered Ark of Covenant and Seven Priests with Rams Horns Photo I-5-4. The Last Supper Photo I-5-5. A Christian Dirce, painted by Henryk Siemiradzki, 1897 Photo I-5-6. Muslim Conquest of Persia Photo I-5-7. The Rise of Islam Photo II-0-1. Ancient Egypt Farming: Ox-Drawn Plow, 1200 B.C. Photo III-0-1. The School of Athens by Raphael in 1509 Figure III-0-1. A Timeline of Ancient Philosophy Photo III-0-2. The Church Fathers: An 11th-century Kievan Rus' miniature Figure III-0-2. The Basics of Philosophy: Philosophy Map Photo III-1-1. The Pre-Socratic Philosophers, 600 B.C. Photo III-2-1. Plato in his Academy by Carl Johan Wahlborn in 1879 Photo III-2-2. The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in 1787 Photo III-3-1. The Lyceum of Aristotle in ancient Athens Photo III-3-2. Plato s Academy: Aristotle and Plato discussing philosophy in a garden Photo III-4-1. Plotinus on Beauty and Ugliness of Soul Figure III-4-1. The Timeline of Stoicism Development Photo III-5-1. Saint Jerome visited by Angels painted by Bartolomeo in 1617 Photo III-5-2. St. Ambrose of Milan (left) and St. Augustine of Hippo (right) Photo IV-0-1. Currency Reform in Ancient Rome Photo IV-0-2. Roman 4-wheeled Wagon; Photo IV-0-3. Building a Ship in Greece Photo IV-0-3. Building a Ship in Ancient Greece Photo IV-1-1. Ancient Mesopotamian Economy Photo IV-1-2. The Ancient Egyptian Economy Photo IV-2-1. The Movement to Live More Simply Photo IV-2-2. Ancient Greece after Sunset Photo IV-3-1. Constantine II as Caesar A.D : Heraclea Mint Photo IV-3-2. Gallo-Roman relief depicting a river boat transporting wine barrels Photo IV-4-1. Cuneiform developed by Ancient Sumerians B.C. Photo IV-4-2. The Ancient Egyptian Astronomy Photo IV-5-1. Model of Crane Lifting Column: Roman Civilization Photo IV-5-2. The Gallo-Roman Harvesting Machine Photo IV-6-1. Third-Century Roman Soldiers Battling Barbarian Troops, A.D Photo IV-6-2. The Remains of Vercovicium on Hadrian's Wall near Housesteads, England Figure IV-6-1. High Command Structure of the East Roman Army Figure IV-6-2. High Command Structure of the West Roman Army Photo V-0-1. Neolithic Agricultural Revolution Table V-3-1. A Strategic Model: Alternative Strategies (TOWS) Table V-3-2. Selected Elements by Strategic Category affecting Civilization Table V-3-3. Hypothetical Evaluation of Current Status of the Hellenic World Table V-3-4. Hypothetical Alternative Strategies for the Hellenic World xv

8 LIST OF MAPS Map Roman Empire at its Height, A.D. 117 Map Ancient Civilization Map I-1-1. The Near East in Ancient Times Map I-1-2. The Oriental Empires about 600 B.C. Map I-1-3.Ancient Palestine, Phoenicia and Syria, BC Map I-1-4. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, c B.C. Map I-1-5. Neo-Assyrian Empire, B.C. Map I-1-6. Persian Empire Map I-2-1. Classical Greece and Athenian Empire about 450 B.C. Map I-2-2. The Hellenistic Kingdoms Map I-2-3. Mycenaean Greece B.C.: Places, Main Cities and Other Settlements Map I-2-4. Athens and Sparta / Creative Commons Map I-2-5. The Greek Territories and Colonies during B.C. Map I-2-6. The Greek World during Persian Wars ( B.C.) Map I-2-7. The Empire of Alexander and his Campaigns of Conquest: B.C. Map I-3-1. The Mediterranean Basin, 2 nd Century B.C. Map I-3-2. The Roman Empire under Trajan, A.D. 116 Map I-3-3. The Samnite Wars: The Roman Taking-over of Italy Map I-3-4. The Pyrrhic War ( B.C.) Map I-3-5. Punic Wars ( B.C.) Map I-3-6. The Mediterranean, 218 B.C. Map I-3-7. The Division of the Roman Empire, A.D. 395 Map I-3-8. Migration of the Huns from Asia Map I-4-1. Germanic Migration: Invasions of the Roman Empire Map I-4-2. Europe just before the Reconquest by Justinian, A.D. 530 Map I-4-3. Migration of the Main Column of the Visigoths Map I-4-4. The Byzantine Empire in 650 Map I-5-1. Early Centers of Christianity, 300, 600, and 800 Map I-5-2. The Spread of Islam, Map II-0-1. Trade in Ancient Greece during B.C. Map II-0-2. Roman Trade Network in A.D. 180 Map II-1-1. The Ice Age of the Earth Ended by about 10,000 B.C. Map II-1-2. The Migration of the Modern Human Map II-1-3. Prehistoric Farming in Europe: The Early Neolithic Map II-1-4. Ancient Mesopotamia 6000 to 1500 B.C. Map II-1-5. The River Nile Exploitation Map II-1-6. The Commercial Network of the Phoenicians B.C. Map II-1-7. Assyrian Empire (9 th 8 th Centuries B.C.) Map II-1-8. The Persian Empire B.C. Map II-2-1. Ancient Greece Map II-2-2. The Economy of the Hellenistic Era Map II-3-1. Provinces of the Roman Empire Map II-3-2. The Asian Trade Routes, A.D. 400 Map II-4-1. The Germanic Kingdoms in Europe in A.D. 526 Map II-4-2. The Byzantine and the Sassanid Empires in A.D. 600 Map III-1-1. The World of the Pre-Socratic Philosophers Map IV-6-1. Locations of Roman Legions, A.D. 80 Map IV-6-2. The Roman Fleets and Major Naval Bases during the Principate xvi

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