International Journal of Island Affairs

Transcription

1 UDC: (22) Tite: Insua; internatioria journa, of is.,. Cat. no: Date: 27 Feb ^^^ Internationa Journa of Isand Affairs December 2006 ISSN Year5No2

2 Internationa Journa of Isand Affairs ISSN Year 15, No. October 2006 Editoria Board Editor: Pier Giovanni d'ayaa Guest ediîor: Amandine Thomas Editoria assistant: Mohamed-Nizar Larabi Face cover: From Dumont d'urvie sea trave, painted by Louis Lebreton (1846). Scientific Advisoiy Committee: / m Bibiothèque ESEI Library E-mai : ibrary@unesco. org Te. : +33 (0) /60 7, Pace de Fontenoy Paris, France Prof. Lino Brigugio, Mata Prof. Savino Busutti, Mata Prof. Edgar J. DaSiva, India Prof. Hiroshi Kakazu, Japan Prof. Nicoas Margaris, Greece Prof. Patrick Nunn, Fiji Dr. Henrique Pinto da Costa, Sâo Tome e Principe Pubished by INSULA, thé Internationa Scientific Counci For Isand Deveopment, with thé support of UNESCO. Artices pubished in this journa do not necessariy refect thé opinions of INSULA or of UNESCO. Materia appearing in this journa cannot be reproduced without thé prior permission of thé Editer. INSULA, thé Internationa Journa ofisandaffairs, is distributed free to INSULA's individua and institutiona members. For subscriptions and information, pease write to: Back cover: Lac Jokusaron (photo by Marie Couzinet) Bibiothèque/Library 7 pace de Fontenoy "> PARIS 07 SP-FRANCE **.. A^, *' INSULA c/o UNESCO, rue Miois Paris cedex, France Te: , Fax : E-mai : insua@unesco. org For more information oui- web site is avaiabe. Creï eg ion Tech SENES

3 ^LÙ) EDITORIAL COLD ISLANDS' TOURISM by Amandine Thomas DOSSIER: COLD ISLANDS- TOURISM SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES IN COLD WATER ISLANDS by Jérôme L. Me Eroy and Bruce Potter SERVING SUSTAINABLE ISLAND TOURISM: HOT OR COLD? by Godfrey Badacchino HERITAGISATION 0F THE NORTHERN RIM: TRAVELLING INTO THE PAST 0F SVALBARD by Arvid Viken THE CHATHAM ISLANDS: TOURISM, DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND POWER CLICHES by Andrew Cardow and Péter Witshier NEWS FROMAND ABOUT ISLANDS: POLICIES AND TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE TOUMSM IN SMALL ISLANDS by Eugénie Yunis ISLANDERSAT WORK' SENTOSA, AN ATYPICAL ISLAND DEVELOPMENT by Amandine Thomas CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE: FLOATING ISLANDS AROUND THE WORLD by Chet Van Duzer INSULA'S PAGE UNESCO AND MAB PAGES BOOKREVIEWS APPLICATION FORM FOR MEMBERSHIPAT INSULA Pier Giovanni D'Ayaa Editer SU 7V S By Amandine Thomas, guest editor A, 1 s thé tourism market takes on an ever increasing rôe in thé économie scheme of isands across thé gobe, thé necessity to exchange research findings, poicies, and ideas conceming sustainabe deveopment of thé industry must continue to grow aongside it. Thé Isands and Sma States Institute of thé Foundation of Internationa Studies in Mata, in coaboration with thé Mata Tourism Authority and thé Word Tourism Organization, organized, ast May, an Internationa Conférence on Sustainabe Tourism with Spécia Référence to Isands and Sma States. Over thé course of thé conférence, one of thé main issues addressed deat with tourism viabiity in what are commony referred to as «cod water isands.» As thé name impies, «cod water isands» are more often than not ocated outside ofstereotypica isand tourist destinations. A disproportionate reiance on thé fishing and agricutura industries, carried over from past générations has caused thèse communities to fa behind in their deveopment of modem manufacturing sectors. Thé concems of a singe industry economy are becoming more and more apparent and financia diversity is becoming increasingy attractive. Cod water isands are now being forced to ook it aternative routes to ensure économie deveopment ind tourism and financia services promise to feature îrominenty in this regard. Often in sharp contrast to Amandine THOMAS is passionated by thé interactions in sma Systems. She is just graduated of a master in Intercutura Communication. Her research focuses on thé ink between identity, tourism and sustainabe deveopment in thé Mediten-anean. Emai: amandinethomas@hotmai.com thé warm, sunny, tropica isands which hâve dominated thé tourism market for years, cod water isands provide an opportunity to discover a différent stye of isand iving. Thé récent increases in thé Eco-tourism market offers thèse isands a chance to bring their high points to thé forefi-ont. Empty andscapes, natura environments, farm enterprises, and wecoming ocas are amongst thé many bright spots in which thèse cod water isands can offer to thé modem traveer. This issue of thé Internationa Journa of Isand Affairs proposes a dossier on tourism in cod water isands composed of four artices. Jérôme Me Ekoy and Bruce Potter open thé subject with a research project conceming thé achievement of Sustainabe Tourism with a spécifie focus on cod water isands. Godfrey Badacchino foows by presentmg thé particuarities of thèse kinds of destinations and their extrême tourism opportunities in comparison with thé more cassica mode. Then two différent case studies are put forth: Svabard by Arvid Viken as we as thé Chatham isands by Péter Witshier and Andrew Cardow. In addition, woud aso ike to thank Mr. Eugenio Yunis who reminds us of thé view hed by thé WTO conceming Poicies and Toos for Sustainabé Tourism in Sma Isands.

4 . his ^ Q ai /^: ^- ' By Jérôme L. McEroy and Bruce Potter Photo by Marie Couzmet T> Abstract paper focuses on achieving sustainabe tourism, particuary in sma cod water isands where coming décades wi witness an escaation of tourism demand. It argues that thé origin of thé ST concept is based on dissatisfaction with thé damaging spread ofmass tourism across thé peasure periphery and thé évoution ofresearch from advocating ow-impact ecotourism and other sma-scae styes to cas for more hoistic transdiscipinary thinking. It reviews présent probems and proposes thé "Sustainabiity Diamond": simutaneousy satisfying thé needs of hosts, guests and entrepreneurs aong with thé préservation of natura and cutura assets. Lessons from warm-water tourism expeence are offered. Common attracions and constraints are identified mong thirteen cod water isand ase studies from Badacchino (2006a) and waste management ind cimate change issues are adressed. Thé concusion suggests Lhese isands by and arge are on a sustainabe path. Given acceerating ecoystem damage and thé décine in iodiversity on a goba scae, thé earch for sustainabiity pervades ontemporary deveopment discourse and wi ikey dominate thé economic-environmenta debate across thé 21st century. However broady defined... sustainabe growth wi ikey be considérée thé hoy grai of thé présent generation. (McEroy and Porter 2006:31) Introduction Athough there is no universai agreement that "thé dominant ù-ajectory of économie deveopment since thé industria révoution has been patenty unsustainabe" (Ekins and Max-Neef 1992:412), thé search for sustainabe deveopment has gathered strength in récent years from "compeing évidence that cimate change is rea and, furthermore, that it is primariy caused by human émissions of greenhouse gases, mainy as thé resut ofbuming fossi fues" (Gossing and Ha 2006:6). Since tourism has become thé argest industry in thé word economy-accounting for roughy ten percent of goba GDP, empoyment, experts and investment (WTTC 2005)-since it is projec- Bruce Potter is President and CEO of Isand Resources Foundaion and is a founding director ofhe Goba Isands Network. 1RF has been engagea in environinenta research primariy in thé Caribbean for o ver 30 years. Jérôme L. McEroy is Professor of Economies in thé Department of Business Administration and Economies at Sain Mary's Coege, Notre Dame, Indiana USA (TEL: ; jmceroy@saintmarys. edu). His research focuses on thé socio-economic and environmenta impacts oftourism in sma isands, thé effect of crime on tourism, thé ink between poitica status and tourism deveopment, and sustainabe tourism. ^ g &. 8- ^

5 ted to doube in absoute size by 2020 (Vereczi 2006), and since its ong-standing viabiity dépends on environmenta durabiity presenty under threat from goba cimate change, it is not surprising that sustainabe tourism (ST) has become thé dominant paradigm (Hunter, 1995) in both university circes and in thé fied as we as an issue that continues to be hoty debated (Veikova 2001; Coins 2001). It increasingy surfaces as thé topic of académie cooquia, bas been thé focus of Word Tourism Organization conférences in 1999, 2002, 2003 and 2006, and routiney appears in experts' top ten ist of important goba tourism issues. Ifone canjudge from thé pethora of citations in joumas and trade magazines and thé interest shown among industry professionas and thé média, a "sustainabiity mindset" is emerging across thé goba tourism spectmm. For many reasons, this sustainabiity emphasis is especiay vauabe for sma isands engagea in posfrwar économie diversification toward internationa services (tourism, offshore banking) and, to a esser extent, abor-intensive manufacturing. First, this transformation bas been orchestrated by a variety of factors. Because of thé pressures uneashed by gobaization, export revenues from traditiona coonia stapes (sugar, copra etc.) hâve decined because ohoss ofpreferentia (high-price) markets and rising transport costs (WTO 2004). In a simiar vein, domestic agricuture has suffered from m- tense import compétition as trade barriers hâve dramaticay decined. Finay, thé universa appea of a "hoiday in paradise" in thé midde-cass imagination has been fùeed by postwar affuence and extended paid vacations in thé industria North and thé avaiabiity of jet access to and transport infrastructure in thé once remote tropica isands. Second, sti-engthening thé visiter industry's ong-term economie footing-because of its inks to oca agricuture, fisheries, transport, handicrafts etc.-is a major "instrument to improve économie resiience in Sma Isand States (SIDS)"(Frangiai 2006). Third, in warm water isands thé ST focus can assist popuar destinations in diversifying into aternative tourism activity away from thé crowded (sometimes overrun) coastines (Vereczi 2006). Finay, in thé more remote and ecoogicay vunérabe cod water isand destinations, virtuay absent from thé isand Uterature, discussing sustainabiity is timey for two reasons. First, thé distribution of isands wordwide is skewed not toward thé tropics but thé temperate zone of thé northem hémisphère (Badacchino 2006b). Second, according to Fenne and Ebert (2004:269), coming decades wi witness an accéération of ong-hau tourism on convergmg such destinations where tounsm expérience and panning are reativey imited. Background Thé récent émergence In thé second case, against this backdrop researchers in thé 1960s touted thé visibe économie thé ST concept dérives from two benefits of tourism diversification cïosey Unkedphenomena: () thé to ^ve, Post;otom;^nsuarm, : "spread of internationa demization (Jafari, 2002^Asthe touris^cross thé tropica isand négative ronmenta effects asy,"and (2) thé changing sociated with mass tourism growth enyi ;of tourism research chro- became apparent during thé 1970s, Ïicim g~'these impacts. In thé first this pro-tourism patform was fo- (:ase70 facïuty construction and owed by a cntica iterature, i.e. a road works mountain sopes cautionary patform that emphasihâve caused deforestation, ero-zedtourism'^damagmgenvironsïo'n, Fagoon poution and reei menta^nd cutura impacts. Smce damage ÏMcEÎroy and de Abu. thé 1980^anew ^so-caued "adap- V1998). Rapid expansion tancy patform" has surfaced to?natmediterranean has spawned address the^concems of thé critics sewageand soid waste poution, m two différent ways. Thé first aït'erïd shoremes and created in. emphasizes sma, ^ow-impact, tense'seasona congestion (Bram. ocay conù-oed aternâmes to weï 2004). Severa Greek isand mass tounsm (Weaver, 1998). It iandscapes7 have been disfigure^ incudes both^ thé expansion of ;7apidunparmedcoastadeveo. ecotourism and other spécia interiotis, 2004). Even th( rest forms (agro, adventure, cutu- Pacifie-with its history of non rai, sports, héritage etc.) as we as sustainabe ogging, mining anc thé greenmg ofconventiona tou^ "(Overton and Scheyvens nsm.through rcduced water and tias not been immune fron eectricity consumption and waste ecosystem'intrusions and oss o; ac tion (Spianis and Vayanni, bîodïversïty (Apostoopouos an(2004)- s, 2002). In short, Bianchi'i summary (2004:499) appies: i, _,, The, second strand' the Aion of papabe income an(so-caed "knowedge-based pat- ^mptoymentïenefits hâve corne aform" <weaver 2006)' emphasizes çenvironmentadesignmg more^hoistic approadansg^'dependency and cuturachestobetterunderstandtourism's disocation. compexity. Some writers stress expanding thé horizon of possibiities for Buter's (1980) ifecyce mode oftourism évoution (Briascouis, 2004). For exampe, Papatheodorou (2004) emphasizes a ystem approach with core and pephery nodes in a destination and nutipe equiibrium soutions. ums (2004) opts for more comrehensive institutiona partnering nd participatory panning, thé soaed "Third Way" between thé ditiona top-down growth-at- 11-costs deveopment mode and e more récent "tricke up" equity Pproaches that focus on thé host popuation and thé primary resource users. In thé same vein, others ca for intensive panning and aincusive consutation and negotiation with thé many tourism stakehoders (Font and others, 2004). Sti others press for onger-run, non-inear frameworks that borrow fi-om science and use transdiscipinary thinking (Farre and Twining-Ward, 2004; 2005). For exampe, McKercher (1999) favors a chaos/compexity framework that treats tourism as a iving ecoogica community with keystone (primary) attractions. In a simiar vein, Russe and Faukner (2004) use chaos theory to understand thé impact ofumpy and sporadic entrepreneuria activity on resort deveopment and destination ife cyces. In summary, thé interpay between thèse two strands-the new more hoistic thinking and thé ower-density aternative tourism styes-has produced thé escaating interest in ST. Thé Probcm Despite thèse advances in theory and practice, insuar tourism sustainabiity remains an eusive goa for at east five reasons. First, despite tourism's pervasiveness, most research continues to be carried out within singe discipines and to proffer narrow poicy prescriptions that fai to take into account thé compex reaities on thé ground. For exampe, deveoping a-incusive resorts to enhance tourist safety and/or strengthening crimina codes to reduce harassment may, in effect, marginaize vendors, taxi drivers etc. and exacerbate visiter insecurity (de Abuquerque and McEroy 2001). Second, panning in sma isands is particuary difficut because of their ecosystem fragiity on two fronts: extrême interdependence on thé inside; and opeimess to extema intmsion from thé outside. Thé former is particuary probematic because of thé déicate inkages between terrestria and marine environments that compicate panning options. Hiside resort constmction on steep mountam sopes, accéérâtes runoff and poûtes agoons whie sand dredging for consù-uction aggregate destabiizes coastines, erodes beaches and chokes cora growth. Third, isand tourism is a moving target. As But- 1er (1980) has argued, successfu destinations tend to pass through successive stages of increasing visitor density, faciity size, extema contro and bio-cutura damage unti they become crowded and/or progressivey damaged, and visitation décines as they ose their appea. Récent exampes incude thé Baearics and Mata (Garau and Manera 2006). This movement is principay due to thé scae discontinuity between thé argescae mass market internationa throughput tourist economy and thé sma reativey cosed insuar ecoogy-a scae discrepancy that amost guarantees isand environmenta and socio-cutura absorptive capacities wi be vioated (McEroy, 1975). Fourth, this disequiibrium is further reinforced by thé priorities and short-term horizons of isand poicymakers who prefer immédiate resuts to ongerterm sustainabe outcomes. They favor ever-rising visiter numbers as évidence of success instead of increased net (oca) expenditure, ownership, autonomy andjob quaity. Fifth, from thé methodoogica side, athough most formuations are rooted in thé 1987 Bruntand Report-deveopment in thé présent that does not compromise options for future generations-there is "no widey accepted définition of sustainabe tourism"?

6 (Swarbrooke 1998:13). Compounding thé ack of consensus on sustainabiity's meaning, "thé tourism iterature bas thus far provided no generay accepted theoretica framework(s) through which one may assess progress toward sustainabiity" (Johnston and Tyrreiï 2005:124). Moreover, there is itte agreement on what is to be sustained: visitor numbers, industry profits, environmenta quaity, host empoyment or some combination of thèse. Without cear guidance, some argue not one but many sustainabe outcomes are possibe (Johnston and Tyrre 2005). Thus, unti ST is defined more specificay, thé concept provides insufificient direction for deveoping an effective ong-nm tourism poicy. As a resut of this impasse, thé debate continues to deveop in at east two directions. Thé first strand centers on whether ST shoud be defined in "hard" terms" constant naturai (and cutura) assets over time admitting no change to biodiversity (Coiïins 1999, 2001) and, to a esser extent, oca cuture-or m "softer" terms aowing for humanmade repacements to compensate for ost assets (McKercher 1993). Thé second strand offers a second-best direction by focusing primariy on thé environment but expanding thé fied what is to be sustained. A récent exampe was thé extensive eectronic debate on TRINET (trinet-@hawaii. edu) that surfaced in ate This conversation pits cas for expanding tourism's traditionay "abysmay parochia" research horizons beyond artificiay imposed inteectua boundaries to embrace thé entire socio-ecoogica tourism System (B. Farre), against those who décriée thé absence ofa suitabé ST mode because of thé fragmented nahu-e of thé industry (G. Gnoth). Thé discussion incuded: () a pea for seriousy examining thé fù panopy of System mterreationships (Gossing and Ha 2006); (2) a far-reaching définition ofst: "improving andmaintainmg we-being indefinitey whie having fiiy fiinctioning ecosystems supporting human ife and activity without impairment" (B. Farre); and (3) an 'on thé ground' operationa poicy of thé so-caed "sustainabiity transition, " confirming thé view of Cark (1997:229) that "... thé absence of a précise good définition is ess important than généra movement in thé correct direction." Commonaities Despite thèse probems, however, a samping of définitions empoyed by professionas and académies suggest ST in practice does eontain a core of common ééments. This core seeks baance among économie, ecoogica, and socio-cutura processes. Individua formuations may express particuar emphases. For exampe, thé traditiona emphasis of thé Word Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004: 62) is maintaining essentia ecoogica stabiity. In a simiar vein, a récent textbook (Tribe, 2005: 380) defines sustainabiity "as growth which is not threatened by feedback, for exampe, from poution, resource depetion or socia unrest. " Severa writers stress thé benefits of favorabe oca impacts: ecosystem conservation and improvement in host quaity ofife (Weaver, 1998: 17). According to Poon (ETN 2006:1), "Sustainabe tourism is as much about thé sustainabe iveihoods of oca peope as it is about conserving nature.' Sofied (2003) adds deveoping oca decision-making autonomy or empowerment whie Hunter (1995:160) suggests contributing "bevond thé confines of thé resortning, ^impact^ momtoring, and community" to thé sustainabe de- controing "visitor numbers, activeodment of thé non-tourist eco- vitiesand investments, ifintrusive nomïc~sectors. Most définitions and damaging_ to msuar scae" usuaiyunderine two added impe. (McEroy, 2002: 165). However, ratives: proactive, comprehensive m spécifie contexts it must be cauamg'andmonitoringoverongtioned that sustainabe outcomes time" horizons (Fenne~andEbert, wi differ depending on which 2004: 468; Kahn, 2005), and of thé four facets is giye n greater maintammg "a high eve of tou- or esser emphasis and mstitutio^nst"satisfac tion.. T" (WTO, 2004: na support (Johnston and Tyrre, 62). To this Weaver (2006) woud 2005). stress thé often negected aspect o fi7anciatviabuity for thé tourisn Lessons from Warm Water enterprise, an emphasis seconded Isands a more récent comprehensive iistmg'ofwto goas for ST (Yu. ^ Cod water destinations nis"2006). Thiskst aso covers î can draw significant insight from host'ofsubsidiary aims incudin^opica isand tourism expérience..r-round oca empoyment anc For exampe, _Roye (2001:206) career advancement, communit} cautions that;'tourism everywhewe-being (socia equity), re re is a doube-edged sword. ^." source efficiency(recycing, greeicreating both costs and^benefits. technoogies) andaeuke. " ~ According to Cater^(1993: 89), One 'simper operationa"thercis no exampe of tourist définition dérives from an examiuse that is competey without imnation of ST's formidabe chapact. " In fact, even ecotourism that is, to simutaneous}styes are no panacea, especiay sattsfy thé needsof thé four primawhentheyaccess déicate ameni- "stakehoders: hosts, guests, efties in poor régions acking approiandbio-cuturaassetspriate réguations and monitoring Th^e~needs, summarized as tb(mclaren, ^2003). Low-density "outcomes from thé Uteraturstyes arc often susceptibe to rapid above, canbeabbreviatedinthe Soange that forecoses oca particauedfour-comered "sustamabiicip aton outsiders to^aggressive "diamond"(mceroy, 2002:152(cate^993). Simiariy, Weaver ^d"incude:\) durabe natura(1998:25) argues that "successfii" and cutura assets; (2) improve^^can^nfitrate "backstage rehosth'fe'quauty; (3)venduring vigions"seekmg authenticity, dismpt sïtor enjoymentvand (4) ong-ten;hepace andpattem ofcommunity enterpnïeprofitabiity/ Using ttu^ a^id "pave thé wayforjess sustern abiutydiamond as a broacbenign forms of tourism. " Even bmsh'evauation too, one can sam cases where ecotourism seems azstination'ismoving in a ^^^am^gs sïmë and nabïe direction whenone or moi thers(2002:200) caution "...^ it of thé fouowing facets ofst surçay not be^ustamabe from a goosu at eaït'totome'degree: () iha Pointofview" when it invoves hndïrsb7comemajorbeneficiari/ong-hau ^ve since upto 90 perof7ourism;"(2) visitors deveop;entoftheenvironmenta impact is ïrong^e^m'ethos; (3) deveop<onteibutedby air transport to and resueocuheho-cuturamtegritytromthe destination. In fact, his the'pace; and (4) pubie decisio^nt work(gojhng and others^ ïiakertommittoïong-termpai?005) on eco-efficiency (kg C02 generated per euro spent) suggests center-to-periphery visiter fows are especiay nonsustainabe and thus favors reduced air trave and cose by origin markets. On thé other hand, there are positive essons fi'om thé warm water iterature. According to Mihaic (2000), improving environmenta quaity and mitigating impacts can improve destination competitiveness. Introducing green technoogies to conserve energy and water consumption créâtes short-term cost savings whie enhancing naturai assets-scenery, reef Systems, species diversity etc.-requires a onger time horizon invoving up-front costs and downsta-eam benefits. However, warm water expérience aso reveas achieving environmenta stabiity is especiay difficut. There are few successfù exampes of ST in practice in mass resort areas (Dodds, 2006). Even where poicies are sound, effectiveness is bunted by thé ack of consensus on who is responsibe for impementation; and even when there is consensus, often thé poitica wi to initiate change, i. e. to dismpt "business as usua," is acking. Thé few noteworthy cases ike Bermuda (McEroy 2001) indicate some of thé core ingrédients necessary for strong destination identity/image, (2) widespread community appredation of thé natura and cutura patrimony, (3) and a poicy commitment to thé ong term. A number of case studies suggest aso that ST may be more easiy achieved in more diversified insuar économies ike Bermuda, Mauritius and Seychees where tourism is not thé soe engine of growth. Thé nonsustainabe exampies of thé highy tourist-dependent Baearics and Mata highight thé contrast. Viabe aternative économie activities tend to bunt thé pressure to promote tourism beyond ecoogica and socia absorptive capacities. Another reated and significant factor in thé tourism history ofwarm water destinations across ai oceanic basins is thé determinative rôe of accessibiity. Whenever internationa airports hâve been estabished, it has been difficut for "successfu" destinations to contro thé high-voume fi-ee-market growth imperatives of heaviy capitaized goba airine, hôte chain and tour operators within sustainabe eves. This is why Badacchino (2006b:10) argues that imiting access, as St. Barthéémy, Guadeoupe does with its sma mnway that accommodates ony commuter aircraft, provides "a niche of envious excusivity" and "créâtes possibiities for? g &. 3

7 sustainabe, ow voume, but high vaue-added per capita tounsm. Finay, given thé rapid deveopment in sma isands "at thé expense of thé natura word and oca identity and traditiona cuturcs" (Fenne andebert, 2004: 461), and given thé projection that future growth wi enveop even more remote cod water ecosystems, sustainabiity may require judicious use of thé Precautionary Principe (PP). According to Myers (1993: 74), this paces "a premmm on a cautious and conservative approach to human interventions m environmenta sectors that are: (a) usuay short on scientific understanding, and (b) usuay susceptibe to significant injury... " Such an approach seems appropos for cod water isands where carrymg capacities cannotbe easiy assessed, recovery to disturbance is sow, and "both thé probabiity and vaue of irréversibe damage are uncertam' (Fenne and Ebert, 2004: 466). As a too in thé panner's arsena, thé PP"... puts thé onus on thé prcsent popuation to address current actions that might ead to potentia risks and négative outcomes for future générations" (Fenne and Ebert, 2004:468). Cod Water isands Thé iterature on cod water isands is very imited (Badacchino 2006b) but does identify many strategic advantages and shortcommgs that circumscribe tourism growth. In his examination of Orkney and Shetand, Buter (1997) stresses mra ambience and héritage assets, widife and unique scenery, and adventure activity. In their anaysis ofnorthatantic isands, Baum and others (2000) emphasize three deveopment imitations: insufficient tourism promotion by poicymakers, high seasonaity because of weather, and restricted high-cost access because of remoteness. However, they aso highight thé advantages ofa sma scae visiter industry: enhanced oca ownership, reduced income eakages, and thé avaiabiity of infrastmcture and services "... which isand popuations coud not otherwise sustain" (Baum and others 2000: 217). Most recenty, Buter (2006:254) identified a number of additiona features that distinguish cod from warm water destinations. Thèse incude: spécifie in contrast to generic destination identity, a ong as opposed to short history of Visitation, thé "3 I" image of ice, indigenous peope and isoation in pace of thé tropica "4 S" image of sun, sand, sea and sex, and appea to a more mature and sophisticated (not généra) trave market. As a preiminary evauation of ST in poar régions, thé 13 isand case studies assembée in Badacchino (2006a) were examined. They differ markedy in size, cuture and degree of tourism deveopment. First, they range from Greenand, thé argest isand in thé word, and Iceand (popuation 300, 000) to tiny Macquarie Isand in Austraia (34 km2), Banks Iswater destinations. Thèse incude isoation, unusua pristine terrestria and marine widife and scenery, unique géoogie and atmospheric features and ampe opportunity for adventure hoidays (hunting, fishing, skiing, sedding etc. ) and cutura expériences. They aso iustrate thé constraints imposée by cimate-induced seasonaity and difficut and expensive access. Again excepting Iceand as we as Antarctica, they aso exempify sma-isand économies undergoing tourism diversification in thé face of decining traditiona sectors (mining, fishing, agricuand in thé Canadian Arctic (po. ture). Many face^the simiar chaition 153), and thé Lueâ Ar. enges of determinmg destination AiDeïago"in/Sweden (popuatioi identity, seectmg^the sma-scae 'S'econd, they exhibit a variet) ecotourism attractions compatibe of/traditions incudmg thé Inui'with thé native natoa and cutucuture~m Baffin Isand, Canada rai "genius of thé pace, " andesta-. acrossthenorthatbishmgtheinfrastructure/faciities antictsïands, and Maori mutton to access them. Unikeceandand bir dharvesting in Stewart Isandto a esser extent Svabard-which New'Zeaand^ Third, they diffehas experienced a tourism boom uneveny in thé stages of tourisii since thé 1990s-these destinations A. Thé major contras are in thé initia stages of devebpis"between Iceand "with ovement. ^ BasedonmdicatorsmBa- 700ÏOO annua tourists and 7,00(dacchmo (2006b, Tabe ), tourism hotefrooms and thé rest of tbeavesbuta fàintfootprintinthese The7eareessthan500yeaiPoar destinations. ^ For exampe^.'tourists to Macquarie Isand, thi in contrast with a goba sampe of i^ueâ"archipeago, and Nuniv^a dozen smaiï warm water isands îsïand, "andony'50 hôte rooffacross the deveopment spectmm, and~two hôtes'in thé Fakandas a group thé cod water isands and Chatham Isand, New Zeaanaverage kss^than one hote^ room with no dedicateper Km2_whie thé topica ises towi'sm infrastructure in Antarcav^ge 20 rooms per square kiticzb etween thèse extrêmes areometer. At their eary position in haffdozen'destinations(mcuduthe rcsort cyce, thé former hâve Sobveteky, ~Russia and Svabar(amPetim^androomtopanasus- Norway)with"30-70 thousand atainab^ mdustry. nua stayover or cruise visitors. comparison with other sma isac tourist économies across the. gobi ai thèse are ow-impact destiûi tions, with thé possibe exceptio of Iceand (McEroy, 2003). Spécia Issues Waste management and ^_^ v^sc uauaëc"cu "Despite such difference^mate change wiiï provide parthèse istands"share~a number rcuar chaenger for cod-water features'thatdefine them as cod-sand Panners. In thé first case, since at east thé 1994 Barbados Programme of Action for Sma Isand Deveoping States, waste management has been considered one of thé most significant probems for sma isands (UNCSD, 1998). In cod water isands, cod temperatures sow thé biochemica processes of décomposition that frequenty "de-toxify" thé toxic ééments of soid waste. Thus thèse hazardous substances persist much onger in cod cimes and can become concentrated over time and cause heath and safety probems. Recent research reported in Science magazine indicates that birds and other species in arctic food chains are aso serving as aggregators of toxics (Fountain, 2005). Research aso suggests concentrations of Persistent Organic Poutants (POPs) (AMAP 2002), and some heavy metas are increasing in thé fatty tissues of most birds and mammas in high atitude areas incuding résident human (frequenty Inuit) popuations. Athough POPs pose itte danger to tourist and/or empoyée heath, given thé often thé sometimes sévère constraints on traditiona soid waste buria stratégies in such areas, new stratégies of disposai may hâve to be désignée that incude exporting waste streams (perhaps after biuning non-toxic ééments for faciity heating needs) to temperate areas where they can be treated in more traditiona fashion. Regarding iquid wastes, athough cod water isands are ikey to hâve access to some form of deepwater or offshore discharge, thèse can be costy Systems to buid and maintain. Given thèse difficuties, water-conserving systems are recommended for new and expanded settement areas as we as thé use of composting toiets. Because tourism is amenity-intensive, it is one of thé most sensitive industries to cimate vanation. Athough it is we-known that sea eve rise wi significanty affect tourist-dependent sma isands, a sma body of work focuses on cimate change impacts in poar régions. Athough this research is yet in its infancy, severa broad concusions are warranted. First, over thé next century warming wi be thé most rapid in thé Arctic(ACIA2004). Second, warming wi reduce seasona sea ice or permanent sea pack ice around many cod water isands. Third, as a resut, poar destinations may become more accessibe. For exampe, thé number of days thé Northem Sea Route is estimated to be navigabe is projected to tripe (ACIA 2004). Fourth, warming is expected to extend thé Visitation season. Athough one might argué such effects woud be mainy bénéficiai for cod water tourism- "destinations that are currenty too coo woud see a surge in their popuarity" (Barritea and others 2006:913)-thé issues are more compicated. Fifth, for exampe, cimate change is aso associated with increased storm surges endangering coasta communities as we as increased précipitation. This wi cause a number of impacts. First, warming wi reduce snow cover, a process aready significanty underway (Johnston 2006), negativey affecting visitor activities ike skiing, sedding, ice hôtes, northem ights watching and so on. Second, thé popuation and distribution of biodiversity wi aso be affected. To iustrate, "Poar bears are unikey to survive as a species if there is an amost compète oss of summer sea-ice cover" (ACIA 2004:58) which they require for hunting seas. This may hâve senous répercussions for paces ike Churchi, Manitoba, thé so-caed ^ g &. 11

8 "poar bear viewing capita of thé word. " Aso in Canada, oss of forage and insect harassment may damage caribou and musk-oxen herds. Third, continuing coasta érosion wi destabiize permafrost conditions, aready observabe in thé Arctic and Russia, and undermine buidings, and transport and other infrastructure. A secondary impact wi be to reease arge puses of toxic waste as dumps and trash middens are rather suddeny thawed after being frozen for decades or générations. And finay, "Athough thé décine in sea ice wi provide more open water for navigation, there might be additiona hazards to navigation through an increase in iceberg caving and through thé instabiity ofwhat pack ice remains" (Johnston 2006:48). Given thé far-reaching effects of cimate change, panning for ST in cod water isands wi require ong-term time horizons and judicious use of thé Precautionary Principe. Since goba warming wi impact traditiona andscape assets and tourist activities, poar destinations wi hâve to carefùy identify their attractions to pace thé industry on a ong-term footing. Thé future wi aso require rehabiitation of existing constmction and infrastmcture buit on permafrost, and new forms of construction based on seasona freezing and thawing of ground conditions. Finay, to assist in ong-range panning and environmenta momtoring in thèse fragie ecosystems, cod water isands need accurate mapping of basic geography, and cover and other natura resources. Such mapping can aso provide accurate orientation toos-probaby in combination with modem navigations toos such as GPS receivers-for tourists who may be trekking and camping on reativey unmarked terrain (Savitsky and others, 1999). Concusions In thé near to médium tenu, if thé cod water isands examined hère from Badacchino (2006a) are représentative of poar destinations in généra, a broad bmsh overyiew through thé ens of thé sustainabiity diamond suggests they are by and arge on a sustainabe path. A doser review of thé evidence reveas that, with some exceptions, there is sufficient environmenta awareness, égisation and training for protecting natura assets and, in some cases, for interpreting cutura mores. Given thé reativey high eve of repeat Visitation in severa isands, visitor satisfaction seems satisfactory and enduring. Thé strength of thé nontourist sectors and thé doube imitarions of difbcut access and high cost provide fiiture safeguards against thé non-sustainabe visiter expansion characteristic ofpostwar mass tourism growth in warm-water isands. To this must be added thé imited appea of what often Références ACIA (Arctic Cimate Impact Assessment) Impacts of a warmingarctic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ANDRIOTIS, K Probems of isand tourism deveopment: thé Greek insuar régions. In Coasta mass tourism, B. Bramwe (ed), p evedon, UK: Channe View Pubicaions. APOSTOLOPOULOS, Y. and GAYLE, DG. (eds) Isand tourism and sustainabe deveopment: Caribbean, Pacifie and Mediterranean expériences. Westport, CT: Praeger. AMAP (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program) Assessment ofarctic poution issues. Oso: AMAP (May). BALDACCHWO, G. (ed). 2006a. Extrême tourism: Lessons from thé word's cod water isands. London: Esevier. BALDACCHINO, G. 2006b. Saving sustainabe tourism: Hot or cod? onger term, however, we mus Internationa Conférence on Sustaina-,1, bé Tourism in Isands and Sma States, caution thattounsm is exrremei, ^^^^^^ dynamic and "tends to take on 1^, Mate, May 25-27" ife of its own once deveopmei BAUM, TG, HAGEN-GRANT, appears successfu" (Buter, 2002L., JOLIFFE L LAMBERT, S. and Sigurjonsson, B Tourism and cod In poitica economy of To achieve sustamabiity, ;waterjsmd in, theo rth Atantic-, mustbecarefuymanaged, partici^^^ ^^^. ^^ resourcefiiness ofjuary in an era of cimate evoutionsdiction, G. Badacchino and D. MiÏne when traditiona poar andsca]i(eds), p NewYork: St. Martin's ^h:"î^sp Z.^f s-be. mttella. ".. " *NO, undergoing change. Whatever^^ RosON;RV±anÏTOv; RSJU ^ outcome, thèse ow-density cokgç^^ gq^^^^ anaysis-of-cimate water destinations wi provide Schange impacts on tourism. Tourism mainteresting aboratory in thé searcnagement vo. 27, p forthehoïygrai. '.^_. ^. mancff'. 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FRANGIALLI, F Strengthening tourism resiience in SIDS. WTO sustainabe deveopment oftourism e-buetin, Juy 7 at: org/sustainabe/news. htm (accessed 7 Juy 2006). GARAU, TJ. And MANERA, C Insuarity, tourism and growth: Case study of Corsica, Sardinia, Siciy, Mata and thé Baearic Isands. Intemationa Conférence on Sustainabe Tourism in Isands and Sma States, Foundation of Internationa Studies, Vaetta, Mata, May GOSSLING, S. and HALL, CM. (eds) Tourism and goba environmenta change:ecoogica, économie, socia and poitica interreationships. New York: Routedge. GOSSLD4G, S., PETERS, P., CERON, J-P, DUBOIS, G., PATTER- SON, T. and RICHARDSON, RB Thé eco-eiïiciency oftoiirism. Ecoogica Economies, vo. 54, p GOSSLING, S., HANSSON, CB., HORSTMEIER, 0., and SAGGEL, S Ecoogica footprint anaysis as a too to assess tourism sustainabiity. Ecoogica Economies, vo. 43, p HUNTER, CJ On thé need to re-conceptuaize sustainabe tourism deveopment. 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9 JOHNSTON, ME Impacts of goba environmenta change on tourism in thé poar régions. In Tourism and environmenta change, S. Gossing and MC Ha (eds), p London: Routedge. JOHNSTON, RH. and TYRRELL, T J A dynamic mode of sustainabe tourism. Journa oftrave research, vo. 44, n. 2, p KHAN, C Sustaining a viabé future for South Pacifie tourism. Trave wire newsonine. Avaiabe at: travewirenews. com/cgi script/csartices/artices/000043/ htm (accessed 14 March 2006). McELROY, JL. and POTTER, B Sustainabiity issues. In Entreme tourism: Lessons from thé word's cod water isands. G. Badacchino (ed), p London: Esevier. McELROY, JL Tourism deveopment in sma isands across thé word. GeografiskaAnnaer, vo. 85(B), p McELROY, JL Thé impact of tourism in sma isands: a goba comparison. In Tourism, biodiversity and information, F. di CastriandV. Baaji(eds), p Leiden, Netheriands: Backhuys Pubishers. McELROY, JL Isand tourism: A deveopment strategy for biodiversity. 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Annais of tourism Research, vo. 31, n., p ROYLE, S.A A Geography of isands: Sma isand insuarity. London: Routedge ṘUSSELL, R. and FAULKNER, B Entrepreneurship, chaos and thé tourism area ife cyce. Annas of tourism research, vo. 31, n. 3, p SAVITSKY, B, ALLEN, J. and BLACKMAN, KF Thé rôe of geographie information Systems (GIS) in tounsm panning and rura économie deveopment. Tourism Anaysis, vo. 4, n. 3/4, p SOFIELD, THB Empowerment for sustainabe tourism deveopment. Oxford: Esevier. SPILANIS, I. and VAYANNI, H Sustainabe tourism: Utopia or necessity? Thé rôe of new tourism in thé Aegean Isands. In Coasta mass tourism, B. Bramwe (ed), p Cevedon, UK: Channe View Pubications. SWARBROOKE, J Sustainabe tourism management. New York: CABI Pubishing ṪRIEE. J Thé économies of récréation, eisure and tourism (3rd ed). Oxford: Esevier. UNCSB (United Nations Commis sion on Sustainabe Deveopment Ma nagement ofwastes in sma isand deveopin] states: Progress in thé impementation of th programme of action for thé sustamabe de veopment of sma isand deveoping states Report of thé Secretary Généra-Adden dum, Sixth Session, UN Généra Assemb; (20 Apri - May). New York: UNCSD, CN. 17/1998/7/Add.2 of 10 February. VELIKOVA, MP How sus tainabe is sustainabe tourism? Annas oftoii rism Research, vo. 28, n. 2, p VERECZI. G Tounsm an sustainabe deveopment: Thé current impen tives. Seminar on poicies, stratégies and too] for sustainabe tourism deveopment. Aimât; Kazakhstan, Apri 26 at: tourism. org/regiona/europe/events. htm ( cessed 7 Juy 2006). WEAVER, DB Sustainab tourism: Theory and practice. London: Butti rworth-heinemann. WEAVER, DB Ecotouri in thé ess deveoped word. Waingford, L CABI Pubishing. WORLD TOURISM ORGANIZ TION Making tourism work for sm isand deveoping states. Madrid: WTO, partment of Sustainabe Deveopment oft nsm. WORLD TRAVELAND TOURI COUNCIL tourism sateite counting highights. Avaiabe at: wttc.org/2005tsa/pdfavorid.pdf(accessed 06-05). YUNIS, E Thé poicies ai toos for sustainabe tourism in sma isand Internationa Conférence on sustainabe toi rism in isands and sma states, Foundation. Abstract Internationa Studies, Vaetta, Mata, May ot sun, sea, sand but ice, isoation, indigenous peope: thé ritica exporation of extrême touism in cod water ocations has arey started. Yet, thé practices f thé industry and ensuing refecons aready provide insights toards a more sustainabe form of and tourism, dramaticay diffe- -nt from what is experienced on e warm, tropica and exotic ismd stéréotypé. This paper criticay reews some of thé saient contrasts tween thé 'hot' and 'cod' verons ofisand tourism, concuding t, from a sustainabiity perspecve, cod water isands are reay oo' - but perhaps for reasons at can be copied by warm water stinations. Expériences Apart Even when experienced by thé same person - as thé two factua, auto-biographica narratives by thé author of this paper above portray - thé expériences of warm water and cod water tourism coud not be fiirther apart. In thé a-too-common warm water environment, thé setting is amost oppressive; thé body ethargized; thé obigation to pay tourist and go through thé expected motions is strong; thé tourism industry dominant in society at arge; space is at a premium; staged authenticity is rampant - évident in thé cheap nature ofmost souvenirs, 'made in By Godfrey Badacchino 0 a Dr Godfrey Badacchino is Canada Research Chair (Isand Studies) at thé University of Prince Edward Isand, Canada, thé Executive Editer of Isand Studies Journa and thé Editor of thé book Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Water Isands (Esevier, 2006) - gbadacchino@upei.ca China' - and thé natives can ony be obigingy happy. Hedonism peasure to thé highest good - transates as wid, wanton, excess heat, noise, food and drink. Much activity takes pace in or near thé water. In sharp contrast, in thé cod water environment, thé water is not appeaing, and its temperature may even be ife-threatening; thé beach may not be accessibe, and whae bones rather than seashes may haunt its shore; thé setting is however generay more iberating; thé body is energized; thé tourism industry and product are overshadowed by nature (aways) and cuture (where it exists). Peasure is derived fi-om being overwhemed, respecting, and succombing ^ g &. e- 15

10 to thé environment. Wide open vistas are everywhere. Souvenirs are indigenous and expensive. And thé natives are... we, it may be difficut to assess their expression because they are covered in fiir and warm cothing, or perhaps, they don't even exist. Every isand is unique. Every cod water isand is unique as we. Yet, a comparative 'isand studies' perspective aerts us to some underying pattems urking within thé diversity of cod water isands: apart from thé obvious pronouncement that thé water is too cod to swim in. Cod water isand ocations tend to hâve harsh as we as pristine and fragie natura environments, characterized by wide open spaces; this makes them support ow popuations at best. They become contexts for an exceptiona and expensive form of vigorous, outdoor, adventure or cutura tourism, and direct encounters with nature (observing penguins, bears or wid fowers; hunting wid game; visiting parks); history (whaing stations, abandoned mines, batte sites, research stations, exporer routes); and oca cuture (indigenous peope, their ifestye and artifacts): definitey not paces to aze about and reax in hôte precincts. Indeed, there may not even be a hôte. Thé ocas, where they exist, are not particuary enthusiastic about visitors; few of thé ocas owe their iveihoods to tourism anyway, and they are usuay in agreement that visiter numbers must remain ow - and especiay so if thé ocas happen to be a bunch of scientists. Spécifie oca interests - a company, a monastery, a corporation, apart fi-om thé scientific commumty - can hâve inordinate infuences on oca pubic poicy, since there is a tighter, more compact and more identifiabe résident éite. This acts as a brake towards thé encouragement of more tounsts, smce there is no grassroots, démocratie pressure to do so (Badacchino, 2006b: 9-10). Thé anomay in our set remains Iceand, since 1944 thé word's cooest sovereign state: for a cod water isand, it has by far thé argest popuation, thé highest tourism numbers and thé strongest tourism infrastructure in thé word - which, by thé way, incudes one sma, heated beach. A Late Deveopment Cod water isand destinations seem to hâve ony been discovered of ate. In Conin & Baum (1995), a typica text on isand tourism, ony one out of thé nine chapters dedicated to 'management practice' deas with a 'cod water' ocation (Corner Brook, in Newfoundand). Out of 93 different isands or isand régions isted in its index, ony five at most coud be considered as 'cod water' ones (Antarctica, Fakands, Newfoundand, New Zeaand & Prince Edward Isand). Brigugio et a. (1996a, 1996b) are andmark voumes on isand tourism issues, but ony one out of 29 chapters deas with a cod water ocation - Buter's on thé Shetands (But- 1er, 1996). Lockhart & Drakakis- Smith (1997) do somewhat bettei This may appear étrange, îree"(openmg) chapters addresismce thé physica évidence ^s themesïargey reevant to isandiskewed in direction: thé the^other Ae' tropica 'peasure pe distribution of isands (and sur- /'."However, once thé texrounded by water than is arger ^into case shidy mode, ony ;than 0. 1 km2 in area) according to ^utofh chapters are not sourcet atitude shows that most of them from warm cîimes: Buter (againare ocated in thé temperate zone on"0rkney & Shetand (Buteiof thé northem^ hémisphère, with 1997); Roye on thé SouthAtantiia high isand density occyr rence Isands, which incudes thé Fakbetween atitude 500N and 800 N, aiands'(roye, 1997); and Aronsand a shaq) peak withm that band son'on Swedish isands (Aronssoibetween 58 N and 66 N. 1997). At those atitudes, there is owest ratio of océan to and. Thé density of isands of about 30 per 10, 000 km2 is ten times higher <:here than anywhere ese. Most of.hese isands are ocated aong thé. oast ofmainands, creating a pat-. hy andscape made oftiny isands eparated by narrow channes. Perhaps, one is excused for dssuming that thé typica isand is ocated in thé tropics, and is therefore warm, since it is precisey Gradus & Lithwick (199^anks to thé marketing juggemaut and Krakover & Gradus (2002"f thé tourism industry that such mspiteofpromising tites that hperceptions hâve become a comehmht frontier régions, do not dpon. o^urrence today. ^Moreover, ^ssc'ïsïands"at au. Jan Lundgrff it is in thé interest of states and does thé same: his briëovemment^to Promote tourism "-"on tourism destinatico their isand or archipeago, then deveïmennn extrême ocatio^ shoud, asokeep in m^ that "doesnot"addressisands. Apap^, out fae 43 sovereign states and&enamonograph on cod ^fthe word are excusiye y isand te7tourism"m thé North AtWr archipeagic states ocated in 7n~1993 and 1998 rer Pica OTtemPerate zones (Ba- ^S VHU,geï 19^CMn^2""^iC IA, 2M5)^ony n-grant7998); and this w)ne ofthe word's sovereign states de7eïoped~into a book chapter (s^an excusi^y cod water oca- :cod"water"isand tourism; a yeon :_fceand-. In fact' as an indi; ater"(baum'et a., 2000). Badaect^confirmation of thé power of chtnov(2006b)'isprobaby thé fiç,sdicton, m. Promotmg tourism' ^me7otookcnticauyatthepbceand_is the isand that probaby nomenonfrom a goba{standpoçevestheargest number ofcod (:There"may"be subte advanta^e^tou"^ per^armum^some \^»^^^ff^2w^s, M:w^mise sbi<1 wïzaïïdis^sbeow. f stors (Gôssing' 2006). Yet, compare this to tourists to other isands: miion to Guam;.2 miion to Mata, 2.3 miion to Cyprus, 3.2 miion to Puerto Rico; 7 miion to Macao... and to thé highest pénétration indices of tourists per indigenous popuation and and area in thé insuar Caribbean (Aruba, Cayman, BVI, USVI, St Maarten) -McEroy, 2002; 2003). Thé différence is ceary one ofmatched ow tourist numbers (demand) and ow tourism capacity (suppy): Thé word's argest isand with a sprawing and mass ofover 2 miion km2, Greenand, receives just 30,000 tourists armuay. This is not difficut to expain: most visitors corne to cod water isands on sma vesses or on sma panes after ong hau fights that deter ai but thé strong-wied and affuent. They may get off their vesses on zodiacs, braving thé waves, cod winds, océan spray and ice foes, and spend just a few hours on shore, under thé watchfù eye of scientists, expert guides or ocas, just in case they wander away, do something fooish, or threaten to damage thé fragie ecosystem. There may be no hôtes, and visitors (for those staying more than a day) may hâve to stay with ocas. And, in thé absence of demands by indigenous peope for better tourism infrastructure - roads, docks, aiqîorts, mnways, hôtes, restaurants, etc. - an absence of demand often seaed by thé absence of any indigenous peope or permanent résidents - access and faciities are not ikey to improve markedy. Strong vested oca interests - commercia, scientific, poitica or reigious - can easiy conspire to prevent any such suspicious trappings of modemity fi-om materiaizing, a poicy stance more easiy maintained because thé significance of tourism to thé domestic economy is usuay sma. Thé tourism 'footprint' is therefore much ess significant on cod water isands, even though thé potentia damage which even that may cause to thé environment is arger. However, thé vaue added per tourist is greater, and thé opportunity for this tourist to get reay in touch with nature or indigenous peope (where they exist) is aso much higher, providing a différent sensé of satisfaction. Thé cear contrast between a sampe of cod water isands studied in Badacchino (2006e) and tourist penetrated warm water isands is évident (See Tabe ). Noue of thé warm water isands samped hâve more rooms per km2? g &. y i 17

11 . eights, f,,n ^y of thé cod wa.er. sws 1^ (f;-w^djm1^ ^r^;:.a^:ss?n^bers. n^ap^re:c1. ilnz ^d (the'owea wouïd be S,- Fmauy.. mjhaîj;nt^s ;^,^,ro^usotc Z^'^S^ a^ub;e-'p'unau"o"f'c'o7t ^rd'bu';'2'7the"wamwat:r ^J^Jdm^e^tom ;^^tw»îdm^uetdetp^decdi^aoea Spu^T>'ccZ Ss"^pkdïav"e"mo, e",han ^^J:^^, ^^ ^^^^^^e'^^^^ i7o0bed;r wteas;amongstthe kmgtoqmteju ^p^on^ P^s/^ ^n;xs^:z^^ Sî55Si S^ix^s ^^??^Se =E'E?ï5 ^^^^?SSS:S 5îSïS?:î-5zïïîï^ izd"tefaat^wecome^!arîe, I^nd m^?;m^, 1^ ^fyate^, ^ o^vr^c^suto^^toc'^'"co"d th^"10o7o00'visïtors-per annum P Puation, den^ ^vce^fn;ïenarc^ea^ ZÏc^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^morot&s>mo. )ïodyicda, d S M is!ands, ny. Mac,cume, md d^w^rnezlm]toeft"ïctd6 wate^e^^^^ ïek'on. s mo7e"th>e tot numbe, Soovetsk^ ^e ^1^-^ ^^d ^8,p^ ^;t ^"e^ie»aed'a:i^mcte"gt.;p"art îï ï5js ^a^a^ta;ï?^^^oaa:ia SîHnS!S ai warm isands sampieanave 1J wa111 wu^^u^u^;^;;7; ^;^^ framework. ' sary distraction - and especiay resident-~popuations of 21,000 sma; and actoay much smaer. so if it is on a boat, rather than a o7more; ony 2 of thé cod water Finay, many warm water destina pane. isands~have"such or arger popu- tions are sovereign states; ai cod Tourism in warm water isands aso started from a very narrow base; but thé industry in most Tabe - Cod and Warm Water Isand Tourism - A Comparison cases just grew and grew, mainy o uation andarea km2 tourists er annum Rooms Room/km2 Vis/Po because many of thé ocas perceived that there were benefits to be COLD WATER ISLANDS Nunivak Aaska 180 4, * enjoyedby pugging into thé industry - whether for secure a-round Banks Canada , Baffin Canada 17, ,450 33, empoyment, seasona part-time 410,000 (icefree 30, work or sef-empoyment - whie Greenand 57, 000 ceand 297, , , K 7, govemments encouraged thé deveopment of tourism infrastructure, 27, 200 cruise Svabard Norwa 2, , 000 tourists Luea Sweden 80 10, 000 a rox. 1, 000? 25* often seeking to ure foreign investment and identifiabe brands. Soovetsk Russia 1, , Fakands UK 2,500 12, , Today, thé insuar Caribbean, thé 0 MacQuarie Austrai ? Stewart NewZeaand 400 1,746 60, tnost tourism branded and pene- Chatham NewZeaand 700 2, ? :rated région in thé word, now bas 0 40, 000 a rox 27, iiost of its shorefi-ont controed South Shetands & Antarctica îr owned by hospitaity interests WARM WATER ISLANDS )r expatriâtes. Thé pressure on St. Maarten 38, , 000 1, 348 4, Ça man Isands 44, , 000 1, 693 5, mbic infrastmcture (roads, eecncity, sewage, water, parking) is Turks and Caicos 21, , 000 2, Mata , 158,000( 2 19, Î mmense; thé associated environnenta issues (air, sea and noise Anti ua 69, , , Madives 349, , , Se chees 81, ,000(7 2, )oution) just as chaenging. Thé Po nesia 271,000 3, , ' ' eakages fi-om thé domestic ecoomy - via foreign air ines, fo- Samoa 177, 000 2, , 000 ) Ça e Verde 418, 000 4, ,000 3, eign fa-ave agents, foreign hôte 777, 000 2, , 00 2, ) ,000 2, , hains, imported cars, food, fiirature and gas - considérabe. Thé irice ofproperty has reached dizzy Réunion Comoros Tourism Data for 2004 *Author's estimate Rooms = beds/2 or # of guesthouses X 10 Vis/Pop figured as # tourists X # Dayvisitors/popuation Numbers in parenthesis dénote one-day visitors Thé tabe has been kindy compied by Dr Jérôme L. McEroy. ushering in a process of gentrification' (Cark, 2005) that ay crowd out thé ocas from thé ousing market, starting - but not topping - with thé poorcst. To such probems of nonsustainabiity, can be added other disadvantages: thé ti-ansformation ofresorts into sanitized and secure encaves; thé (often racist) stereotyping ofocas as happy, peasureseeking, azy and inferior catering to thé eisure requirements of thé visitors; a ocas resentment that woud be fùeed by thé parading of foreign affuence and indigenous poverty (Dann, 2006: 27). Tensions are high and can empt in confict (Cambers et a., 2002). Except for thé undesirabé onsaught of goba warming, toimsm in cod water isands is not ikey to expérience thé same spurt of growth. Température, and difficuty and cost of access, wi keep thé numbers down - and that is where thé oca authorities wish to keep them. Fortunatey, at their eary position in thé resort ife-cycé, they hâve ampe time and room to pan a sustainabe industry Thé cod watcr cases at hand Cod water isands, frorn both northem and southem hemispheres, differ widey in size, popuation, tourism pénétration or tourism capacity (see Tabe ). They range from Greenand, thé argest isand in thé word (popuation 55,000, over 410, 000km2 of icefree and), and Iceand (popuation 300,000, 103,000 km2); to tiny Macquarie Isand in Austraia (popuation = zéro; 34 km2), Banks Isand in thé Canadian Arctic (popuation 153; 67, 340km2), and thé 742-isand Lueâ Archipeago in Sweden (popuation 80). They aso exhibit a variety of distinct traditions incuding, among others, thé Inuit cuture in Baffin Isand, Canada, Viking history across thé North Atantic Isands, and thé Maori muttonbird harvesting in Stewart Isand, New Zeaand. Most are recenty emerging as intemationa destinations. Some hâve no airports. Few hâve émise iner terminais. Visitor numbers are as ess than 500 a year on Macquarie Isand and Nunivak Isand; there are ony 50 hôte rooms in thé Fakands and frwo hôtes on Chatham Isand; and there is absoutey no dedicated tourism infrastmcture in Antarctica. Other destinations do better: Baffin (Nunavut), Greenand, Stewart, Svabard and Soovetsky attract some thousand annua stay-over or émise visitors each. In spite of thèse differences, thèse cases possess a range of simiarities. Their assets incude isoation (ironicay), unusua terrestria and marine widife and scenery, unique géoogie and atmospheric features and ampe opportunity for adventure hoidays (such as hunting, fishing, dog-sedding) and cutura expériences - ai of which are inhérent to thé pace. They appea for active eisure, as we as to rather mature tourist types. They iustrate thé constraints on tourism deveopment imposed by cimate-induced seasonaity and difficut and expensive access. They each hâve a distinct, differentiated product - not easiy subsumed under a generic abe, and therefore not operating in direct compétition with other cod water ocations (as many warm water isands find out about themseves, to their cost). (This récognition perhaps expained why they hâve not been seen as 'cod water isands', in a coective sensé.) They aso rcprésent (with thé exception of Iceand and Antarctica) sma-isand économies undergoing tourism diversification in thé face of decining traditiona sectors (mming, fishing, agricuture). Many face ^ ^ g (. ^ i! 19

12 thé simiar chaenges of determining destination identity, thé sma-scae ecotourism attractions compatibe with that native natura and cutura "genius of thé pace; and estabishing thé infrastructure and faciities to access them. Unike Iceand (which may, in commg décades, need to begin seriousy managing visitor densities), thèse destinations are in thé initia stages of visiter marketing and promotion to estabish internationa visibiity (McEroy & Potter, 2006; Buter, 2006). Poitica Geography Insights One interesting set of simiarities reates to thé poitica geography of thé tourism industry in thèse cod water isands. This factor might party expain why there are ess pressures to expand tourism on thèse ocations. Extrême isand régions tend to ie on thé poitica periphery, especiay when they hâve sma popuations: un/under-represented in thé corridors ofpower; argey forgotten by centi-aized poicy makers suffering from 'thé urban bias'; dismissed as insignificant backwaters other than, perhaps, in strategic (miitary and resource) terms (Buter, 1993;Wikinson, 1994). A weak oca poitica infuence and interest from thé centre does, in tum suggest that oca éites assume significant poitico-economic power. Thèse éites aso tend to be narrower and more concentrated in isand jurisdictions with sma popuations. Thé concentration of oca poitico-economic power is more ikey to ie in thé hands of a sma identifiabe group: a reigious congrégation (Soovetsky), a team of scientists (Macquarie); an indigenousy controed corporation (Nunivak; Baffin); an armsength enterprise tmst (Chatham); or a municipaity (Lueâ). Antarctica has its own, unique, muti-atera govemance régime, which transcends nationa territoria sovereignty. Such skewed infuence créâtes a situation where there is hardy a puraity ofinterest groups camouring to benefit, and benefit fast, from thé tourism bandwagon. Thé oigopoies in power are champions of tradition; they effùse caution and harbour a suspicion of change. They are aware of thé environmenta and économie risks of mass tourism. There is imited discussion on whether to take thé industry forward. Thé situation may be différent where you hâve at east two centres of power with divergent views about thé future of tourism: this is thé case of Svabard, where thé oca entrepreneurs wish to expand tourism, but thé Govemor is ess keen. However, Svabard - aong with Iceand, of course - appears to be thé exceptions in thé cod cases anayzed. SoovetskyArchipeago (Russia) Soovetsky Monastery T Discussion Cod water isands inadvertenty pay a simiar game - not so much as thé outcome ofa deiberate stra- A few warm-water istegy, but because of thé 'doubeand tourism destinations, ike thpunch' ofcost and distance, mains, hâve deveoped theitained and safeguarded by wary tourism'strategies in a top-dowoca poitica éites. In spite of thé fashion, and during a period (démocratie déficit that mayprevai mosty one-party m~e. This isaain such ocations, perhaps it is nestate7(aong with a few other iscessary to be cme in order to be ands - ike'st Barths in thé Caritkind? beau) hâve transformedwhatmigt Sound, stratégie, ong-term at fi'rst ganée appear to be awes(oca management (abeit perhaps me phy^ica obstaces (remotenesauthoritarian) can conspire wtii and^archipeagicity in thé ca^imate and reative inaoessibiofthe'seycheues; 'a sma airpoity to imit tourism to sma scae, mnway'in thé case of St Barthow-impact but high and ocay intoassetswhichheptomterairetamed vaue added, dispersed conwaccess, increasing thé diand more genuiney sustainabe tïnctiveness-and priée"-oftdeveopment (e.g. Buter ^1997: tourism expérience. Iinfi-astructu78). This is we captured m thé andogistics conspire tomaintainfoowing statement, uttered by few warm water isands in a nicpone_other than Archimandrite Joofenviousexcusivity. This créatif, Soovetsky Monastery rcprepossibiities for sustainabe, tentative. It eaves no room for any wume, but high vaue added p?iiscussion: tourism, with ess strain (_, ". mfrastructure and resource ned'overgrowth oftourism fows_and The~Droduct is aso differentiatprcservati"n of divine spirit^of thé from 'the"more compétitive masand, are incompatibe; Nobody warmwatertourismmarket, whe2ven thinks "f converting Soomdividuaïisandattributestend;etekyjnto^trendyresort^ bïeossedover, andwhere priée he White Sea shore is M ofrestheîiïmportant detemiiner ofdaurants and ^. the sky above thé manïand'suppy. ^ontz's,, towers. is. crossedby )ara-giders"(internationa sympo- 'ium, Soovetsky: Future Insights, '003; quoted in Nevmerzhitskaya, :006: 162). î T Acknowedgements My thanks to Lino Briguio for inviting me to thé sustainae isand tourism conférence hed Mata in May 2006, to Jérôme ceh-oy for générons research pport (incuding thé compiation of Tabe ), and to Graham M. S. Dann for critica comments on an earier draft. Références Aronsson, L. (1997) 'Tourism in Time and Space: An Exampe from Smogen, Sweden' in D.G. Lockhart & D. Drakakis-Smith (eds.) Isand Tourism: Trends and Prospects. London, Pinter, pp Badacchino, G. (2006a) 'Isands, Isand Studies, Isand Studies Journa', Isand Studies Journa, Vo., No., pp (Avaiabe from: ca/j ouma). Badacchino, G. (éd.) (2006b) 'Editoria Introduction' in Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier, pp Badacchino, G. (éd.) (2006e) Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier. Baum, T. G. & Contributors (2000) 'Tourism and Cdd Water Isands in thé North Atantic' in G. Badacchino & D. Mine (eds.) Lessons from thé Poitica Economy of Sma Isands: Thé Resourcefuness of Jurisdiction. Basingstoke, Macmian, pp Baum, T.G. & Hagen, L. (1993) 'Responses to Seasonaity: Thé Experiences of Periphera Destinations', Intemationa Journa of Tourism Research, Vo., pp Brigugio, L., Archer, B., Jafari, J. & Wa, G. (eds.) (1996a) Sustainabe Tourism in Isands & Sma States: Issues and Poicies, London, Pinter. Brigugio, L. Buter, R. W., Harrison, D. & Lea Fiho, W. (eds.) (1996b) Sustainabe Tourism in Isands & Sma States: Case Studies, London, Pinter. Buter, R.W. (1993) 'Tourism Deveopment in Sma Isands: Past Infuences and Future Directions' in D. G. Lockhart, D. Drakakis-Smith & J.A. Schembri (eds. ) Thé Deveopment Process in Sma Isand States, London, Routedge, pp Buter, R. W. (1996) 'Probems and Possibiities of Sustainabe Tourism: Thé Case of thé Shetand Isands' in L. Brigugio, R. W. Buter, D. Harrison & W. Lea Fiho (eds. ) Sustainabe Tourism in Isands & Sma States: Case Studies, London, Pinter, pp Buter, R. W. (1997) 'Tourism in thé Northem Ises: Orkney and Shetand' in D.G. Lockhart & D. Drakakis-Smith (eds. ) Isand Tourism: Trends and Prospects. London, Pinter, pp Buter, R. W. (2006) 'Epiogue: Contrasting Warm Water and Cod Water Isand Tourist Destinations', in G. Badacchino (éd.) Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Worid's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier, pp Cambers, G., Muehig-Hofmann, A. & Troost, D. (2002) Coasta Land Tenure: A Sma-Isands' Perspective, Wise Coasta Practices for Sustainabe Human Deveopment, UNESCO, org/csi/wise/tenure.htm CIA (2005) CIA Worid Fact- Book, Washington DC, Centra Inteigence Agency, Cark, E. (2005) 'Thé Order and Simpicity of Gentrification: A Poitica Chaenge' in R. Atkinson & G. Bridge (eds. ) Gentrification in a Goba Context: Thé New Urban Cooniaism, London, Routedge, pp Conin, M. V. & Baum, T. G. (eds.) (1995) Isand Tourism: Management Principes & Practice, New York, John Wiey. Dah, A. & Depraetere, C. (2007) 'Isand Locations and Concentrations' in G. Badacchino (éd.) AWorid ofsands: An Isand Studies Reader, Mata & Canada. Agenda Académie & Institute of Isand Studies, forthcoming. Dann, G.M. S. (2006) 'Promotiona Issues' in G. Badacchino (éd.) Extreme Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier, pp Doumenge, F. (1998) 'Considerations for Sma Isand Deveopment Today' in G. Badacchino & R. Greenwood (eds.) Competing Stratégies of Socio- Economie Deveopment for Sma Isands, Chariottetown, PEI, Institute ofsand Studies, pp Gôssing, S. (2006) 'Iceand' in G. Badacchino (éd.) Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier, pp Gôssing, S. (2007) 'Isand Tourism' in G. Badacchino (éd.) A Worid of Isands: An Isand Studies Reader, Mata & Canada, Agenda Académie & Institute ofisandstudies, forthcoming. Gradus, Y. & Lithwick, I. (eds.) (1996) Frontiers in Régiona Deveopment. Lanham MD, Rowman & Littefied.? g &. e- i 21

13 Hagen-Grant (1998) 'Seasonaity in Tourism in thé Sma Isands of thé NorthAtantic', monograph, Charottetown, Canada, Institute of Isand Studies, ca/isandstudies/rep_hg_. htm Ha, C. M. & Johnston, M. E. (eds. ) (1995) Poar Tourism: Tourism in thé Arctic and Antarctic Régions, Chichester, John Wiey and Sons. Hyden, G. (1983) No Shortcuts to Progress: African Deveopment Management in Perspective, London, Heinemann. Krakover, S. & Gradus, Y. (eds.) (2002) Tourism in Frontier Areas, Lanham MD, Lexington Books. Lundgren, J. (2001) 'Arctic Tourism Proogue' in B. Sahberg (éd.) Going North: Periphera Tourism in Canada and Sweden, Ôstersund, Sweden, Etour Pubishers, pp McEroy, J.L. (2006) Isand Studies Resources - Isand Tourism: A Database. Avaiabe at: www. isandstudies. ca McEroy, J.L. (2003) 'Tourism Deveopment in Sma Isands across thé Word', Geografiska Annaer, Vo. 85(B), No. 4, pp McEroy, J.L. (2002) 'Thé Impact of Tourism in Sma Isands: A Goba Comparison' m F. di Castri & V. Baaji (eds.) Tourism, Biodiversity and Infomiation. Leiden, Backhuys, pp McEroy, J.L. & Porter, B. (2006) 'Sustainabiity Issues' in G. Badacchino (éd.) Extrême Tourism: Lessons fi-om thé Word's Cod Water Isands, Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier, pp Repubic of Seychees (RoS) (1990) Environmenta Management Pan ofseychees (EMPS) , Achieving Sustainabe Deveopment, Victoria, Mahé, Seychees. Repubic of Seychees (RoS) (2001) Environment Management Pan of Seychees (EMPS) , Managing for Sustainabiity, Victoria, Mahé, Seychees. Rosaie, M. (2002) 'Tourism Socia Deveopment in thé Seychee; Deveopment Buetin, No. 60, Noven ber, pp Roye, S.A. (1997) 'Tourism thé South Atantic isands' in D.G. Loi khart & D. Drakakis-Smith (eds.) IsaB Tourism: Trends and Prospects, Londoi Pinter, pp Shah, N. J. (2002) 'Bikinis ai Biodiversity: Tourism and Conservatu on Cousin Isand, Seychees' in F. di Ça tri & V. Baaji (eds.) Tourism, Biodive sity and Infonnation, Leiden, Backhu} pp Introduction his artice deas with cutu- St Barths News (2004) 'Mora aspects of tourism on and visitais in 2003 than in 2002', www^^^ Svabard, intemationay barths.com/editorias/ceci-ucot/04_0^^ ^^^ ^ Spitsbergen, thé Wikinson, P.F. (1994)'Touristiame of thé argest isand of this andsmauisandstates:probemsofsnorthem archipeago. Longyearsource Anaysis, Management and De\byen, thé main town, and thé ony opment' in A.V Seaton (éd.) Tourisisignificant Norwegian settement, Thé State^of thé Art, Chichester, John ^"^^^ ^g kiomètres north /'pp of Tromse on thé Norwegian nainand. For amost 150 years, eope hâve been traveing to >vabard for recreationa and adenture purposes. During most f thé 20th century, Svabard was rimariy a destination for cruise 'ps, but since thé eary 1990's and-based tourism industry has merged. Thus deveopment is ecomed and party stimuated by e Norwegian authorities that aso ave estabished an encompassing nvironmenta govemance régime f thé isand, primariy due to thé Inerabe nature, but aso coveing thé héritage of thé area. t, -^ Most tourist expériences offered on Svabard are reated to nahire; thé scenery is magnificent, and there are spécia things to see: bird-mountains, seas and whaes, gaciers and icebergs. Thé major tounst activities m wmtertime are daytrips by snowmobie dog-sedge or by ski, though onger, mutiday tours are aso offered. In summer many of thé visitors take part in an over-seas émise, thé others are fying in, going on 3-10 days coasta émises or on hiking tours, or stay in Longyearbyen buying day-excursion or other day-activities. Many tourists hope to get a gimpse of thé poar bear, but most of them fai. Thé poar bear foows thé edge of thé ice shied and is normay far from thé tourist tracks. Much of thé nature experiences in summer are ship-based reating to sceneries passing by, going cose to a gacier or going for a hike on shore. r By Arvid Viken Arvid Viken is associate professor in Tourism at Finnmark University Coège, Ata, Noi-way. He has done research on indigenous tourism, Arctic tourism, nature based tourism and edited and written a series of artices and books within thé socioogy oftourism, héritage tourism and tourism and environment. He bas foowed thé deveopment oftourism on Svabard both as a panner and as a researher. and has written severa artices about this deveopinent. Emai: arvid. viken@hifm. no There are traces of human activities ai aver thé isands covering more than 400 years ofhistory. In a management pan (Syssemannen for Svabard, 2000) there is a ist of prioritised héritage sites in différent areas of Svabard. Ai of those ocated in thé north-west corner of Spitsbergen are among thé most popuar heritage sites. Amost 50 per cent of ai prioritised heritagesites - covering ai parts of Svabard - hâve been used for tourism purposes récent years. This artice wi présent Svambard and its tourism industry, foowed by a description of thé transformations of thé main township, Longyearbyen, fi-om a minmg commumty to a tourist resort. g &. e- Picture of a tourist group in a zodiac in iront ofa sma ship and a gacier 23

14 This has been a process wherein former miner faciities and thé miner ife hâve been transformed to one of thé patforms for tourism. A review of thé most important héritage sites and their goveming are présentée, foowed by a discussion of thé existmg govemance System. Thé concusion refects on thé rôe of héritage m human's transformation ofwiderness to a payground for tounsts. Thé évidence for thé artice is statistics, both from thé Govemor's Office and from thé oca tourist office, and documents and research reports conceming tounsm on Svabard, and interviews with actors in thé tourism industry. Svabard Svabard is ocated in thé Arctic Sea. It is one of thé northemmost inhabitée paces on earth, stretching from thé 74th to thé 81st degree of atitude. Thé archipeago covers a and area of 61,229 square kiomètres, with a coastine that is over 3, 500 kiometrès ong. Thé cimate is cod but, thanks to thé Guf Stream, not as cod as many other ocations in thé north. Thé average air température is +60 Cesius in summer, -14o C in winter. Thé sea température hovers befrween and +4o C. In thé winter, thé sea is normay frozen. <%?0 SEA Jan Mayen SEA ARCTIC OCEAN SVALBARD arsand NORWAY Svabard was "discovered" by thé Dutchman Wiem Barents in 1956 (for more historica détai see Arov, 1996). Thé industria history of Svabard has five reativey easy distinguishabe eras party representing separate activities. In thé first period, from 1603 thé isands and thé surrounding océan were heaviy expoited for industria purposes, first wams hunting by thé Engish, and from ôwhae hunting, primariy for extracting oi from thé anima. Thé whae hunt was in tum undertaken by thé Engish and Dutch, but aso Spain, France, Germany and Denmark (incuding Norway) took part. On severa occasions there were controversies between thé whaing nations, and thé first goveming régime was setted in 1614, spitting thé whaing area outside Spitsbergen between thé Dutch in north and thé Engish in south (Syssemannen for Svabard, 2000). Due to a too extensive hunt, thé whae disappeared fi-om thé Çords of Svabard towards thé end of thé 17th century. Thé second period goes from around 1700 to 1850, a period dominated by Russian trapping ofsea, poar bear and poar fox for thé saké of fur, and of wams and white whae. Thé third period is from thé begiiming of thé 19th century when Norwégians FRANZJOSEF LAND GREENLAND- NORWEGtAN- 8ARENTS- SEA NOVAYA ZEMLYA RUSSIA Location of Svabard more or ess took over thé trappi^ation. However, the^society is not activitïes. 'Thiswasasotheperitfotay "normaised";^ thé archifor'the'exporation of thé nortpeago is an économie free-zone Thé first'scientific expédition w^vithout customs, VAT and with Russian ( ), but ater sevf-eativey ow rates of^ income rat"countries took part; Norwa:ax, though ^sigmficanty heighten Sweden,"France, Gemmay, Aiiin Thé infrastmcture ^and t"ria'and'engand. Thé most inteponstmction works are technoogisïve'exporer period was aroui. ;ay very adya nced and expensithe'tuni of thé previous centuive, as is aso thé case with housing. At that time aso'the fourth perifvtost peope don't own property started, thé époque with search ^ut rent their apartments or house and excavation'of minerais. Tfrom their empoyers.^ onfy "commercia success ho^ ^ Whereas mimng^was Ae veï wa's"coa mining, undertakpny industry a coupe of décades severa" paces on Spitsbergen, iigo, minmg is ony one ofsevera cent'decades by Norwegians apdustries^ today, though, sti^im- Russians. Thé fifth period is tportant. Teaching and research is onethat startedtowards thé end:oday probaby thé biggest ^industhé 1980 and is mosty reated:^ there is severa hundred interthé position and deveopment ^tiona student studying poar^ yen, thé main Nor^-eated sciences and manynatura 2mn settement. It had been a mi?cienrists visitthe campus during a îownsince eary 1900's, but it^ear. Thé third arge sector^is touthend-ecidedthatmimngshoud[ism, providing between 200 and downscaedandothermdustria^o0 workpaces. Fourth, there is tivities'shoudbe deveoped. wsoa^noteworthy mdustry reated is'a'sïgnificant amount of hérita0 different types of communicafromft hese periods, east faions^ from ship reated^activities therussianperiod, according0, téécommunication. There are thé authorities (Syssemannen Poth business and research reated " ateite Etions m thé S^aibard72 000)': Longyear- "The"Doîitica tum aro^'yen arca- And these basic indus was reated to a need &Pes are supported and by a signibroader"mdustria patform ttf^t se^cem,dust^ "" coaïmmingthat for thé time be^^^beforetheate 1980's, Lonwa"s heav^ 'subsïdised and typica a poîyearb^nwas_ company caïïytontroversia(mmisttyofpwn^whctea^^^^^^^ dustoaïaffairs7990). ^^r^d moslp UÏ;C. SCTVices;. In ^erequïite for more' div0988^responsbiity^^^ indusïnafactmties was to createj;osw^as/^oyer^j^ :^nnait permanent communit)ar^^ci^ L^^^î^wm^^LA. Sti'e.^ency: ^e'sociara ctivitie^the t'"ïo^ooo:aercha?asobt m ^fe>tio7"requiredd, veiovn,!^d, ^em^ JdÏferent^types'ofprivate ^m^y^ct±(lmëyearr pubzteteïïndopportu. i^laas^re,).jh^^ L^7.;^r /iifwons in societa matters and has for research, éducation, ditieï, ^ ^^^'7u""'c^7_7"-_uu" ^u' ÎL^^""a^ +nuriken over the forma ownership service industries and tourip ç^^^^ c^^vt_-"-" Societa Services. Thé were stimuated. Aong witti,^^^7^^"^1"^ix^"^ ranges in thé composition of thé da,ngcs. îne i,tt^ S?'10 "' CIm ^ "b" s'se"» ^ ^ Longyarby^^s. Tt^^^^^^^ an extensive process ot modeni, -----, POLHAVET Virgohamna,Smeerenburg Danskeya Magdaene-"?;, "fj'o'rden" Gravneset + e > Ny-Âesund g î: Prins Kars Forand Viage Settement % 0 a. (Ṣ 3 PITSIBE RG E N Pyramiden \ \ ^t" ç(i'^longyearbyen "\' Barentsburg Vtf* BsSUM Abandoned mining settement Airfied Cruise ship site Road Map of Svabard Homsund 20' 25* 30' Sjuoyane yestfor M- \ NORDAUSTLANDET 1712 Pemertoppen 'emertoppen Newtontoppen Tunabreen von Postbreen '"/+! 6î Svabard Advisory Counci (Svabardrâdet) was dominated by miners, in today's Longyearbyen Community Counci (Longearbyen Lokastyre) it is university and service sector peope that set thé scène - for years thé mayor was a university professer. Despite this scattered oca democracy mosty covering decisions conceming pubic service and wefare, thé power centre on thé isands is thé Govemor ofsvabard. He represents thé Norwegian State for ai intents and purposes. s <t 0 Barentseya Austfonna ^-.- Tusensyane BARENTSHAVET <1 o/ '<?. 1GE0YA / f \ '\ ^ ^ Kviteya Kongsoya Kong Karts Land. Hopen During récent décades thé Governor's office has been granted new functions and has expanded its activities consideraby. Thus, there is a doube meaning to thé term Govemor of Svabard today: it is thé tite of highest ranking representative of thé Norwegian authorities on thé isands, as we as a pubic institution with staff members. g &. i r 25

15

16 into thé sea where they 'caf (that is, break up and produce icebergs). Besides, going ashore is a major anticipated activity, for thé saké ofhiking, bird watching, ooking at other natura features and often to observe héritage fi-om cose range. Thé number of recorded disembarking passengers outside Longyearbyen bas in fact increased from 37, 508 in 1996 to 69, 691 in Thé data shows that thé number of ports of ca has increased from 63 in 1996 to 162 in 2003; meanwhie thé percentage of passenger disembarkations that occur in thé three major tounst ports outside Longyearbyen (that is Barentsburg, Ny-Âesund and Magdaenefjorden) has decreased from 87 per cent in 1996 to 52 per cent in Thus, there bas been a significant dispersai of thé tourists récent years (cf. Viken 2006). Duaity of exposition and préservation Since thé 1970's there has been an enormous increase of heritage sites offered to thé pubic around thé word. A straightforward expanation is a growing interest and demand for documentation of thé past both in thé pubic - maybe as a resut ofhigher educationa eves - and among académies and authorities. Many seem to mean that there is a need to carify thé past to better know what to do in présent time (Kirschenbatt-Gimbett, 1998: 7), others daim that héritage has a vaue in itsef, as it is stated in thé Svabard Management Pan for Héritage (Syssemamien for Svabard, 2000). However, there is often a différence befrween thé past, its history and héritage. Past is what has happened, history is thé attempts to présent and expain seected aspects of thé past, whereas héritage is a contemporary m- terpretations of thé past, often serving both poitica and commercia aims (Graham et a., 2000; Smith, 2003). But héritage does not hâve to be commercia, as thé term aso refers to artefacts, historica sites and narratives that are not put on sae. As Urry emphasise (1990: 110), much héritage deveopment has a popuar base, be it individuas or oca conservationist groups. This is aso thé origin of Svabard Museum, to day a hypermodem interpretation centre. However, thé rest of thé héritage sites of Svabard, are commercia ony in an indirect way, providing thé tourist industry with visiting sites. There certainy are other expanations of thé heritagisation of thé word. One is a goba trend of nostagia (Urry, 1990; 1996; 2000), often a romanticising and a céébration of thé past (Hewison, 1987). Many aso see héritage as a way to make history more accessabe, ivey and reevant to modem humans (cf. Shouten, 1995; Smith, 2003). And to tourism, heritage contributes to thé attraction System. Therefore, tourism is both a stakehoder and an argument in héritage deveopment, and there is more or ess a symbiotic reationship between héritage, tourism and thé govemance of thé reation. On Svabard tourism is a significant industry, and so is research, and monitoring and management of héritage. Many of thé héritage sites, and héritage in généra on Svabard, hâve gone through thé first stages of a process that Mac- Canne (1976) entites sacraization; naming, often after somebody who once stayed in thé site (as Longyearbyen, Nordenskiôdtoppen), or after something reated to an event in thé past (Svenskehuset, Ny-London), foowed by framing or éévation, a stage where thé ha-actions, which m tum means ritage is protectedand marked. tnore jobs. Thus, there is a both a some sites thé héritage is aso eniymboic and an instrumentai sihrined - given a héritage wrappiignificance of héritage management that in itsef is an attraction,?f thé isands. muséums often are, aso thé one There is a whoe séries of Longyearbyen. When thé tourisirgument against heritagisation. show'up such sites hâve becoias many héritage sites are pretourist attractions, sented. They are not necessary an nquiry into thé past, Lowentha As mentioned, one reasi998) maintains. for exposing héritage is poitic; Héritage is^not a historica With 'thé strong environmentiocument, it over-focuses thé visiorientation intemationay wpe, thé gorious and thé weathy, particuariy a strong focus on pr^nd thé past is presented visuay tine environments, Norway pr textuay, in a wrapping that is chosen a high profie on its ppoth modem, goba, scientific, servation efforts conceming Svfashionabe and commercia, ai bard. «Thé (Norwegian) Govepreating a distance to and a misrement wishes Svabard to be one-'rcsentation of thé events and artethé word's best managed widfacts in question, it is mamtained ness areas.» and «in thé event:hewison, 1987; Lowentah, 1998; a confict between environmen^bridge and Ashworth, 1996). targets and other interests, em However, this critique ronmenta considérations are oes not hit particuariy on Svaprevai within thé imits dictapard, as mostof thé héritage is out by treaty obigations and soveivherc thehistonca renmants once considérations", accordingverc produced, ^and^it is^ ceary MmistryofEnvironment(1999);XPressed that "[a]^ héritage is ;quay important" (Kuturminne- Thus, to perform reseai(?an for Svabard : 29). ring, excavations and pfhere^is^one exception, thé muse^ationïs to demonstrate respceum in Longyearbyen, opened m sibe'govemanceofapieceofa1006' havmg au signs of modem that~h as'ony~been Norwegiantnd commercia héritage,^ refec- 80 vears. At thé same time heritang contemporary taste andtends, afsoïaway to demonstrate tionsti^ganexampeofthetype fo7centuries''svabardhasbeen)f_attractions most f thé héritage habitedandits resources hâve Wterature refers toexpoited. Thé Norwegian authc ties are probaby sceptica to! perception of Svabard as ony'curism adaptations in Lonuntouched widemess, and try add an image of Svabard as s industria site, and as an outpos ^ ^, Dation:!'mde-acceptance^^,smce, tounsm, wa^_intro- Ais reua;rt y' w mak7itreasie^ed^sann du^^^^^ defcndï^e'ïxpo^ons:in^ township ^^~^t;^^mf'c^^^m0^^ ^^o^^^^^z{z^^wlmt:. ^S^^^t^^^Zm^w. to. mo'd^ 'in'^on^^^, ^^^^^^ ^suthe7ounsmmduttrywitbot ony in street ionography, but aso in pattems of socia reations, cuture and power. A coupe ofdecades ago it was thé miners and thé mining company that set thé oca agenda, and embossed pubic parances and discourses, but not any more. Neither is it thé miners that dominate town ife today. And thé townscape has been changea; Stormessa (thé cantina) is gone, Stussen (wherc thé coa is taken out) is a pub, Lompen, where thé minors changea cothes and had a shower after work, is a shopping centre, and Busen, a term used for a miner, is thé name ofa café - and ony a few know thé origin of thèse terms. Unti ate 1980s thé coa was transportée from thé mine to thé harbour in an air based conveyor System (ike a chair ift), today substituted by orries. Thé conveyor head-quarter and some remaining pôes are spotighted, being monuments over a past époque. Thé artefacts and symbos of thé past hâve got new meaning as cutura sites, héritage, tourist attractions and as vita ééments in thé peasure industry. Both thé symboic and materia héritage may we be seen as a nostagie gorification of thé past (cf. Lowenthaï 1998). Both thé od miner and his ife hâve a certain aura ocay. However, thé contemporary use of miner symbos and artefacts strongy contrast thé reaity of thé miners some décades ago. Creeping in thé mines was maybe heroic, but certainy not a peasure. Conceming thé materiaity of Longyearbyen there are many signs of thé same trends; modem vias and apartments substitute thé miners' accommodation barracks and severa sma shopping centres, a hospita, a huge university centre, an information centre and severa hôtes and restaurants dominate thé town picture. Thé main (and ony) street has ai we known signs of tourism; stroing tourists with coourfu coths, pastic bags, shops with fags and néon ights, pubs and bars. Thé shops are seing t-shirts, jumpers, cups, tros and ai type of touristic gadgets marked with symbos of Svabard, and they ook ike souvenir shops in most tourist destinations. Thé semiotics of tourism is strongy at présence. Before, Longyearbyen used to be a pace where peope knew each other, and took care of each other. Today, thé town has been transform thé town to a pace of strangers (Borch 1997: 62), both due to thé diversified industries, thé increase in popuation and thé tounsts. However, a study towards thé end of thé 1990's showed that most of those who hâve ived in Longyearbyen for décades, appreciate thé changes (Viken and Bakken 1997); Longyerbyen has become ceaner and thé services are much better; daiy fight to and from, ordinary shops and services, more wefare. And most peope réaise that as a "norma" community thé priées and taxes must be higher than they used to be. Ony a few wishes thé od times back. g &. r 29

17 miner époque tourist resort a^jij*». ----»-'».-'.' in winter isocia/cutura base community of miners, hard manua work and week-end with parties and drinking famies and socia organizations, eisure activities, outdoor récréation changea symbos mine activities, mine equipments, muséum miners in thé street Tear and Wear from thé mine "Funken", accomodation center for administrative staff Stuffen- thé pace where thé coa in excavated"lompen"- a sanitary faciity mine remuants as héritage sites and miner on statue, fags, souvenirs, excursions offers "Funken" a moderne hôte r g &. ^ oca discourse mine, miners and thé governor's activities académie parance, environmenta sstions, Leisure activities ^K^-^'s d'f f^11^ ^. Figure 6: Hen earbyen: Fabe : Changes in Longyearbyen récent years. he Svabard héritage sites and its govemance There are some major hege sites on Svabard, reprenting thé différent significant riods fi-om thé history of thé isds. Athird of thé sites are regised (Syssemaimen for Svabard, 00). First, there arc 14 sites rcgisd containing remuants from thé aing activities in thé 17th ceny. Most known is Smeerenburg, pace wherc thé Dutchmen proed oi during thé first décades of that century. Another known pace is Gravneset in thé Magdaene Fjord, but this site is primariy visited because of its proximity to a gacier and its natura beauty. Second there are many sites with remuants from thé Russians trapping period, 31 of them being registered, but none ofthem being among thé most visited héritage sites. Thirdy, there are severa sites known for being of importance in reation to exporations of thé north, or for having had a rôe in more or ess hazardous expédition to thé North Pôe. Most known, is Virgohavn, thé pace that Saomon Andrée (1896 and 1897) and Water We- Iman (1906, 1907 and 1909) had as starting point in their efforts to reach thé North Pôe with accordingy air baoon and air ship. None ofthem succeeded, but eft 31

18 . ought much equipment and instaations behind, representing an exitmg héritage. In Ny-Âesund there is a ta pôe, buit ( ) as a "parking pace" for air ships and used by Amundsen, Esworth and Nobie on their way to thé North Pôe, and ater (1928) by Nobie. There are aso remuants after a hangar for airships, and a statue of Amundesen. Fourthy, there are remuants fi-om thé Norwegian trapping activities from thé 19th and 20th century. Normay there is a cabin and some equipment eft. However, most of thèse paces are cosed down. One, Fredheim, one hour with a snowmobie away from Longyearbyen, is open for Visitation and represents an often visited attraction for tour operators in Longyearbyen. From thé same period there are aso ots of sites where there hâve been searched for minerais; coa, god, iron, zmc, ead, copper, gips, asbestos and marbe. Among thé major héritage sites from thé search activities is Ny-London, a site not far from Ny- Âesund. InNy-London a mine was set up to extract marbe. A coupe ofshipments went to London from where thé entrepreneur Mr. Mansfied originated and where he had registered his firm, but thé quaity of thé marbe was so bad that it had been transformed to (marbe) sand during thé voyage. In Ny-Âesund there were a significant coa mining industry for some décades, however, thé mine was abandoned after an accident that kied 21 miners. Thé mine was owned by thé Norwegian state, and thé govemment was hed responsibe for thé event, and resigned (in 1962). Most of thé town is kept as it was. There are aso héritage reated to coa mining industry in Longyearbyen, particuary a Visitation mine (Mine 3), but aso other mines (there are seven mines atogether, one sti producing coa) are used by tour operators for escorted tours, and as mentioned thé former coa transport headquarter is among thé attractions in town. There are aso interesting héritage from other sectors; from tourism - particuary thé North Pôe Hôte in Ny-Âesund, shipwrecks, crashed airpanés and remuants from Word War II. However, except what is found in Ny-Âesund, noue of thèse remnants hâve given rise to significant tourist attractions. Not ai periods and activis hâve given rise to significant up to down: ritage sites. For exampe itte is Figure 8: Smeerenburg remnants of ft of thé many Russian trapper vvhae oi stove tiens. Thé reason why, is said be that thé Russians seems to Figure 9: Gravneset i MagdaeneQord yg known how to SUTyive under atounstinfrontofcombsprotectedby ^ ^^ conditions, much better an thé others that often died from Figure 10: Virgohavn: Remnants fron.survy. One of thé major héritage thé expéditions of Andrée and Wemani^i ments where thé other nations erated, are combs. Thé effect, onceming today's héritage and 'urism, is that thé Russian trapîr period, and thé Russian history Svabard are under-exposed. 5 aso is thé history of women's e on Svabard - there were ofn women taking part in thé exditions and severa trappers their wives and famiies ng. Thé documentation of this scarce, party due to thé fact that se narratives do not fit into thé cuine images of thé exporers trappers (Hauan, 1988). Hower, thé stories of exporers as Anrée and Weer fit we in despite fact that they faied, and fi-om historica point of view they rtainy are over-exposed in thé ritage andscape of Svabard. is refects two of thé burdens of ritage; thé focus of thé materia muants from thé past, and a hang emphasise thé spectacuar and amatic, historicay important or t (Lowentha, 1998). In thé afmath particuary Andrée was ashed with his baoon and ater arved or froze to death, has been ero; in thé création of héritage, ering and death seems to add to attractiveness. anagement of thé Svabard héritage sites There are différent ways goveming héritage sites ike se on Svabard. Thé goa is that a héritage of Svabard as far as possibe shoud be preserved where they are paced in thé andscape not destroying thé reations between thé remuants form earier (human) activities and their naturai and origina environment" (St. med nr 40 ( )). Thus, thé main poicy is an in situ conservation of thé héritage. Thé sub-goas are spécifiée in a detaied management rue (Kutiuminneforskriften, 1974); to préserve héritage is part ofhoistic environmenta poicy, it shoud be preserved as a resource for research, and héritage shoud be préservée as a base for experiences, knowedge and activities of existing and future générations (Kuturminneforskriften, 1974). Thé overming principe for héritage management on Svabard is "[...] that ai traces ofhuman activity dating from 1945 or earier are protected ééments of thé cutura héritage" ( syssemannen. svabard.no/eng/). There are severa preserving strategies appied. For some sites thé poicy is "controed natura degradation" (Kuturminnpan for Svabard ). This means that this type of sites shoud not be touched, not even repaired. Naturai dégradation sha not be disturbed. For other sites thé strategy is a "deaying degrading préservation" incuding minor repair. In reaity this is to keep thé héritage as it is today. Thé third strategy is to restore thé héritage - to bring it back or to keep it in accordance with a defined condition. There are ots of héritage treated according to both thé deaying degrading and restoring principes. Some buidings are protected conceming thé exterior, with a renewed interior. This is thé case with severa houses in Ny- Âesund and Longyerbyen. Thé préservation of thé héritage sites on Svabard is not contestée, but can be a brake on modem industria deveopment. Thé story goes, that when thé mining company heard a mmour ofa panned protection of a newy eft mine and its faciities (Swerdrupsbyen) ai was set on fire, in fear of thé conséquences of a protection. However, normay thé preservation of natura environment is a much grater chaenge for industria deveopment. For exampe did not a project aiming at searching for god in thé mountains near Ny-Âesund get thé permission needed a few years ago. But there are ots of diemmas in thé management of thé héritage sites; shoud for instance there be signposts, tracks and fences or other preserving remédies on thé sites? From a conservation point of view this might be recommendabe, but it gives thé sites a touristic favour that is not wanted. There certainy aso are other questions raised; why shoud so many cabins be maintained, when they are cosed down by thé Govemor, and ony thé Governor's staff use them, whereas thé tourism industry is neither aowed to use them or to put up cabins on their own. Sometimes, thé conservation office has had other types of diemmas; for instance what about a damaged nazi symbo, swastika, shoud thé Govemor repair it; and shoud PCB it thé sag heap around mines in Ny-Âesund - today part of a protected area - be removed? Thé nature conservation office said yes, but cuture conservation office rejected - both Govemor of Svabard offices. To préserve héritage it is necessary to reguate thé conduct of peope approaching thé heritage. There are of course a whoe variety of means, aso appied on Svabard. Thé most important strategy is to inform. Thé information given is avaiabe on Internet, as bookets and as brouchures.? g n. & i 33

19 Among thé brochures avaiabe are one about thé expériences on Svabard, one about how to trave on Svabard, one about thé vunerabiity of thé Svabard nature, one about thé risks of traveing in thé area. Bookets are thé prioritised way of informing about thé most visited héritage sites as Virgohavn, Smeerenburg, Gravodden, Hiorthavn (cose to Longyearbyen) and Fredheim. Whereas ai thèse are pubished by thé Govemor of Svabard, thé most mterestmg goveming effort in this genre, is made by thé tourism industry, sponsored by thé Govemor; a ten points code of conduct caed "Thé Common Sensé Rues for Svabard" (see figure 11). Thèse mies are we distributed, on Internet sites and as pacards hère and there both in Longyearbyen and other paces on thé isands. On thé sites there are rather discreet signposts (see tabe 2), if any. Thé poicy is obviousy not to disturb thé environment with gossy information. For Ny-Âesund there are spécia mies and practices. Thé pace is often visited by cmise-ships. Before arrivai thé ship informs thé tourists about thé environment and its management. To be aowed to go ashore, thé passengers hâve to sign a paper decaring that they hâve been trough this procédure. On shore, there are restrictions on where to go. Much of thé information is about aws and management, so it may be seen as part of a traditiona hierarchica govemance System (see next page). And there are more exampies of this type of govemance. Thé most popuar héritage sites are often visited by so caed "fied «ULES FOR inspectors", with simiar mandate on thé north west coast is stro to "park rangers", known from na- poiced. Thé réguation of thé e tiona parks. In fact most of them visited héritage sites is summef are poice officers. Thus, thé area in thé tabe next page. Tabe 2: Héritage sites and their réguation Exam es Whae stations Smeerenburg Gravodden Exporers' sites Virgohavn Frappers' site Fredheim mer commumties Mine 3, outside Longyearbyen Ny-London Ny-Âesund Characteristics Remuants fi-om thé first whaing industry; whae oi stoves - Lots of graves from thé first whaer period - cose to a gacier - Were thé Swedish exporer Andrée and ater thé Amercan Weer started their baoon trips towards thé North Pôe (on second try Andrée did not survive) - Thé hut ofone of thé most known trappers fi-om thé 20th Century - one hour from Longyearbyen with snowmobie. A major site for daytrips from Lon eab en. Amineeftin997, asot arranged for Visitation A marbe mme; at its time an industria fiasco, thé remnants are intact Thé pace was a mining town unti 1962 when there was a huge mine accident that ed to a change ofgovemment innorway. Many remuant eft; - Mining instaations, sag heaps - A short raiway and a train - A miner famiy house as it was eftm962 Today a research stations with more staying in thé summertime Préservation actions - A booket - A signpost teing thé story of thé pace, asking for caution - Reguary surveiance by poice in thé top season - A booket - A signpost teing thé story of thé pace, asking for caution - Thé graves are sun-ounded with a wire fence - Daiy surveiance by poice in thé too season - A booket - Forbidden to go ashore without permission from thé govemor of Svabard - Tourists shoud not go ashore in groups bigger than 12 (according to thé mies) - Not more than three groups at thé time (common agreement) - Reguary surveiance by poice in thé to season - A booket - Reguary surveiance and maintenance - Kept in shape by thé company offering as a tourist attraction - Reguar surveiance - Daiy surveiance - Restricted areas - Roads and tracks - Guided tours n 0, 0-35

20 Tourism and héritage on Svabard: Government and governance As mentioned before thé Norwegian Govemment has set high goas for thé environmenta poicies conceming Svabard. To impement thèse ambitions a variety of goveming actions are needed. Therefore, thé govemmg of thé natura and cutura héritage on Svabard, is a good exampe of thé width and compexity of modem govemance, and an exampe ofhow govemance efforts invove a whoe séries of stakehoders. There is a tendency today, to anayse poitica-admimstrative actions with thé tenn govemance. "[T]he essence ofgovemance is its focus on goveming mechanisms, which do not rest on recourse to thé authority and sanctions of govemments", says Stoker (1998; 17). As thé modem society and thé modem state has deveoped "... no actor has sufficient overview to make thé appication ofparticuar instmments effective; no singe actorhas sufficient action potentia to dominate uniateray in a particuar goveming mode", argues Kooiman (1993: 4). Thus, govemance refers to réguation, management or steering where a mutitude of actors are normay invoved, both in thé décision making and impementationprocesses (Pierre, 2000; Pierre andguy Peters, 2000; Kooiman, 2003; Kjaer, 2004). Thé cuture for goveming has changed in this direction both due to privatisation processes, new awareness about societa responsibiity, and due to new opinions about thé rôe of thé state. Thus, a nomiaisation of Svabard society aso impied new ways ofgoveming thé isands. One expression ofthis is thé création of Svabard Lokastyre, thé ocay eected steering committee. With thé "normaisation" strategy thé community aso demanded a parking democracy. There are three major modes for govemance, according to Kooiman (2003) : hierarchica govemance or réguation, sef-govemance or sef-rcguation and co-govemance or co-management. There is aso another term often used to characterise modem goveming; meta-govemance; efforts made by authorities to govem those who govem (Jessop 2002), or as Kjser (2004: 49) puts it, metagovemance is "managing thé rues and pattems of coordination, organising fhe compex structures of hiérarchies, networks and markets". Thé Héritage Concervation Rue of thé Svabard reguating thé remnants from thé past, is from 1973 (Kuturminneforskriften, 1973), but is today a subsystem of thé Svabard Environmenta Protection Act ( dep. no/ md/norsk/tema/ svabard/ /index-dokooo-b-na.htm). This aw introduces some we known principes for environmenta management (cf. Gooda and Staber, 1997). One principe is a duty of care; "Any person who is staying in or opérâtes an undertaking in Svabard sha show due considération and exercise thé caution required to avoid unnecessary damage or disturbance to thé natura environment or cutura heritage"( 5). Thé "precautionary principe" ( 7) states that if an authority acks information of thé environmenta impacts of a pan or an action, they can force thé actors in question to provide them with this knowedge. Thé aw aso states that "[a]ny activity that is started in Svabard sha be assessed on thé basis of thé overa pressure on thé natura environment and cutura héritage thatwoudresut"( 8), givabard Tourism Board and adopthé 'pouter pays principe' ( ed vountariy by ai snowmobie and that thé "activities in Svabîour operators m Longyearbyen. sha make use of thé technoo^ second and more ocay imited that puts thé east possibe pressïxampe is as mentioned thé pracon thé environment" ( 10). Otice ofnot going ashore with more paragraphs dea with other specjhan three groups at thé time in issues, ît shoudbe notices that/irgohavn, thé most restricted heaw treat nature and cutura hcitage. A third exampe is severa equay. ourism networks, as thé oca touism association. Perhaps thé most Thé aw may appear tonteresting is that started in 2003 an exampe of hierarchica gov'etween cmise ship compames nance, but is not entirey so. Fibat operate in thé Arcti^areas (thé it may be categorised as an exa^ssociation of ArctiG^Expedition pie of meta-'govemance wh;mise Operators, AAEC), witha thé government set thé frame'iew to deveop a common practigovemance. Second, thé aw ye conceming environmenta quesproduced in coaboration bet^ons, and eventuay a common set différent stakehoders in a preff guideines for émise opérations ring commission. Both thé cu thé area. In fact this coaborasector and tourism had their re^on may resut in a new régime for sentatives, and an encompassnrctic sea-bome tourism, ike thé hearing foowed thé resuting'ne that for^yea^has existed for port before thé Norwegian Par^tarctica (IAATO). ment, Stortinget, decided upon aw. And, in^the detaiing of. Co-govemance has thé obaw new hearings and negotiati?ctive ofconstituting a sharedres-^ have'taken pace. And third, in"nsibiity for thé management of impementation of thé mies, tt particuar^task orarea. This can arernegotiations aboutthe interie achievedthrough communicatationsothereforethesvabard;verationaity: g vemmg actions vironmenta Protection Act is fbtamed through Jomt. décisions andforemost a frame for envur_arough a pubi^-pnvat^ parmenta p7acticeand a wammserehip (Jordan et^a. 2003). An the"tounsmor other industriesxampe^i^ thé information pronot act"responsibïy;the GoveiramAat_the^iseship passenof'svabard'wiïmtervene. îrs, go,through beforc arrivahn L ng7gam has gi7etriseto a;y-âje^ bu^^e^ati; andco-go-e^ottour"perato^second, n:nce"cutae~, eg>rding -tou<'e^are^to""^ P^ (S^n^^n^'^ôr ^sms^^»^m^ in partnership between thé Sef-reguation can be Cnsm. m.duï and Ae_authorined^"ategïregimewhere8^n;ri;«^J-;» i"g^ ; mïes Ïaï s7e&eïth?behaviour:am, ^s^ba^gu^ "ffered tourist office, eaboar^d pd:mm^d/^, '>d'.' d'fi an;ed\^^^ m^etb ïjh^o^~rm ^^11^''^^ : =rs5:=i^ist snowmobie use registered. A fifth exampe is thé set of guideines for tourist behaviour (see Figure ). Most of thèse exampes are of coaboration between thé authorities and thé tourism industry conceming thé goveming of tourist activities. In this fied there obviousy is a compex govemance System. However, conceming heritage, thé deveopment ofprincipes and their impementation, there seems to be a much more traditiona and hierarchica régime. Thé nationa authorities or thé Governor décide. Even if thé overming principes are generay accepted there is on accordance conceming issues about how héritage shoud be used, but such issues are not matter of negotiations. It seems as if thé Govemor and thé cuture préservation staff hide behind rues and professionaism, and prefer to confer with their aies in major muséums and thé nationa Directorate for Cutura Héritage. They seem to mean and that they know what thé best is, and it is not negotiabe. This is at east as some tour operators fee it. Therefore, toiuoperators think that thé poicy is too strict, and to itte open to discussion. Concusion This artice has presented thé use and govemance of héritage within tourism on Svabard. This is primariy a tourism that is naturc based. However, through thé héritage narratives thé tourist eam how humans hâve survived in this nature and how cose catastrophes and death can be. Thus, héritage on thé isands is a dispay ofinterwoven ness of nature and cuture. Thé héritage aso tes about rather advanced communities, thé exporation of thé north and that thé deveopment of modem poar societies heaviy reies on modem knowedge and technoogy. Thanks to a modem tourism industry this is a documentary open to amost everybody thèse days. Thé process of heritagisation sedom changes thé objects, ony its interprétation. Thus heritagisation is a socia constmction process, where thé meaning of thé materia is décides upon in interaction between peope. And tourism is one of thé processes through which thé constmcted vaue as heritage is transformed to something vauabe in thé market. And as a commodity which thé market demand thé hveritagisation processes are stimuated and financed. Thus, Svabard is a prominent exampe of how thé processes of heritagisation, touristification and commoditisation are intervened. Heritage and tourism are symbos of thé human conquest of thé word; there is amost no corner or spot eft not being exporée and expoited by humans. Once visited, there are tracks and remuants that in thé aftermath are upgraded to héritage, and as a héritage site an object for thé tourist fow. Somehow, and particuary on Svabard where everything eft behind before 1946 is héritage, this is process through which tear and wear - other paces it woud hâve been regardée as itter - get status as something vauabe. This is a process strongy counteracting thé image and thé condition as widemess. Heritagisation is a process through which remnants fi-om former days becomes object of thé contemporary society. Thé process foows thé foowing phases: In thé first stage, something happened at thé spot, or a trapper or exporerer inhabited thé site for a period oftime. Thé second stage and much ater, is when what is eft is excavated and what happened documented and thé history written. ^ g Q- 37

21 . e.iïy. This phase créâtes thé base Hewison, R. (1987). Thé héritage mdustry - Britain in a cimate of décine. London: for commercia expoitation. In thé j^^^ third stage thé sites becomes a mat- ' îessop, B. (2002). Govemance ter of restrictions of use, preser- and meta-govemance: On refexivity, revation and management - in fact quisite variety, and requisite ironsy. Thé transformed to héritage. Both as département ofsocioogy, LancasterUmpart of stage two and three, there is a risk for significant pubicity reated to thé héritage site. In thé fourth stage thé site wi expérience thé interest from thé tourism industry, both tour operators and tourists, and thé tourist hordes are ikey to rôe in. According to MacCanne's (1976) terminonoogy, this is a process of naming and framing of historica sites. Thé uttermost northem rim of thé word, as this artice bas shown, is no exception from this encompassing System of heritigisation and thé associated touristification. Références Arov, T. B. (1996). Svabards Historié. [A History of Svabard]. Oso: Aschehoug. Borch, T. (1997). Kampen om naturen. Mijediskurs pâ Svabard - «Europas siste vimark». Hovedfagsavhanding. Tromso: Umversitetet i Troms0. Buter, R. (1980). Thé Concept of tourist area cyce of évoution: impications for management ofresources, Canadian Geographer 24, Estad, À. (2004). Poarturisme [Poar tourism]. In E.-A. Drivenes, H.D. J0e (Eds), Norsk Poarhistorie 3. Rikdommene (pp ). Oso: Gydenda. Gooda, B. and Staber, M. J. (1997). Principes infuencing thé detennination of environmenta standards for sustainabe tourism. In M. J. Staber (Ed.), Tourism sustainabiity. Principes and practice (pp ). Waingford: CAB Internationa. Graham, B., Ashworth, G.J. and Tunbridge, J.E. (2000). A geography of héritage: Power, cuture and economy. London: Arnod. Hauan, M. A. (1988). Kvinner pà fangst eer fangstkvinner. Ottar 5, versity. ancs. ac.uk/fss/socioogy/papers/jessop-govemance-and-metagovemance.pdf Jordan, A., Rûdiger Wurze, K. W. and Zita, A. R. (2003). 'New' instruments of environmenta govemance. Pattems and pathways of change. In A. Jordan, K. W. Rùdiger Wurze and A. R. Zito (Eds), 'New' instmments ofenvironmenta govemance. Nationa Expériences and prospects (pp. 1-26). London: Frank Cass. Kirschenbatt-Gimbett, B. (1998). Destination cuture: Tourism, museums and héritage. Berkeey: University ofcaifomiapress. Kjor, A. M. (2004). Govemance. Camebridge: Poity Press. Kooiman, J. (1993). Modem govemance: New govemment-society mteracions. London: Sage. Kooiman, J. (2003). Govemmg as govemance. London: Sage Pubications. Longyearbyen Lokastyre (2003). Samfunns- og naeringsutviking pâ Svabard [Societa and industira deveopment on Svabard ]. Longyearbyen: Longyearbyen Lokastyre. Lowentah, D. (1998). Thé heritage cmsade and thé spois of history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. MacCanne, D. (1976). Thé tourist. A new theory for thé eisure cass. New York: Schocken. Ministry ofenvironment (1999). Report No 9 to thé Storting ( ), Svabard. Oso: Thé Ministry ofenvironment. na ofenvironmenta Law 13, Shouten, F.F.J. (1995). Héritage as his rica reaity. In Herbert, D. (éd.) Hérita tourism and society. Pp Londi Manse Pubishing. Smith, M. K. (2003). Issues cutura tourism. London: Routedge. Stoker, G. (1998). Govemance as thé; Internationa Socia Science Journa Svabard Noringsutvik (1994). Reiseivspan for Svabard [T. rism pan for Svabard]. Longyearb) Svabard Naeringsutviking. Svabard Noringsutvid (1997). Tourism pan for Svabard - c enges and stratégies. Longyear Svabard Naeringsutviking. Svabard Reiseiv (2004). seivsutvikingen i Longyearbyen evauering. [Thé tourism deveo in Longyearbyen. An assessment]. gyearbyen: Svabard Reiseiv. Syssemannen for Sv (2000). Kuturminnepan for Sv Longyearbyen: Sysse nen for Svabard. Tunbridge, J.E. and Ash G.J. (1996). Dissonant héritage: Th nagement of thé past as as resour confict. London: John Wiey & Son Urry, J. (1990). Thetourist London: Sage. Urry, J. (1996). How soc remember thé past. In S. MacDo G. Fyfe (Eds) Theorizing muséums ford: Backwe. Urry, J. (2000). Soci beyond society. Mobiities for twent century. London: Routedge. Viken, A. andbakken, T. (19 Reiseivsutviking pâ Svabard. Long} byen: Svabard NEeringsutviking. Viken, A. and B. Heii' (2001). Mijobevisst reiseiv pâ Svab [Is tourism on Svabard enviromiien' Andrew is part ot' he faciiy a Massey University in \uckand New Zeaand where he eacies enrepreneurship and stra- Part of his inerests ie in thé irea ot' économie deveopment and nore specificay utiising ourism as i vehice for économie deveopmen. e currenty vvries a bi monthy coiimn for Loca Government Magaziic. New Zeaand and has pubished ind cunslied in tourism, entrepreiciirship anc) oca governmen. '. mai: A. Cardovvû^massey.ac. nz Abstract Chiïtfwm '15 a né Port Hutt Waitangi 'Pin sî<ifînd i by Andrew Cardow and Péter Witshier Kaingaroa Ov/enga ^. f'. if ' Péter is a praginatist. His research focus has aways been on deveoping soutions for thé tourism industry's probems. Between 1997 and 2003 he was invoved with Enteiprise Waitakere. thé business deveopment division of oca govemment in Waitakere City, conducting research in areas ot'concem in tourism. Since 2004 he has been working with thé Peak District Sustainabe Tourism Forum as researcher and adviser. Peter's most récent pubications cover Enabing Factors for Sma Business in Derbyshire, UK. (CHME, 2005) and a book chapter on Cod Water Isand Tounsm, Extrême Tourism' pubished by Esevier (éditer G. Badachino, Apri 2006). Emai: P. Witshier@derby.ac. uk f. ^his. artice aims to address no particuar order are thé Hoconem«edi?LR eport e difficuties that arise when at- kuwiti Moriori Tmst, Mahuta Ma- ising case a case based deveopment of thé Isands. By uti- approach SryNoof5^sttîea SAoS markstors'a. (2006). Svabari!mP^g to find a community so- ori Tmst; thé Chathamsand Dis- it~wmïe'iustrated"that"poïti~ca (1990). Report No 50 to thé Storting ( ), Industria deveopment on Svabard. Oso: Thé Ministry ofndustria Affairs. Pierre, J. (2000). Debating govemance. Oxford : Oxford University Press. Pierre, J. and Guy Peters, B. (2000). Govemance, poitics and thé state. London: Macmian Press. Riffenburgh, B. (1993). Thé myth of thé exporer: thé press, sensationaism, and geographica discovery. London: Behaven Press. Sanford, E. G. and Kimber, C. (2001). Redirecting sef-reguation. Jour- G. Badachino (éd.) Extrême Touttion to économie deveopment trict Counci, thé Chatham Isand disagreement aver who bas autho- Lessons frorn thé Word's Cod waterobems m a geographicay isoa- Enterprise Tmst, (thé Enterprise rity over économie deveopment and. Pp New York: Est;d région. Thé primary too used Trust), thé owners of thé Chatham and infrastructure ed to a stae- Science. ^^^ ^^^ p^^ for ^this examination is a construc- Lodge and finay thé past owners mate situation. Thé artice concu- (WWF)(2004). Omise tourism on îdcasestudy conducted in 2001 of thé Waitangi Hôte. Previousy des by demonstrating how in one bard - A risky business? Oso: WWid 2003, invoving actors on thé thèse groups hâve hed business case, an actor has attempted to entemationa Arctic Programme, hatham Isands. Thé Chathams and socia agendas that hâve at ti- courage pubic and private sectors ive been chosen due their géo- mes created a barrier for commu- to find ways forward by coopera- Intemet: 'aphic separation from mainand nity based économie deveopment. ting and encouraging stakehoders syssemannen. svabaf(ew zeaand and the émergence Tourism has rcpeatedy been ob- to network and by doing so, seek eng/ dep. no/md/norsk/t'nve separate and diverse power served and recommended as a re- surviva m this remote ocation svabard/ /index-doiiocks. Those power bocks, in venue stream for future économie (Witshier& Cardow, 2001). b-n-a. htm? g &. e- t 39

22 Introduction In thé past, thé Enterpnse Tmst, not thé oca govemment bas been thé major NGO invoved in économie deveopment. Thé Enterprise Tmst was estabished by Statute in 1991 to own and operate thé majority of thé Isands infrastmcture for thé benefit of thé community. Recenty thé Moriori tmst has emerged as a major payer in that fied due to a muti miion doar settement of and daims through thé New Zeaand Waitangi Tribuna. In addition, thé traditiona tourism markets which has been dominated by both thé owners of thé Chatham Lodge and thé owners of thé Waitangi Hôte hâve corne under pressure from new operators offering a différent tourism product. Further, thé Maon trust and thé oca govemment hâve aso become more vociferous in how they beieve thé commumty shoud approach économie deveopment. This poitica activity is set against an économie situation in which retums fi-om fishing, an économie stape since thé mid 20th Century, and retums from agricuturc, an historié activity, are both in décine. Community enabed economic deveopment, based party on tourism is seen as one way in which thé Chatham Isanders can secure a sustainabe ong term fiiture. In presenting thé Chathams as a tourism destination, a number of particuar aspects wi be addressed. Some are endémie to remote cod water isands: such as thé impact of oigopoistic practice on thé destination; thé difiicuty of improving access to thé destination; thé authenticity of oca products as toos for tourism interprétation and marketing; and coiificts between operators and thé few estabished owners of thé marketing channes. Other issues are more spécifie to thé Chathams and incude thé actua activity content and management stratégies of thé various tounsm opérations; and a need to focus on marketing of known tourism services and products (MacDonad & Joiffe, 2003; Ca, 2002; Reed, 1997; oannides & Petersen, 2003; Mitcheiï&Reid, 2001). Thé foowing study is based on thé commumty sustainabe tourism mode best iustrated by thé work of such authors as Brent-Ritchie (1999), Inskeep (1991), and Woodey (1993). Thé work aso broady draws on Scheyvens (1999) and her study of empowerment at poitica, economie, psychoogica and socia eves. Added to thèse resources is an overwheming sensé ofpurpose in thé conservation, régénération and reguatory environment, which is particuar and perhaps pecuiar to thé Chatham Isands. Thèse atter factors are indeed thé core principies for thé destination's future govemance and management. One of thé issues that concem thé deveopment of tourism in isoated communities reates to thé présence of an oigopoy in terms of tourism infrastmcture. Thé Chathams are no exception. Creating a tourism industry on thé Chathams invoves making concessions to oca interpretations of tourism. Thé primary access into thé Chathams remains via Air Chathams, a privatey owned and operated airine which runs thé ony direct schedued air service from mainand New Zeaand. This service is suppemented by infrequent private charter aircraft and irreguar cas by schedued deep sea freighters. Added to this transportation mix is thé occasiona adventure cmise ship, often en route to thé sub Antarctic or Thé Chatham Isands: tarctic Isands. Ai this adds up A very brief history an imperfect market situation terms oftourism access. Thé res Thé Chatham Isands group is that Air Chathams opérâtes as one of thé most remote contide facto gatekeeper for thé tourituousy inhabitée isand groups m industry and, aiong with thé fscw Zeaand. Thé group ies apcommodationopportumtiesontoximatey 800 kiomètres East isands, has given rise to thé be>f New Zeaand. This remoteness that thé oca tourism industry isias meant that thé Isands hâve remited and even constrained byaained dépendent on shipping for scheduing of Air Chathams iiiost of their capita goods, mcuthé avaiabe bed nights providing fossi fues used to powerthe by thé two main accommodatsenerators that suppy most of thé providers. omestic eectricity used on thé sands. It is this very remoteness In addition to thé twomhat has ed to thé émergence of suppiers, Isand tourist accomc)ower bocks and which bas given dation is'aso provided by a snise to thé nature of infrastructura numberof'bedandbreakfast'o»usiness and thé changes in oca rators, one backpacker' and govemance that hâve taken pace mote operators. Thé majority'n thé Isands. visitors \re however directed Thé Chatham Isands comwards thé two hôtes; thé Transe ten isands ofwhich ony thé ers Rest/ Waitangi Hôte andwo argest are inhabited - thé Chatham Isands Lodge. Thé prger, Rekohu Wharekauri, comveers Rest is a converted vianony referred to as Chatham, and fering a high standard ofovemi^ngiauria, known as Pitt Isand. accommodation. Itisocatedat^e_majority_of thé settement is. o7abuffoverookmgthei)n Rekohu Wharekauri. The^ adofwaitangi and sits directy abpmistrative centre of thé Chatham thé hote. tthe Traveers Restsandss Waitangi, thé mam vibeenhost to Prime Ministers, ^eof Rekohu Wharekauri^ Thé irs'used,-aongwith thé hôte, by:hatham group is^ endowed with sitmggovermbentandbusmessaturabeauty- Thé main ^isand ficiafso"the hôte, under thé sa as ong white^sandy beaches, a ownership"as"the Rest, provi-nique fora and is sun-ounded by accommotdation;"mea7 and cear_deep bue In ^seas. addition^ mteîïetownîony tavem. ûe.isands. arc home to some of Lodge7by''comparison;is oc^ zeaand's m^t endangered in thé'centre of Chatham Isauna- ^ ^ ^^_^. andï aseff'contamed unit pr,_, _onthe Chatham's, ^ isoa- ^meas; accommodation ^p;oduced_a soc;adeve the'orgamzationoftourist acti^aat;s ^edand dynamo ZTodgTcaters^iniytopac^^^^ getou^atheïthanpeope'visi^^^^ s^^^^^«s^t^tmmm wdse I^oïgTandÏesVHoteTdeard V^^^^ ^th6mb7unîîavera gent7<jn^^^^^^^^^.ï, ut^enby^7ope^m^, m^m^on;^19^ ^ïe^^zeatanrm ainyan^^ 2,5;f)J "^y'^^f^^^^w&i^wm0^ c cyces ofboom dation onth7chathams:"- andbust. Thé first boom - a resut of seaing in thé eary 19th century - was foowed in tum by économie crop farming, sheep farming, whaing, and ended with wet-fish, crayfish, and paua expoitation in thé ast quarter of thé 20th century1. Figure. Thé Chatham Isands Forgetme-not - endangered and much-prized indigenous fora. Thé situation in thé Chathams has not aways been so goomy, as thé history of a successfu fishery on thé Isands shows. Thé fisheries started in 1910 with thé estabishment of a freezer at Owenga, and by 1937 thé Isands had three commercia fi-eezers (King and Morrison, 1990). Crop-based agricuture was aready we estabished by thé time thé seaers had arrived and sheep farming foowed in thé mid 1840s. However, in thé very récent past thé gains made by thèse successes hâve been overshadowed by a desperate search for économie diversification undertaken by thé Isanders. Thé most dramatic was In A Land Apart (1990), Michae King and Robin Morrison chronice a socia and économie history of thé Isands from pre-european times to thé review ofthechathamisandeconomyundertakenin Their book foows Gerad Arbucke's Thé Chatham Isands in Perspective (1970) as thé ony récent attempt to chronice thé socia and économie history of thé Isands. There are however a range ofpubications on thé fora and fauna, and various historica first-person accounts of eary ife on thé Isands. what Arbucke (1970) termed thé "race to thé sea to search for thé new god" - described by King and Morrison as a "crayfish bonanza" which began in 1965 and ended in For exampe in 1964 there were zéro crayfish tonnes anded by commercia fishing boats in thé Chatham's. In 1965, one boat anded 2 tonnes of crayfish, and by thé end of thé financia year, 31 March 1968, 120 boats had anded 5958 tonnes. Crayfish eamings from thé Chatham's had reached $ miion and accounted for just over 50% of thé tota New Zeaand crayfish catch (King and Morrison, 1990, p. 109; Arbucke, 1970, p ). As crayfish became increasingy popuar in thé 1960s, many farmers who had previousy spit their time between fishing and farming became fu-time fishermen. Once thé crayfish boom ended, Chatham Isanders found themseves cose to major wet-fish fishing grounds and, with modem vesses, were abe to put to sea for onger periods and catch more fish. As agricuture was on thé wane, fishing appeared to thé Isanders as a way of redressing thé économie side. This trend towards fishing gained greater momentum during thé ate 1980s and by thé eary 1990s, was putting at risk thé financia viabiity of thé Isands' ony meat-works. However, there were cear opportunities in fish processing at thé three major fishprocessing pants on thé Isands at Waitangi, Owenga, and Port Hutt. This race to thé sea was partiay hated by thé introduction offishing quotas in Thé diversification away from agricuture to fishing had, and continues to hâve, aboombust effect on thé oca community. Fishing did not tum out to be thé économie god-mine that many hoped for. Thé désire to make easy money from thé pentifu suppies? g ia. ff

23 of fish that inhabit thé waters around thé Chathams, ony contributed to their économie woes, rather than heping to sove them. An important issue in a remote and poory deveoped tourism ocation such as thé Chatham Isands is thé compétence and abiity of both thé pubic and private sectors to manage thé impacts of Visitation. Unike some other industries, tourism is a highy compex activity resuting from interaction between airines, accommodation providers, tour opérations, surface transportation, souvenirs, food and beverage outets and tour guides. This compexity is compounded by thé critica différence that tourism brings thé consumer to thé product and not thé reverse. Effectivey ai compications, déprédations, management errors and impacts occur at thé point of deivery which is aways thé destination. In addition, a destination needs to suppy products and services that hep create thé tourist expérience generating jobs and business opportunities whie so doing. Thé destination aso needs to find ways of mitigating thé négatives that may incude poution, crime and, frequenty in remote ocations, inadéquate service provision. In remote ocations such as thé Chatham Isands such activities aso take pace without an adéquate income to meet thé fu cost of services. In more cases than ever before, destinations are chaenging thé rights of tourists to consume services and products without paying a fair and équitabe fée for those services and products. Many destinations are seeking a soution that offers deveopment whist maintaining quaity of ife, species diversity and préservation of héritage and cuture. On thé whoe, this process is being effected by a 'bottom up' approach to thé tourism industry, meaning that new tourism opérations on thé Chathams are being estabished without any rea coordmating activity or référence to thé existing payers in thé market. Sti, a coordinated approach between thé différent stakehoders appears to be in thé offing. In thé eary 1990s, Chatham Isanders were faced with a diemma. Thé Isanders had over-fished their waters and under-resourced thé and. As a resut, as many Isanders tod us, thé income fi-om fishing was not enough to sustain their famies. With a decrease in fishing income and negect of thé and, scrub had begun to take over vast areas vemment had decided that, apreviousy deforested and gras ough they favoured a commerand. Formany, thismeantthataia mode for thé Isands, they income derived from agricutiyoud hâve preferred a LATE, was aso poor. On top of thfloca authority Trading Enterpriprobems that appeared to threaie) rather than thé tmst envisaged thechathamisanders'verywayy Nationa which was even furife, thesocio-poiticareformsiher removed fi-om oca authority were underway in New Zeaand;ontro. On 23 May 1990, thé Mithé eary 1990s were about to maister of Internai affairs for Labour, their présence fet on thé Isan^IargaretAustin, hadaddressedthe As thé Minister of Internai Affdouse in repy to a question regarreported to a séect committeeing thé Chatham Isands: Pariament on 16 October 1991; «Thé Govemment has re- «I am aso peased to coniicenty aimounced comprchensive comments made that décisions about thé Chatham Is- Govemment bas set up a nands economy. They arc based on stmcturethatwi change thé wb:he principe that Chatham Isanfuture of thé Chatham Isandsers shoud hâve greater invoverefer to thé new Chatham Isa^ent and responsibiity in deter- Tmst'» (Hansard, 1991). Tiining their overa deveopment. \ commercia entity known as thé That same day thé Minisoca authority trading enterprise added: wi be estabished to carry out ;ommercia functions, incudmg «Thé Chatham Isands Cowhe provision of shipping and air Counci wi hâve a mipervices» ownership and manageimproved opportunity in thé futment of Govemment department to discharge its duties directy aassets - such as thé meatworks resutof a new package ofdecisic- and some existing commercia that wi affect markedy thé futctivities of thé Chatham Isands oftheisands. IamrefemngtoPounty Counci. It has aso been estabishment on December odecided that he shipping service new commercia tmst that wi tawi11 continue to be subsidised unti aver thé commercia activities31 December z 990. Thé air service thé Isands, such as thé meatworsubsidy wiu end on 30 June 1990, thé airport, and thé wharves md the meafrworks wi be transthings that in thé past hâve provferred to the ca authority trading difficut to manage. Under PnterPrise on z June 1991». auspices ofthis new tmst beie that thé Chatham Isands ï The events that ed both moveinto a timeof économie sctnmsters to thèse concusions sufficiency and independencfwere embodied in a séries of go- (Hansard, 1991 ). vernment-sponsored reports on thé infi-astmcture and oca goveman- Thé Minister, Grae^e ofthe Isands. This process was Lee, was part of thé new Natioistarted in 1985 with a etter from govemment Thé prevïous aboi eter Tapse, thé Minister ofnter- ^a Affairs, to ai househoders on Hansard, Report of thé Séect Committee, C tham Isands County Counci (Rates and Count)e L;ÛathamS which OUtined thé Dues Vaidation) Bi 16 Oct Hansard, Report of thé Séect Committee, cpeters;^-^. ue^tionso.inotice; Mai" speaker Dr tham Isands County Counci (Rates and Count!^^ù Pson> Responding speaker Hon Margaret Dues Vaidation) Bm.Y.30pm, T60cU99L ''ust1"' Question n' 23 May décisions made in an options paper dated 8 May Among thé points raised. Péter Tapse informed Isanders that a review team woud be estabished to "consider whether thé existing centra and oca govemment administration arrangements and services are appropriate, and indicate ways such arrangements coud be deivered more effectivey and efficienty" (Options Paper, 1985, p. 2). Thé etter carried a cear indication that Tapse at east did not beieve that thé services then being provided were efficient or effective. Thé options paper further outines thé govemment's intention to foow thé ideoogy of économie rationaism in regards to centra or oca govemment invovement in business opérations. Paragraph 14 reads: "If deveopments [i. e., business opérations] cannot stand thé test of économie soundness then hard questions hâve to be asked about thé wisdom ofgovemment supporting such deveopments" (Options Paper, 1985, p. 4). Thé review team, a consortium headed by a pubic poicy research firm Tayor Baines and Associâtes, tabed thé first ofmany reports that they had been asked to undertake, in In thé opening pages of thé review it was made cear that in tenus of économie deveopment it woud be thé neo-ibera poices of thé Labour govemment that were to be considérée by Tayor Baines as thé appropriate mode for fùturc économie deveopment on thé Chatham Isands: 2 Department of Internai Affairs (1986), Chatham Isands Review Team Report to thé Minister of Intema Afifairs, Weington, Department of Internai Affairs. This was foowed by two fiirther reports, Review of thé Chatham Isands Economy Fina Report in September 1989 and Report on thé Foowup visit to thé Chatham Isands by thé Review Team, October (1989). "As far as thé Isands' economy is concemed thé decisionmaking is fundamentay thé responsibiity of private individuas. This wi resut in changes to thé Chatham Isand's economy. This wi mean a Chatham Isand version of thé stmctura adjustments seen in thé mainand economy since 1984" (Tayor Baines, 1986, p. 3). Whie thé writing for futurc deveopment was very ceary on thé wa, it is aso cear that not ai thé Isanders favoured a Chatham's version of thé structura changes enacted on thé mainand. Thé report itsef makes this cear when discussing thé reuctance of thé Isanders to engage in owneroperated business for fear ofbeing seen by their feow Isanders as expoitative (p. 21). This sentiment was expressed again by thé review team in thé foow-up to thé fina report in October 1989, where they state that "our reading of thé counci's overa response is that it had not at this stage totay accepted thé process of change" (p. 3). They aso acknowedged that it may be difficut to impose reforms as a resut cfa fùndamenta ack of faith in them on thé Isands, and that there was a rea risk that thé reforms woud be compromised. Nevertheess, thé concusions that thé review team reported to thé Department of Internai affairs were predictabe and were to hâve far-reaching conséquences for thé administration of infi-astmchire and oca govemment on thé Isands. Thé review team advocated that thé proposée reforms were in thé best interests of thé Isanders and woud aow them to achieve sef-reiance and maximise their choices (Fina Report S eptember, 1989, p. i-iii). In Une with thé business and govemment thinking of r g ia. ^ 43

24 thé day - that managers shoud hâve cear and non-conficting objectives, and that commercia and non-commercia activities be separated - thé review team recommended thé estabishment ofa stmcture that woud itsef embody thé commitment to reform. They argued that thé privatisation of commercia activities woud create a more effective and efficient approach to management of thé Isands' infrastructura opérations and subsequenty ead to greater économie deveopment. Starting from thé notion that commercia activities require commercia structures (as opposed to govemment structures), thé review team put forward a pan for reorganisation invoving thé estabishment of a Chatham Isand Community Deveopment Corporation which they beieved woud ater become a Loca Authority Trading Enterprise or LATE. At that time there were severa oca and centra govemment owned and operated business units incuding a meatworks, eectricity génération and reticuation, forest interests, airports and wharves. It was intended that thé Community Deveopment Corporation woud take over thé administration and ownership of thé meatworks, fishing quota, eecfa-icity, forestry, wharves and airports (Fina Report. Sept 1989, p. ix), It is teing that roading, thé ony govemment opération to remain in counci hands, was considered to be thé ony opération not capabe of retuming profits. Both thé centre eft Labour and thé centre right Nationa govemments of thé day acted on thé recommendations made by thé vanous reports on thé restmcturing of thé Chatham Isands' administration. Labour envisagea a oca govemment owned LATE, whereas Nationa envisagea a private Trust. It utimatey fe to Nationa to estabish thé Chatham Isand Enteqîrise Trust. Thé review team strongy beieved that private enterprise and market priées woud ead thé Chatham Isanders out of économie uncertainty, and to this end suggested a framework for estabishing a tmst. However, in order to ensure that thé Isands' infrastmcture was managed effectivey and efficienty, thé review team aso suggested that "ministeria invovement in thé appointment of commercia members of thé Chatham Isand Community Deveopment Corporation board shoud ensure commercia competence" (Fina Report, September 1989, p. 45). This is an interesting statement given thé space thé review team had devoted to ensuring that govemment was not invoved in commercia activity - on thé basis that govemment did not understand commercia imperatives. Thé Current Situation This ongoing exposure to both oca-govemment and economic reforms beginning in ate 1984 has embroied thé Chatham Isands in an économie, socia and poitica crisis that brought oca govemment on thé Isands cose to coapse. After 1991, foowing thé govemment-sponsored Tayor Bainés report, things changea on thé Chatham Isands. At thé start there was thé émergence of a new power broker, thé Chatham Isands Enterprise Tmst. This in tum ed to a rapid adoption of thé New Zeaand interprétation of thé New Pubic Management phiosophies current at thé time. On thé Chathams, thé séparation of thé poicy and operation arms of oca govemment was embraced by thé poicymakers, if not thé citizens, with enthusias In order to estabish thé However, initia appearances frust on a sound financia footing, be deceptive. Not ai thé citizçhe govemment gifted thé Trust an ofthechathamisandswereinnitia $4 miion, with a simiar vour of thé reforms that took pamount to foow after two years' on their territory. Nevertheess îperation. This gift is recorded m December 1991, thé operatiche Récitais of thé 1991 Tmstdeed of centra and oca govemnifeproduced beow: that were perceived to be capa of providing an économie prc A. Thé Govemment of were earmarked for transfer to^ew Zeaand bas resoved to estatrading trust. In a deed of trust i&ish a tmst for Charitabe purpoted December 1991 thé Minisses to be caed thé Chatham Isand of Internai Affairs, acting as (Enterprise Tmst and to pay to thé settor, and four tmstees, set upffrust thé sum of four miion do- Chatham Isand Enterprise Tnars and to transfer to Companies (thé Tmst) as a charitabe truowned by thé Tmst certain Crown Thé main intention of incorpoiassets and undertakings reating to tion was to enabe thé Trust to^he méat works, eecta-icity suppy off to a good start unencumbeiand airport in thé Chatham Isanby debt. Thé Tmst was to own tds. opérations spécifiée for thé bene B- The Govemment and économie deveopment oftpay make a forther payment of Chatham Isands peope. Four Miion Doars to thé Tmst as an addition to thé corpus of thé Atthetimeofitsfoundiitrust fund on December 1992 in 1991, thé aims of thé Trust wcsubject to thé Tmst demonstrating thé advancement of commercito the satisfaction ofthe Settor that activity eading to économie dt s managing its resources comveopment that woud benefit ipetenty and that its businesses are thé Isanders. However, by 19(OPeratmg on a sound basis (Deed thé notions ofbest practice, coioftrust 1991'P- 4). mercia opportunity and a interprétation of pubic entrepi neurship began to take over. Th In addition, thé Tmst was over time, thé opérations managfdirccted by Ae govemment to set who was thé day-to-day managup imited iabiity companies to of thé Tmst, came to see her j(run these opérations. Within thé not as ooking after thé intereststmst deed' the govemment's intenthé Isanders, but rather as a coiton to rcmove commercia activimercia manager who identififtesfromtheocacounciismade with thé private sector and, as expucit, particuary m thé cause resut, was conceraed to advauwhere Ae Trust is enjoined "to thé commercia rather than interests of thé Trust. This attitude rcmained procure the sae» transfer, ease or icence to a company owned by thé Tmst of assets faciities and rights atpresent enjoyed by thé Chatham ate 2003 when a new manger ^!,sands County Counci reating to appointée. Even then at east of the wharf and faciities at Waitangi member of thé five power boc and Fower Pott in thé Chatham reported that thé Enterprise ïaûds (1991, c ). Thé trust was nothing more than an ass u^e(was ater (1995) amended to manager. ow the frustees to se shares in thèse previousy pubicy owned organisations. In signing this agreement, thé govemment and thé tmstees effectivey separated thé poicy arm and thé operating arm ofoca govemment on thé Chatham Isands. This séparation and apparent embracing of thé ideas of thé New Pubic Management has never been enacted so competey in any other New Zeaand oca authority. Thé earier économie reports on thé Chathams, thé wording of thé tmst deed and subséquent variations to thé Tmst ai indicate that successive govemments were firm in their désire to impose reform on thé Isanders. However, it wi be recaed that thé report on thé review team's foow-up visit to thé Isands indicated unwiingness by some Isanders to accept thé reforms as présentée. Thé remainder of this artice is based on interviews with thé mayor, thé chief executive officer of thé counci thé opérations manager of thé Tmst, thé CEO of thé Moriori Tmst, and thé owners of significant tourism opérations on thé Isands. Thé foowing anaysis emphasises thé strongy hed beief of those outside oca govemment that managers of oca-govemment-owned business opérations, and by extension oca govemment empoyées, are not, thé appropriate vehices, or peope to champion économie deveopment, and further, such empoyées and organisationa structures cannot be, entrepreneuria. It is this tendency that has created confict between thé participants on thé Isand who beieve that they hâve a rôe to pay in économie deveopment. Such tendencies hâve aso contributed to a certain eve of "patch protection" that has made it difficut for a co ordained community based response to économie deveopment to take pace. Thé Mayor We asked thé Mayor how thé Chatham Isands District Counci manages counci-owned business opérations and, most importanty, how it opérâtes business concems that reate to thé Isands' infrastructure. In response, thé mayor went to some engths to demonstrate his support for thé infrastructura changes that had happened in thé Chatham Isands since thé reformation of oca govemment. In his words, thé "counci does not run a business, thé counci was restmctured to be a reguatory body and as mayor am conscious that thé wishes of thé community be uphed". This statement signaed that, however divided thé review team considered thé counci to be in 1989, 10 years after thé introduction of thé reforms thé mayor is in strong support. His sentiments bring him into direct confict not ony with thé C.E.O. of thé Chathams Isand Counci but, by supporting thé direction taken by thé Tmst, pit him against woud-be private sector entrepreneurs on thé Chatham Isands, as we wi see. When questioned further about thé Trust, thé mayor again was quite forcefu in expaining that thé Tmst benefits thé Isands in ways that thé counci coud never do. Thé Mayor saw thé Tmst as a symbo of community invovement and community contro aver infrastructura assets. For exampe, he tod us that rather than estabish a LATE - which he saw as a govemment-owned business vehice - it was considered more appropriate for thé Chathams to hâve a charitabe tmst which woud contro thé infrastmctura assets for thé community. (His faith in thé Trust coud be seen as thé resut of an historica accident as, ifit were not for Nationa wing &. oi 45

25 ning thé 1990 éection, it is ikey that thé Chathams woud hâve had a LATE rather than a trust.) Thé mayor's support for thé existing trust refected a strong beief that rea business opérations can ony exist outside thé contro of thé pubic sector. Again, in his words: "thé peope [individuas outside thé pubic sector] need to create assets and add vaue - it is through business management that créâtes thé opportunity." Thèmes that emerged during this conversation served to reinforce a paradigm that was emerging from our interviews with other oca govemment actors regarding business assets and oca govemment. That paradigm expressed by thé mayor of thé Chathams was that oca govemment managers coud not, and shoud not, mn business opérations. His assertion that "thé Counci wi not and shoud not own power generation" ony adds weight to this assumption. Thé rea contribution that thé mayor was abe to offer thé community was thé active support he expressed for individuas seeking to gain private ownership of previousy pubic assets. In co-operating with thé New Zeaand govemment's push to uncoupe thé reguatory and deivery functions of oca councis, thé Chatham Isands Counci, in tandem with thé Ministry of Interna Affairs', has effectivey removed assets estimated by thé Tmst's opérations manager to be now worth $25 miion from pubic, to essentiay private hands. There is however a postscript that needs to be added. For whie expressing peasure that "thé community" now owned and mana Thé meatworks, eectricity, and forestry were formery controed by thé Ministry of Internai Affairs. ged thé infrastmctura assets, thé mayor aso expressed concem that thé counci was unabe to provide adéquate socia services to thé community because it acked funds and, more importanty, acked thé abiity to générae funds. However, despite thèse shortcomings, thé mayor convinced us that he fùy supportée thé notion ofcommunity entrepreneurship, as ong as such entrepreneuria activities were not undertaken by thé counci. Thé thème that pubic servants are not business peope and ack manageria skis was repeated by both thé mayor and thé opérations manager of Thé Trust. Yet thé C. E. O. of thé counci at that time was a dissenting voice. Within five minutes of opening our discussion with him, thé C. E.O. wondered aoud: "Just et thé counci hâve one major asset..." Thé Enterprise Trust In terms ofpaid empoyées, thé Enterprise Tmst was indeed a mirror image of thé counci. Like thé counci, thé Tmst empoys a fu-time manager, a fu-time cerk, and a part-time office person. Chatham isands Aeria view TheTmstisocatedappro This image was continued matey ten minutes' drive frorn roughout oiu- discussions. Afmain settement of Waitangi, <er being escorted into thé boaris near thé eectricity generatroom, we began oiu- session with for thé Isand. Unike thé counhe minimum offormaities. There whichwashousedinanodandwere times during thé discussion mewhat dark buiding, thé Tru.vhen we fet that thé manager was housedmamodem, we-appoimedging, somewhat suspicious of suite of offices. Thé manager our intentions. Amost certainy cupies an office offthe main fooer defensiveness was a réaction and had thé use of a purpose-biigainst some probing questions reboardroom. In contrast, thé ogarding thé choice of commercia authority at he time we meet wctivities undertaken by thé Tmst. them had no meeting room a counci meetings werehed in t Thé opérations manager office of thé C. E. O. As ifto maopened thé discussion with a very it cear that thé Tmst was mnninbriefremark about thé origins of thé rea business, thé manager had»trust and offered her interprétation own car park (thé Chatham Isanofits purpose. She reated that thé are not known for traffic congftrust had been "set up in 1991 aftion), and it was made knownteragovemmentreviewoftheserus that her secretary organised ivice provision to thé Isands. That day for her. review strongy recommended thé estabishment of thé Trust. " She Thé manager gave thé ^eary had a différent understanofbeing very busy, to thé point ttding of service provision from thé we werc made to wait five minutcounci C. E. O. For thé opérations in thé pubic area, despite arriviimanager' service provision seemed on time for thé appointment, whito be resfa-icted to thé commercia she finished some paperwork. S'activities that the Trust had inheriwanted to show that, athough sted- This beiefwas reinforced for was on thé Chathams, she stme during Ae interview when she woudbehaveasareacommerc'refe Ted to the Trust maintaming manager who was making time the Isands "in basic services, " and her hectic schedue for acadeiithat "maintaining an infrastmcture researchers. for thé community" was thé prime function of thé Tmst. She reinfored this posture by saying that "We e an infrastmctura company." Fhe use of thé term "company" was tmctive. It was as ifshe was enunng that we understood that we ère deaing with a company, not pubic organisation. It is aso noabe that she appeared to distance oth hersef and thé originators of he Tmst from any kind ofpoitica nvovement by assuring me that govemment had recommended estabishment of thé Tmst. We concuded that thé exists, because thé govemment wished it to exist. Once it came into being, it was ony natura that it be run aong rationa manageria ines for, according to thé opérations manager, it was a company and woud be operated ike any company shoud. Thé poitica context of thé govemment's recommendations seemed not to hâve been considered by thé manager. Thé justification for thé estabishment of thé Tmst was summed up by thé manager in her statement that "in thé first year thé Trust went from a serions oss-making company to a make-money company; when it [thé various business opérations that now make up thé Tmst] was mn by thé Govemment it was a oss-making operation. " Hère again, thé opérations manager appeared to differentiate between thé Tmst and thé counci by thé use of thé terms "company" and "opération", regarding thé Trust as a company and therefore a business, whie an "opération" is something that beongs to thé counci. However, it must be remembered that thé Tmst was not ony entrusted with thé Isands' infrastructure but was aso given $8 miion to enabe it to operate. It is worth considering what might hâve happened had thé govemment given thé $8 miion doars to thé Chatham Isands District Counci. It is cear that thé manager saw thé Tmst not ony as a business, but aso as a money-making proposition, athough she gave no indication that she was panning to utiise thé fùnds gained through thé commercia activity of thé Tmst for socia purposes. We détectée an éément of manageria egitimacy in thé manager's words and stated beiefs. She appeared to identify with thé constmct of private-sector management and to seek egitimacy by being associated with thé institution of professiona managers through espousing profit-driven motives. We were interested in how thé opérations manager deat with thé issue of being empoyée by a community organisation - as administrator of a company that was given pubic assets in order to provide for thé community1 whie - at thé same time, giving thé impression she was empoyée by a private organisation. No doubt that, however pubic those assets may once hâve been, for her at east those assets were now hed firmy in private hands. She tod us, very firmy, that "we are not a oca govemment organisation; we must be quite cear about that. It's [thé Tmst] not a oca govemment organisation. It is a commercia venture, set up as a charitabe tmst; we hâve no affiiation with any oca govemment or organisation at ai." Again, we noted thé use of différent terms for private and pubic sector activities. She was, however, mistaken in caiming that she had no affiiation with any oca govemment organisation. Thé accounts of thé Chatham Isand Enterprise Tmst are required to be audited by Audit New Zeaand and presented to thé Department of Internai Afifairs each year. Thé manager of thé Tmst ceary did not see that her organisation coud be mistaken - if not for a oca govemment opération - then possiby for an organisation that reports to centra govemment. Thé first object of thé Tmst, which is detaied in section 3. 1 (a) of thé origina Trust deed 1991, is To promote thé économie deveopment and webeing of thé Chatham Isands in thé interests of thé présent and future inhabitants of thé Chatham Isands. There are 7 further objects isted in section 3., ai ofwhich end with thé statement "in thé interests of thé présent and future inhabitants of thé Chatham Isands"? g &. e- 53

26 This séparation of pubic and private domains became important when thé opérations manager tumed to discussing how thé Tmst actuay benefited thé peope of thé Chatham Isands. As we hâve akeady seen, thé Trust was set up to make a retum to thé community. was interested in discovering thé nature of that retum, as was my coeague whose main reason for visiting thé Chathams was to encourage tourism business and coegiaity among tourism operators. As far as thé Tmst was concemed, both of thèse aspects were outside their sphère of interest, even though they coud ceary benefit thé Isands. Thé Tmst did not want to know about oca interest in estabishing any kind of tourism business. This reuctance to become invoved in tourism is hard to understand, given that thé Tmst operates thé ony seaed airport on thé Chathams. However, despite oca support for tourism growth, thé mayor of thé Chathams, a strong supporter of Thé Trust, did not want to see "forty or fifty peope just waking around thé Isand." Perhaps this was because investment in tourism woud take money away from areas in which thé Trust had become heaviy committed, particuary thé forestry and hydroeectric deveopments in which it was invoved. It was during our discussions on community feedback and community invovement that my coeague and detected most discomfort. In retrospect it was not hard to see why. At thé time of our visit, thé Tmst was investing money in an offshore forestry deveopment, buying fishing quota and conù-ibuting funds to thé estabishment of both a meatworks and a hydro dam project. When asked if thé Tmst woud be prepared to provide seed money for woud-be entrepreneurs in tounsm, thé operations manager tod us that "we are not mto venturc capita" and that "thé Tmst needed to ensure its funds were avaiabe to ai sectors of thé Chatham Isands." Thèse two statements merit fùrther considération. If thé Tmst was not "into venturc capita", why was it fiinding dams, meatworks and fishing quota? Two of thé prime objectives of thé Trust are "to promote thé provision of services in thé interests of thé présent and future inhabitants of thé Chatham Isand, " (Object 3. 1 (b), Deed of Tmst, 1991) and "to encourage and oversee thé provision of transport services and faciities to and from thé Chatham Isands in thé interests of thé Community" (Object 3. 1 (d), Deed of Tmst, 1991). If thé Tmst is there to support ai sectors of thé Chathams community, why wi it not support tourism? At a pubic meeting caed to discuss tounsm opportunities, it was suggested by a number of participants that thé Trust did not see tourism as its business and therefore saw itte benefit in becoming invoved'. Thé comments of thé counci C. E. O. on thé socia benefits achieved from tuming an $8 miion business into a $25 miion business seemed very pertinent at this point. Thé socia improvements on thé Isand were hard to find - but, as far as thé opérations manager was concemed, socia benefits were not what thé Tmst was about. It was a commercia opération that woud be mn "efificienty, effectivey and within budget." It was as ifshe had interpreted thé phrase "in thé interests of thé community" in a very narrow way - in a purey rationa, économie manner. It apeared that thé Trust supportée bu Witshier, P. and Cardow, A. (2001) Pubic Meeting of Chatham Isands Visiter Industries Stakehoders Group Feedback Report (Auckand, Unitec Institute oftectmoogy), p. 2. siness ony ifit benefited thé Ti When asked where thé ope profits had gone and how they been spent, thé manager assurée that they had been invested for ong-term benefit of thé Cha Isands. However, she did not any exampes of such ong-tf mvestments. Thé terms "commère "efficient" and "effective" e up frequenty in discussions thé managers spoken to as p this study. They appeared to re thèse terms as thé antithesis of anguage used to characterise oca and centra govemment msations. Concusion Chatham -^r^ v-iew In terms of thé poitica context, thé reforms on thé Chatham Isands affecting thé ownership of infrastructure hâve moved further than any other region in New Zeaand in divorcing reguatory and operationa deivery. However, as suggested Thé Chatham Isand Entiabove' such distancing may ead prise Tmst, it coud be argued, to socia disadvantage as rationaan exampe of neo-ibera ecobist commercia activity is seen by mie rationaism taken to extreimanagers as their paramount purengths. In tenus of confomii smt-this was most apparent in thé with thé institutiona norms ofnvoices Aat my coeague and I, as nagement, thé opérations managrcsearchers» heard from those who of thé Tmst ampy demonstratiwanted to estabish tourism ventuher identification withthose nom rcs on the Isands. Thèse prospec- She is equippedwith aboardroortve operators suggested that they a car park and a secretary, and sicoud both provide jobs for themkeeps peope waiting whie it seves and contribute to thé growth portant matters are attended to. of the community. Finay, thé terms of organisationa survivi C-E- - of thé counci compained she wi invest in commercia athat' whie he wanted to provide tivity in order to ensurc econof mproved socia services, due to viabiity. Both she and thé may a ack of revenue-generating busiappear to beieve that counci ff ness controed by counci he was nagers cannot mn a business. V unabe to find the funds to do so. hâve seen that thé mayor suggestt that counci shoud not be invc ved in business and, according A sma postscript needs to added to this discussion. Since thé opérations manager, ony op we uidertook thé interviews a new rations that are "commercia" a counci CEO has been appointed run "efficienty and effective)aad a new Opérations Manager for can be considered entrepreneuri^the Trust has been appointed. Thé CEO of thé counci is now attempting to draw thé community together utiising thé vehice of tourism for économie deveopment. However thé Counci CEO is sti faced with poitica and économie difficuties. Thé Enterprise tmst is sti seen as thé "natura" pace for économie deveopment and there is a decining rating base. However thé CEO has managed to broker doser poitica ties among thé power centres on thé Isands. Perhaps there is a sea change taking pace. Références Arbucke, G. (1970) Thé Chatham Isands in Perspective. Weington, Hicks Smith and Sons Limited Brent-Ritchie J.R. (1999) Poicy Formuation at thé Tourism/Environment Interface: Insights and Recommendations from thé Banff-Bow Vaey Study. Journa oftrave Research, 38(2) Cai, L. (2002) Coopérative branding for rura destinations. Annas of tourism research 29 (3) Department of Internai Affairs (1986), Chatham Isands Review Team Report to thé Minister of Internai Afifairs, Weington, Department of Internai Affairs. Department of Internai Affairs (1989), Review of thé Chatham Isands Economy Fina Report in September Department of Internai Affairs (1989) Report on thé Foow-up visit to thé Chatham Isands by thé Review Team, October (1989). Community Deveopment Report - Fina Report (1989) Hansard, (1990) Questions on Notice. Question number 12. Hansard, (1991) Report of séect Committee, 16 Oct Chatham Isands County Counci (Rates and County Dues Vaidation) Bi: report of Internai affairs and oca govemment commrttee. Inskeep, E. (1991) Tourism Panning: An Integrated & Sustainabe Tourism Approach. Van Nostrand Reinhod: New York oannides, D. & T. Petersen (2003). Tourism non entrepreneurship in periphera destinations: a case study of sma and medium tourism enterprises on Bomhom, Denmark. Tourism geographies 5(4) Joifife. L (2003) Cutura rura tourism évidence from Canada. Annas of Tourism Research. 30, 2, King, M. & R. Momson (1990) A Land Apart: Thé Chatham Isands of New Zeaand. Random House: Genfied NZ. MacDonad R. & L. Joiffe (2003) Cutura rura tourism: Evidence from Canada. Annas oftourism Research, 30 (2): Mitche, R & D. Reid (2001) Community intégration Isand tourism in Pem. Annais oftourism Research 28,, Tapse, P. (1985) Options Paper on Chatham Isands, Weington, Ministoy of Intema Affairs TayorBaines and Associâtes (1989) Report on thé Foow up visit to thé Chatham Isands by thé review team October. Weington, Dept of Internai AfFairs Tayor Baines and Associâtes, and Lincon Internationa (1989) Review of thé Chatham Isands Economy, Commissioned by thé Départaient of Internai Affairs on Behaf of thé Ministeria Committee on thé Chatham Isands, Christchurch, Tayor Baines and Associaes. September Reed, M. (1997) Power reations and community based tourism panning. Annas of Tourism Research, 24, 3, Scheyvens, R. (1999) Case study: Ecotourism and thé empowerment of oca communities. Tourism Management 20 (2), Witshier, P. and Cardow, A. (2001) Pubic Meeting ofchatham Isands Visitor Industries Stakehoders Group Feedback Report Auckand, Unitec Institute of Technoogy Woodey, A. (1993). Tourism & sustainabe deveopment: Thé community perspective. In J.G. Neson, R. Buter, and G. Wa (eds.) Tourism and Sustainabe Deveopment: Monitoring, Panning, Managing (pp ). Wateroo: Héritage Resources Centre, University of Wateroo.? g &. t 49

27 Mata, May 2006 ^ ri - ^^' (F--» A. G'- Ls)' S. û..^ by Eugenio Yunis, Head of thé Sustainabe Deveopment oftourism Department Word Tourism Organization.UNWVfi. ttmt. NÏH8TO I,. n spite ofterrorism, natura disasters, heath scares, oi priée rises, exchange rate fuctuations and économie and poitica uncertainties -just some of thé issues facing thé tourism industry in 2005-, intemationa tourist arrivais wordwide béat ai expectations ast year, achieving an a-time record of 808 miions arrivais. Internationa tounsm receipts reached aso a record in 2005: around 680 biion USD according to thé preiminary forecast. Thé isands' share in terms of internationa tourist arrivais is not easy to cacuate, since intemationa data do not incude tourists ù-aveing to isands that are part ofa continenta country. However, when considering sma isand states, many of them hâve witnessed strong growth rates in their tourist arrivais since 1990, incuding Cape Verde, Mauritius, Dominican Repubic, Cuba, Brunei, to name but a few. This refects thé strong attractiveness that isands hâve aways produced on traveers. In économie terms, tourism receipts in many sma isand states represent a substantia proportion of service experts (up to 90% m countries ike Bahamas, Domimcan Repubic and Madives). Besides, in some SIDS, given thé trans-sectora nature of tourism, it has been increasingy utiized as a catayst for thé deveopment of agricuture, fisheries, handicrafts and other industries and services. In an industry as competitive as tourism, and with beach tourism fonning a considérabe segment, isands hâve been extremey active in capitaizing on thé economie benefits derived from tourism, often forgetting thé potentia socia and environmenta impacts. One spécifie trend that is currenty taking pace in many isand destinations is thé rapid deveopment of émise tourism. This segment offers gréât advantages for sma isands with a rcduced hôte capacity, aowing them to benefit from bigger tourist fows without deveoping a heavy accommodation infrastructure. However, in isands where a substantia hôte capacity aready exists, émise tourism can aso become a négative éément generating more damage, in économie and environmenta terms, than benefits to thé oca ISM ORGANIZATi economy. Thé case of émise tourism iustrâtes thé compexity of making tourism more sustainabe in isands. It is notjust about controing and managing thé potentia négative socio-cutura and environmenta impacts of thé industr Toiirism is in a very spécia pos tion to benefit oca communitie economicay and sociay, andt raise awareness and support f( thé conservation of thé enviroi ment. Within thé tourism secte économie deveopment and env ronmenta protection shoud m be seen as opposing forces - thé shoud be pursued hand in handi aspirations that can and shoud t mutuay reinforcing. Poicies ai actions must aim to strengthen tt benefits and reduce thé costs ( tourism. Massive growth is prédit ted for tourism in thé forthcomiii years, providing exceent oppoi tunities for spreading prosperit in deveoping countries, incudii SIDS, and aso in depressed or iso ated areas of deveoped nation' but at thé same time presentiii considérabe chaenges and poten tia threats to thé environment af oca communities if not we ni1 naged. For instance, cimate chai ge is recognised as a major gobi issue, with significant impicatio» for tourism, especiay m isaf<< Simiary, sustainabe forms ofto" rism can be strategicay importai for preserving déicate ecosysteb1 and biodiversity, providing a tainabe form of économie use opposed to more aggressive industria activities. There is aso an increasmg appréciation of thé potentia rôe of tourism in addressing ord poverty, through bringing a ource of income and empoyment o thé heart of some of thé poorest ommumties. It is true that most of thé pacts oftourism are thé resut of étions taken by private sector enerprises and by tourists themseves. However, there is a cear need or govermnents to take a eading oe if truy significant progress is o be achieved in making tourism more sustainabe. There are a number of reasons that justify pubic, govemmenta action in thé tourism sector: Thé tourism industry is very fragmented. It is difficut for thé individua actions of many micro, sma and médium sized businesses to make a positive difference and coordination is required; such coordination is normay provided, or at east stimuated by govemments. Isands hâve an advantage in tenns of coordination, since their territory is often sma. Sustainabiity reates to areas of pubic concem, such as thé quaity of air and water, natura and cutura héritage, protected areas, pubic spaces such as beaches, and thé quaity of ife in généra, ai of which reate to tourism in one way or another. Moreover, many of thèse resources and a good number oftourism attractions (such as muséums, archaeoogica sites, air- Ports, etc) are generay managed by govemments. Govemments hod many of the toos that can be used to make a différence - such as thé power to ;, make réguations and ensure compiance, thé offer of econoinic incentives, fisca measurcs, as We as thé resources and institutions to promote and dissemmate od practices. Govemments shoud provide an environment that enabes and encourages thé private sector, tourists and other stakehoders to respond to sustainabiity issues. This can best be achieved by estabishing and impementing a set of poicies for tourism deveopment and management, drawn up in concert with others, poicies that pace sustainabiity at its centre. And, if thé principes of sustainabe deveopment focus on oca détermination and impementation of poicies and actions, this shoud be paced within a supportive nationa poicy framework. This is why UNWTO and UNEP hâve worked together to produce a set of poicy guideines and toos aimed primariy at govemments, at nationa and oca eve. This work has been pubished under thé tite "Making Tourism more Sustainabe: a Guide for Poicy Makers" and it is aso reevant to internationa deveopment agencies, NGOs and thé private sector to thé extent that they are affected by, and can affect, tourism poicies and their impementation. ^ ^ s ;NU'.: MAKWG TOURISM MORE SUSTAINASLE A G»W«fa, Pofe), MUnn Thé sustainabiity of tourism is an issue of equa importance in both deveoped and deveoping counfa-ies, as we as in big or very sma temtories, incuding isands. However, thé baance ofpnorities may vary between them, and each country shoud adapt or appy with différent emphasis thé poicies and toos recommended to its own particuar circumstances, in tenus of its overa deveopment eve, thé size ofits tourism sector, and especiay thé vision it bas for its own future. In isands, some of thé mam probems encountered are thé foowing: Shortage in waste coection and treatment faciities High import costs due to transport costs Reduced water storage capacity entaiing dry periods and pubic heath probems Increased human density Coasta érosion Etc. Due to their size and their isoation, isands concentrate ai chaenges of sustainabiity when deveoping tourism. Thé UNWTO- UNEP Guide introduces some key pnncipes and an agenda for more sustainabe tourism, framed around thé foowing set of 12 Aims, ai adaptabe to isands specificities:. Economie viabiity: To ensure thé viabiity and competitiveness oftourism enterprises, so that they are abe to continue to prosper and deiver benefits in thé ong term. In sma économies, diversification must be aimed at, in order to reduce dependence on one or two économie activities. Tourism m sma isands shoud be considered as ony one of thé components of, and be fuy integrated into, thé overa sustainabe deveopment of thé isand. Thé objective is to reinforce thé capacity ofisands to face crises that woud normay affect ony some sectors of their economies; M e- 51

28 2. Loca prosperity: To maximise thé contribution of tourism to thé prosperity of thé host destination, incuding thé proportion of visiter spending that is retained ocay. This is about reducing eakages, as we as deveoping inkages in thé oca economy. Isands are prone to économie eakages, but are aso in a spécia geographica position to estabish a better contro on them. 3. Empoyment quaity: To strengthen thé number and quaity of oca jobs created and supported by tourism, incuding thé eve of pay, conditions of service and avaiabiity to ai without discrimination by gender, race, disabiity or in other ways. Sma States hâve often major probems regarding empoyment of oca peope in their deaings with big tourism companies. This is an issue m which internationa organizations and NGOs hâve a cmcia rôe to pay in terms of awareness raising about corporate socia responsibiity. 4. Socia equity: To seek a widespread distribution of économie and socia benefits from tourism throughout thé récipient commumty, incuding improving opportumties, income and services avaiabe to thé poor. 5. Visitor fufiment: To provide a safe, satisfying and fufiing expérience for visitors, avaiabe to ai without discrimination by gender, race, disabiity or in other ways. Visitor satisfaction often refers to thé quaity and authenticity of tourism faciities and infrastructures. In isands, tourism deveopers need to innovate and find oca resources to meet thèse two requirements in order to avoid high imports of foreign goods and provide a oca character to tourism faciities. 6. Loca contro: To engage and empower oca communities in panning and décision taking about thé management and fiiture deveopment of tourism in their area, in consutation with other stakehoders. Ai stakehoders and oca communities shoud be invoved in tourism deveopment and management and reap benefits from tourism. In some sma isands, training and éducation in tourism at high eve has to be reinforced to achieve this aim. 7. Community webeing: To maintain and strengthen thé quaity ofife of oca communities, incuding socia stmctures and access to resources, amenities and ife support Systems, avoiding any form of socia dégradation or expoitation. Sma isands shoud consider not ony thé environmenta but aso thé socio-cutura carrying capacity of thé isand in their tourism poicy and strategy, and thé maximum imits estabished in terms of both, number of tourists and buit infrastmcture, must be respectée by ai stakehoders; 8. Cutura richness: To respect and enhance thé historié heritage, authentic cuture, traditions and distinctiveness ofhost communities. Endémie cutures deveoped in isands represent an incomparabé richness and strong component to diversify thé tourism offer that bas often concentrated in one segment: sun and beach; 9. Physica integrity: To maintain and enhance thé quaity of andscapes, both urban and rurai, and avoid thé physica and visua dégradation of thé environment. Sustainabe tourism in sma isands requires thé deveopment and adoption of aternative buiding designs of tourism faciities, according to thé characteristics of each isand. In addition, ai tourism infrastmcture buiding pans shoud respect a minimum distance from thé coast in order to avoid to contribute to, or to suffer from, coasta érosion; 10. Bioogica diversity: To support thé conservation of naturai areas, habitats and widife, and minimize damage to them. Tourism panning shoud be based on a sound knowedge of thé natura resources of thé isand, aiming aso at their conservation, in particuar avoiding thé introduction of non endogenous species in such fragie ecosy stems; 11. Resource efficiency: To minimize thé use of scarce and nonrenewabe resources in thé deveopment and opération of tourism faciities and services. Deveopment and adoption ofecoefi&ciency and ceaner production stratégies and poicies are required; in particuar, thé use of renewabe energy sources and environmentay sound technoogies shoud be considered in ai buiding construction tourism projects. This aows reducing thé energetic dependence ofisands. 12. Environmenta purity: To minimise thé poution of air, water and and and thé génération of waste by tourism enterprises and visitors. Thé smaer thé isand, thé more important are waste disposai probems. In order to put thèse poicies into practice, thé Guide gives a detaied description ofeeven different and compementary toos: / Measurement instmments: Thèse can be used in determining eves of tourism and impact and keeping abreast of existing or potentia changes: 1. 1, Sustainabiity indicators and monitoring 1. 2, Thé identification tourism imits 2, Command and contro instruments: Thèse are instruments through which govemment is abe to exert strict contro on aspects of, deveopment and opération, ked by égisation: 2. 1, Légisation, réguation and icensing 2.2, Land use panning and deveopment contro 3, Economie instruments: Thèse are about infuencing behavior and impact through financia means and sending signais through thé marketpace: 3. 1, Economie instruments 4, Vountary instruments: Thèse instmments provide frameworks or processes that encourage stakehoders vountariy to abide by sustainabe approaches and practices: 4. 1, Guideines and codes of conduct 4. 2, Reporting and auditmg 4. 3, Vountary certification 5, Supporting instruments: Thèse are instmments through which govemments can directy or indirecty infuence and support enterprises in making their opérations more sustainabe: 5. 1, Infrastructure pro vision and management 5.2, Capacity buiding 5. 3, Marketing and information services To concude, woud ike to refer to two other areas ofwork ofunwto, which are ofreevance to sma isands. Thé first one refers to Indicators ofsustainabe Deveopment for Tourism Destinations. Sound management of tourism requires readiy avaiabe évidence ofchanges m impact aver time, so that adjustments to poicies and actions can be made. Indicators that reate to sustainabiity aims and objectives shoud be estabished to monitor thé condition, performance and impact oftourism. A UNWTO pubication on indicators incudes one section on sma isands, as we as one on coasta zones and one more spécifie on beach destinations. In addition, it deas with many généra sustainabe issues particuary reevant to isands ike accessibiity, eakages, sea water quaity, soft water management, waste management, and use intensity, etc. Finay, nine of thé 25 case studies incuded at thé end of thé guide refer to isands. Thé second area and reated UNWTO pubication woud ike to highight today is Tourism and Cimate Change. We hâve a report prepared in parae with thé orgamzation of thé First Conference on this topic, hed inapri 2003 in Djerba, Tunisia. In two environments which are vita for tourism activities and where tourism is an equay vita component in regiona and oca économies - coasta zones and mountain régions - cimate change puts tourism at risk. Important market changes coud resut. Seaside tourism, especiay in isands, seems ikey to suffer damage from most of thé effects of cimate change, notaby beach érosion, higher sea eves, cora beaching, greater damage from sea surges and storms, and reduced water suppy. Thé Djerba Decaration cas ai tourism stakehoders to address and to adapt to thé adverse effects ofcimate change and to formuate appropriate action pans or stratégies. invite ai Insua ectors to study and hep disseminate thé three main pubications referred. By adapting ai this technica information and ai thèse guideines to thé particuarities ofeach isand destination, nationa and oca authorities, private tourism companies and oca communities can find thé way to enhance tourism benefits, and to reduce poverty in thé poorest isands, whie protecting thé natura environment and cutura héritage. W &.

29 ( iî^ï R Laf a kiometer off thé southem coast ofsingapore's main isand, ies a pace rich in history and beauty which is beginning to attract mterest from both ocas and tounsts aike. With an overa and mass of 5 square kiometers, Sentosa is thé fourth argest in Singapore's archipeago composed of58 isands (excuding thé mam one). Some 70% of thé isand's ive-abe surface is made up of secondaiy pays nima tor iarrots ï and ands.t 3.2 picturesque white Thé isand with a chequered historyw ByAmandine Thomas Sentosa isand has been through a storied past in order to become what it is today. In it's time it has changea names on severai différent occasions depending upon who was currenty occupying thé sma but we paced isand^ Up unti thé year 1830, thé ocas rcferred to it as Puau Panjang ("ong isand"). In an 1828 sketch ofsingapore Isand and its nearest neighbors, thé isand is referred to as Pô. Panjang. Thé Maay name was Puau Beakang Mati, which fa-ansates to thé "Isand (Puau) of Death (Mati) from Behind (Beakang)". One account attributed thé rather ominous name to thé numerous accounts ofmurder and piracy in thé isand's past. A second account daims that during thé ate 1840's an outbreak of disease on thé isand depeted thé majority of thé origina Bugis setters. Athough geographicay we positioned and peasant to thé eye, thé isand bas never seen arge numbers in popuation as thé amount of fertie soi needed to maintain suitabe food suppies has aways eft something to be desired. A miitary past In thé nineteenth century, when thé rapid growth of thé harbor ocated between Sentosa and Singapore's main isand ed to concem over thé protection of oca coa/eserves against enemy attack, pans to fortify thé isand were drawn up by oca administration. Forts were put in pace across thé isand to ensure security and monitor activity. Fort Sioso, Fort Serapong, Fort Connaught, and thé Mount Imbiah Battery being among thé argest of thèse instaations. During thé Second Worid War, thé isand became a British miitary outpost. Then in 1947, after the'japanese occupation, thé isand became thé base of thé ocay enisted First Singapore Régiment of thé Roya Artiery(stSRRA).? It was then disband and its guns dismanted ten years afterwards. Fort Sioso and Fort Serapong foowed suit and became a Cathoic retreat and a Protestant church house respectivey.

30 Fort Cormaught was eft to ruins. In 1967, Puau Beakang Mati became thé home base for thé Singapore Nava Vounteer Force and a host of other miitary centers were set up there incuding Thé Schoo of Maritime Training as we as thé first of Singapore's Nava Médica Centers. Thé big change troduced to safeguard pubic use of thé immédiate sea-front and) and arge parks and roads buit aong thé sea has actuay résutée in many "waterfront" residentia deveopments being ocated over haf a kiometer away from thé shoreine. M<-un F-abar see thé deveopment of thé isand. Since then, some S$420 miion doars in private capita and another S$500 miion in govemment fùnding hâve been put in pace to fiirther enhance thé deveopment thé isand. In 1974 thé Singapore Câbe Car System was buit, making thé connection between Sentosa and Mount Faber. A séries of attractions were subsequenty opened for visitors incuding Fort Sioso, thé Surrender Chamber wax muséum, Musica Fountain, and Underwater Word. Thé causeway bridge has made trave to and from thé isand much more accessibe to singe day visitors coming from thé mainand since being inaugurated in Thé Sentosa Monorai System was opened in 1982 to transport visitors to vanous stations ocated throughout thé isand. Thé ast major transformation began in 2002 with thé impementation ofits atest S$10 biion master pan. Singapore is continuousy reinventing itsefto maintain its compétitive position among thé ever compétitive tourism markets and its récent announcement to attract integrated rcsort deveopments with gaming components in mind wi fùrther enhance its position as a first rate destination in Asia. To reinforce its mark as an entertainment destination, Singapore is aso in thé process of creatmg a tota eisure destination concept ocated at thé southemmost part of thé isand state known as "Thé Sentosa-Harbourfi-ont- Mount Faber Destination". There is aso thé "Sentosa Express" ight rai System which wi seamessy connect Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) raiway to Sentosa. Sentosa isand is among thé Sin- From nature waks to mugapore's argest tourism draws, seums, beaches to uxury hoteïs, attracting both régiona and inter- nothing is overooked... and aïof nationa tourists. Each year, some it enjoyed in thé isand's natura 5 miion visitors cross thé bridge peace and tranquiity. aver thé argest harbor in thé word to be wecomed in thé ever enchanting word ofthis isand paradise. After Singapore acquired its independence, a variety of and récamation projects were carried out to cope with thé coimtry's ever booming popuation. Historicay, thé isand nation has had waterfi-ont dweings - in thé many viage houses set on stits which ined thé shoreine and thé uxurious vias which thé économie éite ofsingapore's pre-war society had buit to dot every corner ofpopuar beachfront. With thé récamation, thé ifestye of thé od sea-front viages and beach-front vias became a thingofthepast. This is especiay tme as deveopers who purchase thé staterecaimed ands wi more often than not buid up to thé highest pemiissibe density, which in tum eads to high rise condominiums. In addition, thé Foreshore Act (in- In thé 1970's, thé govemment opted to take advantage of thé isands ocation and ascetic appea to deveop it into a hoiday resort for oca visitors as we as internationa tourists. In 1972, stemming from a contest organized by thé Singapore Tourist Promotion Board, thé isand was renamed Sentosa, a Maay word meaning "Peace and Tranquiity". Thé Sentosa Deveopment Corporation was formed and incorporated on September Ist 1972 to over- Thé Scntosa Resort Sentosa has been transformed from a miitary backwater into a top fight tourist and ifestye destination in 20 years. More often that not in thé Asian marketpace, deveopers incorporate eisure attractions as part ofa arger rea estate project. Thé Sentosa Resort is among thé exceptions to this rue in that it is first and foremost a ocation deveoped for eisure and tourism instead ofrea estate.

31 By Chet Van Duzer A foatmg isand-can such a thing exist? Surey chunks of thé soid earth on which we stand cannot drift easiy about thé surface of a body of water? But foating isands do indeed exist on six of thé seven continents and sometimes in thé océans between them; they may hâve trees growing upon them, be hundreds of meters across, and support thé weight of humans iving upon them and even of catte grazing upon them. Foating isands are kept buoyant by thé ight spongy tissues of certain aquatic pants, by gases reeased into their soi by decomposing végétation, or by both of thèse forces. Foating isands naturay attracted thé attention of ancient authors, and Piny thé Younger (Epistes 8.20) has eft us an evocative description of thé foating isands in Lacus Vadimonis, now a marshy pond known as Lago di Bassano, Laghetto di Bassano, or Laghetto di Basaneo, on thé bank of thé Tiber about sixty kiometers northofrome: «No boats are aowed on thé ake, as its waters are sacred; but severa foating isands swim about it, covered with reeds, mshes, and whatever other pants thé fertie marshy ground nearby and thé edge of thé ake produce. Each isand has its pecuiar shape and size, but thé edges of ai of them are wom away by their fi-equent coisions with thé shore and one another. They are ai of thé same thickness and buoyancy, for their shaow bases are shaped ike thé hu of a boat. This may be ceary observed from ai sides: thé isands ie haf above and haf beow thé water's surface. Sometimes they custer together and seem to form a itte continent; sometimes they are dispersed by thé shifting winds; at other times, when thé wind fas dead, they foat in isoation. Often a arge isand sais aong with a sma isandjoined to it, ike a ship with its tender, or as if one were striving to out-sai thé other; then again they are ai driven to one spot on thé shore, whose imits they thus advance; and now hère, and now there, they diminish or restore thé area of thé ake, unti at ast they occupy thé center agam and so restore it to its usua size. Sheep, seeking grass, proceed not ony to thé shores of thé ake, but aso upon thèse isands, nor do they perceive that thé ground is mobie, unti, far from thé shore, they are aarmed to find themseves surrounded by water, as though they had been suddeny conveyed and paced there. Afterwards, when thé wind drives them back again, they as itte perceive their retum as their departure.» Piny's observation about thé edges of thé isands being wom away by coision with each other and with thé shore is accurate, for this is a common feature of foating isands in akes, incuding thé gréât foating isands of papyrus in thé akes of thé Upemba Basm, upper Luaaba River, Zaïre; thé foating isands of Orange Lake, Forida, which are being studied by Mark Cark of thé University of Forida; thé foating isands of thé Iberâ Wetands near Corrientes, Argentina, which are being studied by Juan José Neiff of thé Consejo Naciona de Investigaciones Cientificas y Técnicas; thé foating isand in thé Lago di Posta Fibreno southeast of Rome (Fig. ), which is being studied by Laura Casea of thé Università degi studi di Roma "La Sapienza, " and thé foating isands on thé surface of thé Zacatôn sinkhoe in Tamauipas, Mexico (Fig. 2), which hâve yet be thoroughy investigated. Chet Van Duzer, a duate of thé University of Caifbrnia at Berkeey, is a writer in iving Caitomia. He recenty pubished Die book Foating Isands: A Goba BIbiography with Cantor Press, www. cantorpress. com, and aso writes abolit thé history of cartography- Emai: chetv@ao.com Thé foating isand in thé Lago di Posta Fibreno southeast of Rome. sinkhoe in

32 A particuar foating isand in Engand heped scientists reaize thé importance of gases reeased by decomposing végétation to thé buoyancy offoating isands. Derwentwater, a ake in Engand's Lake District, was famous for an intermittent foating isand which ony appeared foowing hot summers, aways in thé same spot (Fig. 3). Some had argued that upweings of water fi-om a stream that fowed into thé ake were what buoyed up thé isand. Victonan scientists took an interest in thé probem, and Jonathan Otey, thé author of a famous guidebook to thé Lake District, took sampes of thé gas trapped in thé isand and determined that gases from thé décomposition of végétation were responsibe for thé isand's rising. A hot summer increases thé rate of décomposition which reeases more gas which makes thé isand, which is actuay a section of thé ake bottom, buoyant enough to rise to thé surface. Foating isands commony rise in newy-fooded réservoirs. If thé area fooded has peaty soi (peaty soi contains decomposing végétation), once thé réservoir is fied certain types of peat on thé bottom of thé réservoir wi becorne buoyant. If thé peat is covered by deep water, thé weight of thé water over it wi hod thé peat to thé bottom, but in shaow parts of thé réservoir, ess than two meters deep or so, this buoyancy can tear sections of peaty soi up from thé bottom of thé réservoir, and they rise to thé surface as foating isands. Thé isand can be coonized by varions pants, incuding trees. In hydroeectric réservoirs thèse isands can cause serious probems ifthey are drawn into thé intake for thé power génération equipment. It is difificut and expensive to remove foating isands from reservoirs, but it is possibe to prevent or mitigate this probem before a réservoir is fooded. By studying thé sois in thé area to be fooded it is possibe to predict which areas woud rise as foating isands, and their rising can be forestaed by oading grave on thèse areas, for exampe, before thé réservoir is fied. Foating isands aso form during foods of thé gréât tropica rivers of thé word when arge masses ofaquatic végétation or chunks of their banks are tom away and carried downriver. Thé Congo in Africa is one such river, and foating isands that came down thé Congo were reported 240 km out to sea from thé river's mouth (see Fig. 4 next page). Foating isands are aso common in thé Sepik River in Papua New Guinea foowing thé monsoon rains. Thé isands are caed "ik ik aisans" in Pidgin Engish, and can be up to 100 meters across with sti-iving trees on them. Thé Rio Paranâ and Rio de a Pata in South America aso generate foating isands-when they food they are fied with foating isands caed camaotes, which are matted masses of water hyacinth. A famous épisode at Convento de San Francisco in Santa Fe, Argentina, which is ocated on thé Rio Paranâ, invoved thé kiing of two friars at thé Convento by a jaguar that arrived on a camaote during a food of thé Paranâ on Apri 18, In thé food of 1905, thé Rio de a Pata at Buenos Aires was covercd with camaotes as far s thé eye coud see, some haf a mie ong and 100 feet wide, others just a few feet in diameter. As they came down thé river thèse isands hit moored ships and tore thé ships om their moorings. And thé isands brought passengers with them:. nany species of tropica snakes, deer, a puma, parrots, and monkeys. An Indian baby was found on a foating isand that came ashore ear Rosario, and athough he was 'veak from hunger and exposure, Fig. 4. A. Goering,-SchwimmendeInsen und die Hochande des Congo, 1883 (author's coection). he was brought back to heath. Of course foating isands that corne down rivers end up at sea; many are quicky destroyed by thé waves, but others survive for quite some time, and accounts of foating isands seen at sea are rare. An artice in thé November 8, 1908 édition of thé Washington Post reports that a United States émiser in thé Caribbean north of Honduras encountered an isand which they soon discovered was foating (this is certainy one of thé argest foating isands ever seen at sea): «It proved to be a itte isand about three quarters of a mie around and a quarter wide. In shape it was ong and narrow, with a thick growth of vines and bushes reaching down to thé water's very edge. Three ta cocoanut pams grew in thé midde of it. No ife of any kind was on thé isand, nor was there any water, though instead of being sandy or rocky as such isands usuay are, thé soi was rich, dark and very moist. After gathering thé cocoanuts thé saiors retumed to thé cruiser, which, oddy enough, seemed much further off, and consideraby more to thé southwest than when they eft her. Then it just dawned on them that they had been visiting one of thé foating isands so often heard about but sedom seen in thé South Atantic. Further observation confirmed thé suspicion, as thé cruiser remained near it ong enough to see thé isand change its position.» A story pubished in severai newspapers in June and Juy of 1902, gives a remarkabe account of two foating isands spotted at sea in thé Caribbean.? E % 61

33 Thé Norwegian ship Donad, steaming from Banes, Cuba, on its way to Phiadephia, encountered a foating isand about 30 mies frorn thé isand of San Savador: «"On passing Watins isand, which ay off about 30 mies, " said Skipper Wamecke, "we steamed cose to a foating isand. Upon it were what appeared to be a arge number ofstatey pam trees. had never encountered anything ike this in ai my seafaring ife. Thé foating isand was movmg, and that, too, at a sow rate. Cunous for a thorough investigation, steamed sti doser to thé object, and was amazed to find what took to be pam trees were fu-grown cocoanut trees, and aden with fmit of thé argest kind. Then ordered a boat owered and, together with thé first mate, made a anding on thé sti moving isand. "Then another suqîrise awaited us. High up in thé trees was a sma coony of mischievous monkeys, and as we got nearer they shied a number of cocoanuts at us. After a ot of troube we secured two of thé attacking simians and at east a dozen cocoanuts. Then we took to our boats, boarded thé steamer, ordered fu steam ahead, and soon thé strange foating isand was ost in thé haze astem. "But another surpnse was m store for us on thé foowing day, when we passed within gass sight of another singuar foating object just off thé port bow. Thé ookout sung out 'Land ahead. ' This amazed me, for knew according to thé chart and was not mies near. Sti, curious from thé previous day's expérience, determined to sove this fùrther mystery of thé sea, so gave orders for thé ship to steam cose to what now made out to be another foating isand. Again had a boat owercd, and with thé same crew we anded on thé isand. "We found it to be an exact dupicate of thé day beforc, with this exception-instead of monkeys we found a big covey of parrots of most briiant pumage. Among them was one who was evidenty thé patriarch of thé tribe, and do not exaggerate when say that thé aged feow coud cuss in two anguages. He was evidenty a ost pet. We took him and a coupe of his feows aboard thé steamer, and soon eft thé foating isand in thé distance."» Thèse accounts offoating isands seen at sea are ofparticuar interest to evoutionary bioogists, as they end support to thé theory that foating isands hâve been important in thé dispersai of pant and anima species across thé océans, and thus important in thé process of évoution. Foating isand, ake Titicaca (Peru) mine work

34 msua fs âge NEREIDE AWARD 2006 Ischia thé green isand of thé gufofnapes: 14 October During thé workshop dedicated to "Environmenta Cuture: thé Word of thé Sea" thé IVth edition of thé "Néréide" Award was ceebrated by thé Aekos Foundation at thé Museo Rizzoi Premises, in Lacco Ameno-Ischia. Thé aim ofthis initiative is to offer a arge visibiity and an appropriate récognition to a person, or institution, having distinguished it sefduring thé previous year, for thé quaity of their engagement m favor of thé environment and thé marine word. Under thé auspices of thé Campania région, thé Province of Napes and thé Municipaity of Ty cl-jiss.-) w\ ^ A Mw/f^M) SwwUte esvw! w ^.»i» fsi-ytww1 '» INMEMORIAM Lacco Amena, thé Néréide Award divided in four thematic sections, was attributed to: - Luca Genoni for his word record, (-141 meters) in apnea dive. - to Greenpeace for it's action fighting whae-fishing. - to Geco entreprize for an innovative method to reduce coasta érosion, and finay to INSULA for its promotion of marine biotechnoogies ^ W( 'i^ M r11''^ We deepy regret thé unexpected decease of MARIA ELISA BR1SCHETTO, an eminent cuturai anthropoogist, teaching at thé University ofcatania (Itay). Insua's active member and friend, she payed a créative and eading rôe in founding thé UNESCO Center of Siciy, aiming at diffusing UNESCO's ideas among thé Siciian and Mediterranean académie word. From her privieged point of view, Siciy in thé mid of thé HAPPY NEW YEAR 2007 AU INSULA's staff, and more particuary its président Ana Marija Margan and its secretary généra Fier Giovanni D'Ayaa, wish you an exceent year 2007, fù ofsuccess, and prospenty. A year 2007 paced under thé sign of cuture and more specificay isands cutura héritages. 2UR NEW FORUM IS AVAILABLE Thé Internationa Scientific Counci for Isand Deveopment bas thé peasurc to announce you that its new forum has just opened and is accessibe to this address: aceboard. com Many debates and discussions wi take pace there, and wi hep INSULA to continue to work at thé deveopment of isands, through projects and actions. Our website is sti avaiabé at this adress: org Mediterranean, she understood thé importance of régiona aad inten-egiona scientific and cutura coaboration organizing and directing thé Euro-Mediterranean Institute for interdiscipinary anthropoogy (CEMDAI) which soon became a true nurseiy for young post-graduated socia scientists. Many of us wi miss Maria Eisa's scientific strictness and creativity, but many wi foow thé roads she bas opened with generous enthusiasm- 1. "T ii^-'tnës":: ^ ' and r'-; ^^. Thé Convention on thé Protection and Promotion of thé Diversity of Cutura Expressions, adopted by UNESCO's Généra Conférence in October 2005, wi enter into force on 18 March 2007, three months after thé deposit of thé 30th instmment of ratification on 18 December at UNESCO. As of 15 December, 22 instmments of ratification had been registered*. On thé 18th, another 13 countries**, as we as thé European Community, deposited their instmment at thé Organization's Headquarters, bringing thé tota number of ratifications received to 35. Thé Director-Genera of UNESCO, Koïchiro Matsuura, wecomed thé high-eve of interest shown by Member States for this new éga instrument. "Thé rapidity of thé ratification process is unprecedented. None ofunesco's other cutura conventions has been adopted by so many States in so itte time," Mr Matsuura said. "Thé ratificaon by thé European Union, made possibe by Artice 27 of thé text aowing "accession by any regio économie intégration organizaion" is a first, and wi ceebrated t a spécia ceremony on December 19 inbrusses. Thé resut ofa ong process of maturation and frwo years of intense negotiations, marked by numérous meetings of independent and then govenunenta experts, thé text seeks to reaffirm thé inks between cuture, deveopment and diaogue, and to create an innovative patform for internationa cutura coopération. To this end, it reaffirms thé sovereign rights of States to eaborate cutura poicies with a view both "to protect and promote thé diversity ofcuturai expressions" and "to create thé conditions for cutures to fourish and to freey interact in a mutuay bénéficiai manner" (Artice ). It aso consecrates thé rôe of cuture as an a actor in deveopment (Artice 13), mobiizes civi society to achieve its goas (artice 11), and paces internationa soidarity at thé heart ofits mechanism (artices 12 to 19), by incuding thé création of an internationa fund for cutura diversity (artice 18). It aso highights "thé importance of inteectua property rights in sustaining those invoved in cuturai creativity" and reaffinns that "freedom of thought, expression and information, as we as diversity of thé média, enabe cutura expressions to fourish within societies." With thé adoption of thé Convention on thé Protection and Promotion of thé Diversity of Cutura Expressions, UNESCO now disposes of a comprehensive set of standard-setting instmments in thé cutura domain, comprismg seven conventions covering cutura diversity in ai of its manifestations, and especiay, thé two piars of cuture: héritage - immovabe, movabe and intangibé, incuding traditiona cutura expressions - and contemporary creativity. Three conventions - thé 1972 Word Héritage Convention; thé 2003 convention on intangibé cutura héritage; and thé 2005 convention on cutura diversity - wi provide a particuary favourâbé fi-amework for UNESCO's action in défense ofcutura diversity. With this extensive éga coverage, UNESCO is now better equipped for accompish thé mission attributed by its Constitution to respect thé "fmitfu diversity of thé cutures" and to "faciitate thé frce fow ofideas by word and image." Dea signed for A Reem Biosphère Réserve Dea signed for A Reem Biosphere Réserve An agreement was signed on 10 January to estabish thé A Reem Biosphère Réserve in northwest Qatar, which woud cover about 17% of thé country. Thé tripartite agreement invoves thé Suprême Counci for thé Environment and Natura Resources in Qatar, UNESCO's office in Doha and thé She oi company. Thé next step wi be for thé three partners to recruit experts in nature conservation and ecosystem managers to prépare thé site nomination for submission to UNESCO's Advisory Committee for Biosphere Réserves in Paris before nominations cose on 30 Apri. For détais, contact thé foca point in UNESCO's Doha office. (- z K 1(a w j

35 t Extrême Tourism: Lessons from thé Word's Cod Wateï Isands Edited by Godfrey Badacchino As aurmg, paradises, isands are quintessentia tounst destinations. But this trope is premised on a warm and arguaby peasant cimate. Whie a séries of 'S's - sun, sea, sand (and sex?) may make sensé in a warm water isand ocation, it is a séries of 'I s - ice, icebergs, isoation, indigenous peope - that are more ikey to serve as thé 'tourism product' m cod water isands. This book is a timey and ong overdue, schoary and comparative investigation of tounsm practices in thé word's other, cod water, isands. Located in extrême atitudes and subject to extrême weather conditions, thèse isands hâve been deveoping their tounsm appea in manners that appear sustainabe. They présent themseves in images that speak to thé pnstme, unique and superative aspects of their natura environment, history and cuture. Limited seasonaity, difficuty of access, restricted infrastmcture, harsh cimates and water too cod to swim in, are mtegra features of thé tourism industry, often wecomed as appropnate fiters to thé side to thé mass market. Thé coection contains 14 isand case studies. Nine hai from Northem atitudes: Nunivak (Aaska, USA); Banks (Northwest Territories, Canada); Baffin (Nunavut, Canada), Greenand/ Kaaaait Nunaat, Iceand, Lueâ (Sweden), Svabard (Norway) and Soovetsky (Russia), pus thé particuar vantage point ofarctic cruise ship tourism. A second set offive case studies cover thé Southeriy isands of Chatham (New Zeaand), Fakands (UK), Macquarie (Austraia) and Stewart (New Zeaand) and South Shetands & Antarctica. Additionay, five conceptuai chapters provide insights into key tourism management issues, as they appy to cod water isand expenences: (a) human resources (abour market features, recruitment, rétention, training, career progression, fexibe speciaization); (b) environment (thé représentation of nature in isand tourism profiing, ecoogica issues in typicay fi-agie habitats, waste management poicies and practices; sustainabiîityconcems); (e) promotion (deveoping and branding tourism and inking it with ' isandness', ocation, size and 'isand cuture'; and (d) seasonaity (shoud it be embraced, toerated or chaenged?) A powerfu synopsis by Richard Buter wraps up thé voume and its key arguments. Thé editor of thé voume, Godfrey Badacchino, is thé Canada Research Chair in Isand Studies at thé University of Prince Edward Isand, Canada's smaest, and ony fuy isand province. He is aso Visiting Professor ofsocioogy at thé University of Mata, a Diï'ector of Goba Isand Network (GIN), an Executive Member of thé Internationa Sma Isand Studies Association (ISISA) and Executive Editer ofsand Studies Journa. Author: Godfrey Badacchino Editer: Oxford & Amsterdam, Esevier Science, hard back, 257pp + 30 pages of index. ISBN: Recherches sur 'histoire de F Orient Médiéva ByAbdehamidFerhi (book in arabe and french anguage) Abdeahamid FEHRI Recherches sur 'his+oire de ('Orient Médiéva FU.M to ton" n.» "t"" '»""".' '"" Cim. Cm" ]».. to Bickr*.. ui» MÉdhE«3*«ÉtNNK A survey of thé Médiéva Midde-East cannot be made without an exporation of thé Mediterranean Sea, its isands, exchanges, history, and myths. Indeed, besides différent studies in Arabie anguage on subjects such as heresiography, pro^verbs or dynasties, thé author,\ a methodica way, ooks into thé présence, actua or suggested, of thé sea in thé sacred texts, thé Koran and thé "Hadith" (words or acts of thé prophet Mohamed, considered as exampes to be foowed by thé Musims). From this study on thé sea in thé sacred texts, severa aspects of thé médiéva Midde-East and more exacty thé Mediterranean are advanced, such as thé business, source of ife and profit, nava wars, or thé importance of thé water in thé reigious myths. This work of Abdehamid Fehri thus brings a différent ighting in a ess-known historiographic aspect of this area. We strongy encourage his efforts, which materiaize in severa other pubications, edited by his center for researches on Mediten-anean isands in Cercina (Kerkennah-Tunisia), such as thé séries of work on thé Mediterranean shores. Author: Abdehamid Fehri Editor: Facuty of ittérature and human sciences of Sfax (Tunisia); center for researches on Mediterranean isands. Cercina (Sfax-Kerkeimah; Tunisia). ISBN: Bateaux et ports méditerranéens, bian et perspectives By Abdehamid Barkaoui and Eric Rieth (French anguage) BATEAUX ET PORTS MËDITERRANeeNS. BILAN 6T PGRSPÊCTIVES Actes de a tabe roiide internationai Sfax - Kerhenna 6-7 ;ivm ZOOS Abdeihamid BARKAOUI Enc RICTH dé Mohamed Hawine FANTAR It is around thé mid sixties of thé XXth century, ony three or four décades ago that an unnoticed revotuion took pace aong thé Mediterranean coasts and fishing harbours. Sais were progressivey abandonnedwhie engins empowered most of thé fishing boasts and smaer transport vesses. A variety ofwooden hand made hus assembed pièce by pièce by skied carpenters foowing a thousand years aged technoogy. Century od fishing gears and methods were sti in use. Nets were trown to sea, foowing thé seasona indications of thé stars at fishing spots whose ocations was transmitted from fùrther to sun through numberess générations. Aso couds, winds and waves coud be appreciated by thé skied seaman watching thé sky and (...) thé breeze. A reiabe weather forecast indeed. But swifty with thé enginés news eectronic déviées corne into use aowing to spot thé fishing grounds and track shoas with (...) intensity. Freezers were put in service on board aowing week ong fishing compains even for smaer units supported by radio communications, weather forecasts, radars and other navigation advanced technoogies. Wooden time and ressources consuming, boat buiding was substitute by stee or pastic hus. Thé ast wooden vesses are sti saiing hère and there, but thé immense time-ess know-how of thé coasta mariners communities is ineuctaby bound to disappear A remarkabe effort aiming at recording and shest ight on this fooing word is presenty pursued on thé southem Mediterranean shores by peope beonging to thé «Association tunisienne pour a sauvegarde du patrimoine maritime (Tunisian Association for thé safeguard of thé Maritine héritage) and thé «Centre Cercina», thé proeminent cutura institution of thé Kerkermah isands eaded by Abdehamid Ferhi. Thé Facuty of «Lettres et des sciences humaines»of thé University of Sfax (Tunisia) sponsors thé endevor. Insua wihes to ca thé readers attention to thé voume «Bateaux et ports Méditerranéens- Bian et perspectives» representing thé proceedings of thé intemationa round tabe on thé above topic hed in Kerkeimah on 6th and 7th Apri 2005 and pubished ate 2006 by MED ALI Editions. " Thé two editors Abdetha- o mid Barkaoui a speciaist of Ma- ^ rine Archeoogy of thé University ^ of Sfax and Eric Rieth, research ^ director at thé Musée Nationa de a Marine (Paris) together with thé speciaised authors participating at thé Kerkennah round tabe, offer us a considérabe overview of thé évoution of thé ships typoogy, and buiding architecture on thé north African coasts from anscient times ti présent days. A good peace of work and a kee-too for maritime history investigation. Authors: (under thé direction of) AbdeHamid Bakaoui and Eric Rieth (foreword from Mohamed Hassine Fautar) Editer: Association Tunisieime pour a Sauvegarde du Patrimoine Maritime Med Ai Editions ( caeu@gnet.tn) te: +216/ ISBN:

36 Thé Internationa Scientific Counci for Isand Deveopment (INSULA) was formay created in November 1989 as a non-gouvernmenta organisation (NGO) whose aims is to contribute to shape isand awareness and deveop isands 'common future, supporting necessary cooperation and information actions in thé scientific and technoogica fieds. Thé aims of INSULA are to contribute to thé économie, socia and cutura progress of isands throughout thé worid, as to thé protection of isand environment and thé sustainabe deveopment of their ressouros. Within such a context, INSULA coopérâtes with UNESCO, thé European Commission and other internationa organisations, as we as institutions at thé nationa or régiona eve sharing thé same goas of interests. Through its internationa and mutidiscipanry network of experts and researchers, INSULA contributes towards baanced, sustainabe deveopment initiatives undertaken by isand authorities. INSULA pubishes twice a year "Thé Internationa Journa Isand Affairs'. Thé aim of this journa is to create a word wide forum for ai those who consider isands as an important part of mankind's héritage deserving major attention. "Thé Internationa Journa o1 Isand Affairs" is sent, free of charge, to thé members of INSUIA Internationa Scientific Counci for Isand Deveopment. Each issue focuses on a spécifie aspect of isands deveopment and cutura ife. Thé membership fées are:. 70 euros for individua. 190 euros for institution Payments can be made by check (in euros ony), MasterCard, Visa or American Express (pease indicate card number and expiration date). Back issues are aso avaiabe for 8 euros each (pus shipping costs). Pease visit our website www. insua. org for more informations about our pubications, projects and actions for wich INSULA 's membership is invited to pay an active rôe. Appication form for membership of Surname: Firstname:... Institution: Address: City: Post code: Country: Tééphone: Fax:... Emai: Annua membership: D Individua (70 euros) Qnsitution(190euros) a Supporting member (300 euros or more) am paying thé amount of by: a Check D MasterCard g Visa D Amex Checks are to be made in euros payabe to INSU1A Crédit Gard number:.. Expiration date: Signature: Date: Pease return this form by fax or mai to: insua Internationa Scientific Counci for Isand Deveopment c/omab-unesco House 1.rue Miois Paris Cedex 15 - France Ph: / Fax:

37 '. AÏS) at thé University of Prince Edward Isand (UPEI), nada, is a unique, two-year fu-time or équivaent part- 1,-ie graduate program, studying isands on their own ms. Thirty students hâve registered in thé program ce its aunch in New students join thé program her in September or January. Three Compusory Courses, offered annuay, are Thèmes & Perspectives in Isand Studies (Godfrey Badacchino); Comparative Pubic Poicy for Isands (Barry Bartmann); Research Methods & Research Design in Isand Studies (Edward M.acDonad &. Godfrey Badacchino). Optiona courses, which can change from year to year, hâve incuded thé foowing deivered by UPEI Facuty: Gender & Identity in thé South Pacifie {Jean Mitche); Thèmes in Isand Literature (Brent MacLainé); Internationa Reations of Sma Isand States {Barry Bartmann); Entrepreneurship & Fisheries Management in Sma Isands (Irène Novaczek); Ecoogy & Economie Deveopment in Sma Isands (Paanisamy Nagarafan); Identity & Sensé of Pace in Isands (Suzanne Thomas); and Poitica Economy of Sma Isand Jurisdictions (David M. iné). iretmizzi, 1st yearmais studentfrom Gozo, Mata. y in sma casses at thé word's top isand studies institution, hosting an Institute of Isand Studies, a Canada Research Chair in Isand Studies, and thé internationay peer-reviewed Isand Studies Journa (ISSN ) from grants and assistantships made avaiabe to students by facuty Other optiona courses, deivered by distinguished visiting professors from overseas universities, hâve incuded Nature-Society Interactions on Isands (Patrick Nunn); Poitica Ecoogy ofsands {Pète Hay); Thèmes in Isand Tourism (Lee Joiffè); and Environmenta Issues in Isands (Çristian Suteanu). Guest ectures, run jointy with thé Institute ofsand Studies, hâve been deivered by such schoars as Harvey Armstrong (UK), Denbeigh Armstrong (Tasmania), Stephen Roye (Ireand), Phiip Hayward (Austraia), Len Kooperman (American Samoa), Péter Biing (Bornhom), Rache Chen (Taiwan) and ain MacPherson (Skye, Scotand). C. : ;p t8 for thé Chanceor Bi Andrew and Denise Andrew awards PartCpate in a chaenging schoary and interdiscipinary environment, with expert professors based at UPEI or visiting from other parts of thé worid program invoves six taught courses (three hours per ( each for 12 weeks) and a 50, ooo-word thesis under 'rvision (spread over three académie terms). A ^ University of Prince Edward Isand Charottetown, PE Canada, CiA 4?3 Te: (902) Fax: (902)

38 Pubished by INSULA, Thé Internationa Scientific Counci for Isand Deveopment, with thé support of UNESCO