Lornshill Academy. Geography Department. National 5 Revision

Transcription

1 Lornshill Academy Geography Department National 5 Revision

2 Physical Environments Glaciated Uplands Processes of Erosion Physical Weathering (Freeze-Thaw Weathering) Rainwater enters cracks in rocks and, in winter this water sometimes freezes. When it freezes and expands, this forces the crack wider. This process is repeated thousands of times, pieces of rocks break off. Plucking Between the glacier and the rock underneath is a thin film of melt water. This water sometimes freezes so the glacier becomes attached to the rock. Then, when the glacier moves forward, it pulls away and loose fragments of rock. This powerful process is called plucking. Abrasion This is when a rock is frozen into glacier ice. The glacier moves and the rocks scrape along the valley floor and erode therefore erode it. Formation of Features Corrie Snow fills hollow and is compressed and turns to ice. The ice move downhill due to gravity. Abrasion takes place on the corrie floor, plucking at back wall and freeze thaw at back helps steepen back wall. When the ice melts it leaves behind arm chair shaped hollow called a corrie. A lip, made from moraine, is left at the front as ice loses power. When water remains in the corrie it is called a lochan or tarn. Arête Where two corries formed back to back or side to side, the rock between them was plucked away to form a narrow ridge. This steep and narrow knife-like ridge is called an arête. Pyramidal Peak Where three or more corries are formed back to back, the rock between them was plucked and weathered into a sharp point, usually the highest point in the area. This is called a pyramidal peak. U-shaped Valley Before Glaciation a v-shaped valley exists. During the ice age a glacier moves downhill eroding the sides and bottom of the valley, through plucking and abrasion. Through erosion this makes the valley sides steeper and the valley deeper. After the ice melts a steep, deep, flat floored U-Shaped valley remains. The original stream now seems too small for the valley and is called a misfit stream.

3 Truncated Spurs A spur is the bottom part of a ridge which juts out into the main valley. A river winds around spurs in a v-shaped valley. During the ice-age a glacier moves down the valley. The sides of the valley are eroded by abrasion and the spurs are worn away. After the ice age the valley is wider and straighter and the spurs have been cut off leaving shortened or truncated spurs. Hanging Valley A large glacier occupies a main river valley and a smaller glacier occupies the tributary valley. As the glaciers move they erode the sides and bottom of the valleys, through plucking and abrasion making the valleys wider, deeper and steeper. When the ice melts the tributary valley is left suspended above the main u-shaped valley as it was not eroded as much because the smaller glacier had less power so there was less erosion The tributary river now has a waterfall Ribbon Lakes The material which was pushed in front of the glacier and left as the glacier melted, is called terminal moraine. This material may be large enough to form a dam at the end of the U-shaped valley. The stream cannot proceed further and gradually backs up. The valley was then flooded and the shape of the resulting lake or rock resembled a piece of ribbon stretching back through the length of the valley. Land Uses Hill Sheep Farming Due to the steepness of the slopes, the cold temperatures and high rainfall, which limit the growing season and affect soil fertility, the area is mostly unsuited to crop farming since it would be almost impossible to use machinery such as combine harvesters. The only type of farming possible is hill sheep farming, with cattle occasionally being raised on lower, less steep land. Forestry Large plantations of coniferous forests are found in this area. This is suited to the steep slopes, poor soils and inhospitable climate. The trees also protect the slopes from soil erosion. Quarrying The main type of industry is quarrying for granite and slate for roads and roofs. Limestone is also quarried for use in the steel making elsewhere. The number of quarries operating has gradually been reduced in recent years Water Supply The Lakes are natural reservoirs in an area of high rainfall. It is much more economical to use these natural reservoirs than to build man-made reservoirs. The Lakes supply up to 30% of the water needs of this part of Great Britain.

4 Recreation, Leisure and Tourism The area is very attractive to tourists offering a variety of physical attractions such as the mountains and lakes for activities such as hill walking, mountain climbing, adventure holidays, water sports, fishing and general sightseeing. Land Use Issue and Management Tourist and Residents Traffic Congestion The tourists cause a lot of traffic congestion on the roads due to a lot of slow moving cars, buses and caravans. Traffic congestion is at its worst in honey pots such as Bowness and Keswick. This frustrates the local people who are trying to get to places quickly. The traffic can delay emergency vehicles such as ambulances and fire engines. Tourists take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and increase local air pollution. Raising houses prices and Ghost Towns Some locals cannot afford to move home. Wealthy tourists are paying over the odds to buy a holiday home, out pricing the locals. Some villages are becoming ghost villages as most of the houses are owned by tourists who do not live there all of the time. Due to this village shops and schools are closing. Tourists and Farmers Damage to farms Not all tourists obey the country code leaving field gates open allowing animals to stray onto roads and be killed or cause accidents They drop litter which not only looks unsightly but may be eaten by farm animals, harming them They let their dogs off their leads allowing them to chase animals. Footpath Erosion This happens when a lot of people walk up a hill in the same direction. Overtime the vegetation gets trampled on and killed leaving a path of bare soil. During heavy rain the path will become very muddy and some of it will be washed away. To avoid the mud people walk on the grass next to it eventually killing it, making the path bigger and more of an eyesore. Tourists and Tourists Recreational Activities Honey pots in the Lake District also include Lakes such as Windermere. They offer many opportunities for recreation and leisure. This creates conflicts. The noisy activities, e.g. Motor boats upset the people wanting peace and quiet e.g. the fishermen and birdwatchers.

5 Tourists and Conservationists Damage to the landscape Conservationists are concerned about the look if tourist developments such as visitor centres are built, as they do not blend in with the landscape and spoil the view. Solutions National Park Authority They have tried to ease traffic congestion by; Bringing in one-way systems (Ambleside). Pedestrianising some streets (Keswick). Painting double yellow lines to prevent street parking (Grasmere). Providing large car parks on edge of villages (Grasmere). Separating local and tourist traffic. Taking pressure off honeypots by advertising and signposting other attractions in different areas. Encouraging the use of minibuses and bicycles. They have tried to ease soaring property prices by; To reduce soaring property prices and locals being forced out by tourists, the Authority can insist that new houses are sold/rented cheaply to locals (Rosthwaite and Bowness). They have tried to ease conflicts between tourists by; They are attempting to educate tourists at information centres about enjoying themselves without causing conflict. Park Rangers are employed to prevent, spot and sort out problems. There is zoning of tourist activities (swimming areas ect). Speed limits They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by; They vet plans for new tourist developments. Plans that may cause conflict are rejected. They insist that new buildings, visitor centres, car parks are screened by deciduous trees and that local stone is used in construction. Solutions by National Trust To ease conflicts the tourists cause to conservationists and farmers; They buy land and buildings and manage them. In this way they can ensure that at least this land is protected. They reduce footpath erosion caused by hill walkers by laying blocks of hard wearing stone stone pitching to provide a good walking surface, fence off worse affected areas to allow them to recover and dig drainage channels to stop water running down footpaths.

6 Coastal Landscapes Processes of Erosion Hydraulic Action This is when the power of the waves comes crashing against the cliffs, squeezing the air in its cracks, which make the cracks wider and longer until pieces of rock break off. Corrasion This is when the sand and pebbles are thrown against the cliff, causing pieces of rocks to fall off. Solution This happens as the salt and other chemicals in the sea slowly dissolve the minerals in the rocks causing them to break up. Process of Deposition Longshore drift is the process through which material is moved along a beach. Waves approach the beach at an angle, waves break and the swash carries material up the beach at the same angle as the wave. The backwash, and any material carried by it, returns by the shortest route at right angles to the beach. This creates a zigzag pattern of transportation. Formation of Features Erosional Wave cut Notch/Platform A Wave-cut platform forms when a notch is cut into the base of a cliff by waves. Overtime the notch gets larger and deeper mainly due to hydraulic action. Eventually the unsupported rock above will collapse into the sea. The sea will remove this debris, and the process repeats itself. Eventually a wave-cut platform will be left in front of the cliff. Headlands & Bays Headlands and bays form along coasts that are made of alternative bands of hard (resistant) and soft (less resistant) rocks. The waves erode the softer rocks (clay) more quickly to form bays and the harder rocks (chalk) are eroded more slowly and left jutting into the sea to form headlands. Overtime the bays will become more sheltered and sandy beaches will form. Caves, Arch, Stack and Stump Waves crash into headlands eroding weaker parts such as cracks (joints or faults). The cracks are eroded by 3 different processes corrasion, hydraulic action and solution. The cracks get larger, deeper and wider, developing into a cave. Overtime, the horizontal erosion of a cave may cut through the headland to the other side to form an arch. Very occasionally a blow hole will be created within a cave where vertical erosion has taken place.

7 Further erosion widens the walls of the arch leaving less support for the roof, leading to its collapse and to the formation of a stack isolated from the cliff. The stack will be eroded to form a needle. The needle will be eroded, collapse and become a stump. Depositional Beaches Beaches are made up of soil or rock fragments that have been eroded from cliffs by the waves. These fragments are then broken into smaller pieces and rounded off. The eroded material is then deposited where waves have little energy forming a beach. A typical beach has sorted deposits, the largest deposits are found at the back of the beach and the smallest next to the sea. The largest beaches are usually found in bays, where the waves are generally weak. Sandspit, Sand bar and Tombolo A spit forms when beach material is transported along the coast by longshore drift* A ridge of sand builds up and outwards forming a spit. If the spit extends across the mouth of a bay it can join up with a beach on the other side forming a sand bar. This straightens the coastline and encloses a lagoon on the landward side of the bar. Along some coastlines a sand spit may grow outwards into open water and reach an island forming a Tombolo. Land Uses Industry Offshore, sand and gravel is taken from the seabed providing employment. Wytch Farm Oilfield is located at the South bank of Poole Harbour. It is the biggest offshore oilfield in West Europe. There are three large ports with substantial international trade and five smaller harbours for local fishing and recreational craft. Fishing provides employment for the local people. It also supports a wide range of service industries which maintain vessels and equipment, providing further jobs. The fishing grounds sustain 600 boats. Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (ALL AREAS) The sightseers are attracted by the scenery. There are lots of opportunities for different activities. Important wildlife refuges are found just behind the coast in the sand dunes (Studland), lagoons and marshes (The Fleet) which encourages visitors. Rare heathland plants and rare British Wildlife such as lizards and snakes can be found. The above encourages large numbers of visitors who spend their money in the local area which creates jobs, opportunities for hotels, restaurants and shops.

8 Land Use Issue and Management Tourist and Residents Traffic Congestion The tourists cause a lot of congestion on the roads. The larger settlements of Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage all suffer from congestion. The congestion is caused as 82% of tourists travel by car; they tend to visit at the same time (Bank Holidays and weekends) and often drive slowly to admire views. In addition, they take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and increase local air pollution. The congestion is also caused by narrow streets Tourists and Tourists Recreational Activities Many tourists are attracted to Poole Harbour. This is a recipe for conflict. The noisy pursuits, e.g. power boats upset the people wanting peace and quiet, eg. The fishermen and birdwatchers. Increasingly powerboats are being used in winter, which is when thousands of birds migrate here. Tourists and Conservationist Pollution and damage to the landscape Tourist activities in Poole Harbour are polluting the water (oil and litter). Powerboats are scaring migrating birds in winter. At Studland tourists are causing erosion of the sand dunes. People walk through the dunes, trampling on fragile plants (which bind the sand together) until they die. With less vegetation the sand dunes themselves become eroded and wildlife disappears as the habitat changes. Horses also add to the trampling due to a riding centre nearby. Solutions County Council To ease traffic congestion in Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage the following solutions have been tried: One way systems. Encouraging other types of transport (by providing bus and cycle lanes). Phasing traffic lights. Restricting the hours of road works. To ease traffic congestion in the Village of Corfe Castle; A railway line has been opened with steam trains running from Swanage to Norden, just north of Corfe Castle. People can now visit these places without driving into or through the Village. An extra car park has been developed in the village. This should reduce the street parking, which should allow traffic to go faster. More cycle ways and summer bus routes have been developed, but a proposed by-pass has been rejected.

9 To try and solve tourist conflicts in Poole Harbour, Poole Council have introduced: Zoning of Poole Harbour (different activities are zoned in different areas so they do not upset one another). Maximum speed limits have been imposed in some parts, which prevents power boating and waterskiing taking place. National Trust They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by; Lobbying to get certain areas a protected status. RSPB sites have been set up to protect wildlife and SSSI sites to protect vegetation. Educating visitors by taking them on guided tours and providing information on boards and leaflets. Restricting access to sensitive areas. Providing wardens to look after the area. Weather Synoptic Symbols Synoptic symbols break the weather down more than the symbols you are familiar with on TV. One symbol shows the weather, temperature, wind speed, wind direction and cloud cover. Isobars Isobars are lines that join places of equal air pressure. The closer together the isobars are, the winds are stronger. Air Masses Air masses are large bodies of air that can be the size of a continent. Thousands of them move around our planet every day. Air masses give us our weather.

10 Where one air mass meets another this is called a front. The type of weather that an air mass brings is dependant in the air pressure High (Anticyclone) or Low pressure (Depression). Anticyclones Anticyclones are high pressure an area meaning the air descends towards the earth s surface. Winds blow in a clockwise spiral away from a high area with isobars widely spaced, so wind tends to be very light or calm. They cover large areas, sometime affecting the whole country and give long periods of fine and settled weather (In certain conditions, lasting for several weeks.) Fog, mist and poor visibility are often associated with anticyclonic weather. Freezing fog can form in winter creating dangerous driving conditions. In Winter anticyclones bring: Clear skies Sunny days Cold days Very cold nights Frost Light winds No rain or snow In summer anticyclones bring: Clear skies Sunny days Hot days Cool nights Light winds No rain

11 Depressions When THREE air masses meet over Britain we get a depression. They are made up of warm and cold air masses. A depression is a low pressure area. They bring unsettled, changeable weather and take between one and three days to cross the country. Wind blows anticlockwise around a depression. It is usually strong and may even be gale force. The air masses do not mix immediately. Where they meet is called a front. There are two types of front a warm front and a cold front Stage 5 Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1 Tail end of cold front Temperature falls Showers Air pressure rises FINE WITH SOME SHOWERS. Cold front Temperature falls Clouds thicken Air pressure rises Winds increase RAIN In warm sector Temperature rises Drizzle and some sunny intervals Air pressures falls Light winds Feels muggy HUMID At Warm front Temperature rises Clouds thicken Steady rain Pressure falls Wind get stronger RAIN Before warm front Dry and fine Settled Clouds coming from west FINE

12 Human Environments Population Population density is the number of people in each square km. It is affected by a combination of environmental factors, political factors and economic factors World population distribution One question you could be asked is to describe the population distribution of the world or of a specific country. The first one is simple as you use the key and describe the different areas of the world and use the figures to back up your answer. The second is more complex and you should follow a check list to answer it. Use compass points to help you In the north. Mention where places are in relation to other places on the map to the west of Describe the overall pattern. Most of the villages are in the north. Use specific numbers and details including names on the map in your description. The population density in the north around Inverness is 20 people per km2 Describe where the information shows similarities and where it shows differences Another question is to explain the distribution of the population. In order to do this you must state WHY the area is distributed like this. Use the factors that you previously took notes on to answer this. Reasons for differing population distribution The distribution of people around the world is not evenly. There are crowded parts of the world and also empty areas. There are many factors, which contribute to an explanation of why this happens. Climate People like to live in areas where there are no extreme temperatures and there is rain all year round. Climate can limit the number of people that live in an area for example Russia. The conditions are unpleasant and expensive to live in; the growing season is too short to grow crops therefore food has to be bought in. It is also very hard to build on soil that is frozen for over half the year. People do not want to live where there is no rain either for example the middle of Australia. Again the living conditions are unpleasant and it s hard to grow crops because the soil is too thin and eroded easily by the wind. Soil Some river valleys are very crowded like the Nile Valley. The reason being is the soil here is very fertile so lots of crops can be grown in a small area. Also the valley is very flat so provides water all year round to people.

13 Relief People would rather live in areas that are flat and in the lowlands. Mountain ranges tend to be sparsely populated like the Himalayas. This is because of the cold temperatures and the poor soils. The slops also cause a problem because they are difficult to build on. Resources Where there are natural resources the population density tends to be higher. Areas like North-East America have attracted people because of the employment opportunities in the mining fields. Also scenery attracts tourist, which attract people to the area to work or even retire like California. Communications Areas that are not well connected by roads, railways, airports and ports are less populated as industry is rarely attracted to the area meaning fewer jobs for the locals. An example of this area would be Northern Canada. Technological Development Countries with advanced technologies and well-educated people can support higher population densities like Japan. Economic Activities Areas where industry is the main activity have higher population densities like Southeast Australia. Large amounts of people can be employed in a very small area. On the other hand it takes a large area of land to support people who have large farms like the Great Plains in USA. Census Population data is gathered through a census and developing countries have more difficulties in carrying out a census than developed countries meaning the data is less reliable. The last UK census was in Why is it important to collect data? Population numbers to calculate grants for local authorities to plan e.g. schools and teacher numbers. Health to know the age and socio-economic make-up of the population to allocate health and social services resources. Housing to ascertain the need for new housing. Employment to help government and businesses plan jobs and training policies. Transport to identify where there is pressure on transport systems and for planning of roads and public transport. Ethnic Group to identify the extent and nature of disadvantage in Britain. Problems facing developing countries Difficulties affecting accurate population data collection in Developing Countries might include; Countries suffering from a continuing war situation such as Afghanistan. The cost involved in carrying out a census is prohibitive to many Developing Countries training enumerators, printing and distributing forms etc.

14 The sheer size of some developing countries e.g. Indonesia with many islands spread over a large area. Countries with large numbers of migrants e.g. rural-urban migration into massive shanty towns e.g. Dharavi in Mumbai, refugees from Rwanda in Burundi etc. Poor communication links e.g. mountain regions of Bolivia. Low levels of literacy and variety of languages spoken within a country e.g. India has 15 official languages. Population change As we know the world s population is changing. The number of people in the worlds is increasing because there are more people being born (birth rate) than there are dying (death rate). Population Pyramids Population pyramids can show the age/sex ratio of a country. You must be able to describe and explain a population pyramid. Developing Pyramid The pyramid for a developing country has a wide base and steep sides leading to a narrow top. The base is very wide because it has a very high birth rate due to lack of contraception. The steep sides show there is a high death rate, as well as the numbers at the top of the pyramid are low. Low life expectancy also means that the pyramid has a wide base and mid-section. Developed Pyramid The narrow base and bullet shape shows there is a low birth and death rate. The maximum age is higher because there is better healthcare available, meaning it doesn t taper as steeply. Contraception is also widely available unlike in Sierra Leone, meaning that the birth rate is controlled keeping the general population at constant level. People live longer and life expectancy is much greater because of the available healthcare and better living conditions Rapid Population Growth (Developing Country) In developing countries birth rates are much higher than death rates and the population is rising rapidly. In these countries the population structure is similar to the one shown below.

15 There are many children because the birth rate is high. Often, one half of the population is under 15 years of age. There are less people in the working age group (15-60) because the death rate was high and many children did not survive to adulthood. For the same reason, there are very few old people in the population. People in developed countries have large families so that: Children can help on the farm No pensions or old folks homes so children needed to look after parents in old age With high numbers of children dying people have more so that some survive to adult-hood Contraceptives are difficult to get Traditions and religions do not agree with contraceptives Solutions Increase education on Family planning Laws like Chinas One Child Policy More Education for females Incentives for smaller families like free healthcare More opportunities for sterilisation and abortions Slowly Growing Population In most Developed Countries, the birth rates and death rates are low and their populations are rising only slowly, if at all. Their population structures are similar to the one below. There are few children in the population because the birth rate is low. There are many adults because in the past the birth rate was higher and many babies were born at that time have survived into adulthood. There are also many older people because the death rate is so low and most people live to an old age. Women having children later due to: More women working Women want to buy luxury goods instead Put off having babies until they can afford equipment Want big houses The use of contraceptives not seen as wrong Contraceptives are available to everyone Solutions More Paternity leave More maternity benefits Raising retirement age (increasing tax payer and reducing pensions) Encourage women to work Providing more childcare

16 Allowing more immigrants Encourage people to take out private pensions. Demographic Transition Model A demographic transition model shows how changes in birth and death rates can affect population growth. It also identifies four distinct stages of growth. These stages are linked with economic growth (a country becoming richer). Describe and explain DMT Stage 1 There is a high birth and death rate. The total population growth is low due to the fact that many children are needed for farming so there is a high birth rate. Many children die at an early age due to the lack of food and medical treatment. There is no family planning, so population cannot be controlled. Religious beliefs encourage large families. Stage 2 The birth rate is greater than the death rate so the total population increases. This is because the food and medical supplies have increased so more people live longer. Family planning is not fully introduced therefore only helping a few families control their families. Stage 3 There is a high increase in the total population because the birth rate is greater than the death rate so there is a greater increase than in stage 2. This is because more family planning centres are being constructed. People are surviving longer due to greater medical knowledge, food and water supplies. Stage 4

17 The total population reaches its peak as the birth rate equals the death rate. This is because there is good reliable health care, food supplies and better resources for pensioners and old people. Family planning has helped people to reduce the number of children they have and people are having children at later age once they have a career and marriage. Problems governments may face when a country is in stage 5 The problems which a government may face when a country reaches Stage 5 are caused by low birth rate/declining (and ageing) population. This mean the country will need to maintain an active population large enough to allow levels of taxation to remain constant or raise retirement age. The country also needs to ensure there are no future shortages in workforce need to recruit immigrant labour/ease access for asylum seekers. This can lead to civil unrest/ethnic tension. The government need to sustain demand for particular products or services e.g. toys, schools, maternity hospitals, which if affected could lead to higher levels of unemployment (for example not as many schools needed so many teachers become unemployed.) An ageing population gives increased cost of pension provision and unpopular decisions for government about how pensions should be funded. Rural Commercial Arable Farming in UK It has low lying fertile soils, a warm climate, enough rainfall, good drainage and plenty of sunshine making it perfect farming conditions for growing crops like wheat, barley, peas and sugar beet. Arable Farming System Inputs Processes Outputs Climate Ploughing Crops Flat land Sowing Profit Fertile soils Workforce Machinery Irrigating Spraying Harvesting Capital(money) Chemicals Seeds Transport Farm buildings

18 Farming Changes Changes to farm inputs: More money spent on chemicals and farm machinery Less people employed in farming As the population declines the local services begin to close down for example schools, shops and health centres. This makes the area even less an attractive place to live. Pollution is increasing which is a major problem. There is an increase in the air and noise pollution from machinery and more water pollution from chemical use. More machinery means farms have become bigger and have larger fields Hedgerows have been removed meaning animal habitats have gone reducing wildlife Grants available for farms to restore hedgerows and not use chemicals (become organic farms) Some market gardens have changed to Pick Your Own PYO farming which is popular with customers. This is because the produce is cheaper than the shops and also fresher. For the farmer this means fewer employees. Changes to farming outputs. For many years the EU gave higher prices for some crops which have led to more being grown but not all being sold. This creates Food Mountains which are surplus. In the 1960s a common agricultural policy (CAP) was devised. The policy aimed to improve the living standards of farmers and make EU countries more self sufficient. The first policy was a system of guaranteed prices. The EUs policy of guaranteed prices was very successful, in a lot of ways too successful. Farmers grew too much meaning they could not sell it all. For this reason in 1992 the EU brought in a new policy of set aside schemes and quotas. Solutions The government is trying to stop this by improving living standards in the countryside. Grants for people taking over a farm from a retired farmer.

19 Farmers are now paid not to grow crops but to leave the land unfarmed. This is called set aside land Farmers are encouraged to use their unfarmed land for other purposes like camp sites. This is called diversification. Use farm worker cottages as holiday homes giving extra money to the farmer. More industries setting up in the countryside which brings more jobs to the area. Intensive Subsistence Farming in India. The floodplains and deltas of India have been settled and farmed for a long period of time, where there is a high population growth meaning severe shortage of land as there is no available land left. The farms are very small but the richness and fertility of the soil mean they are capable of more than one crop per year. Farming is intensive with a high input of labour and very little machinery. Changes of Rice Farming The Green Revolution There have been various attempts by governments of countries with peasant farming to introduce modern methods and changes to areas which practise this system of farming, for example the Punjab. These measures have been described as the GREEN REVOLUTION. (YOU CAN GET 1 MARK FOR THIS!) Before Poor quality seeds Poor quality plants Low output from poor harvest Just enough food for family Little surplus crops: no money for new seeds Some seed kept for next year After Miracle seeds Heavy fertilising Healthy plant growth Plenty of food for family

20 Surplus crops sold: money for new seed and fertiliser Migration to cities due to fewer jobs on the land Lower prices due to higher output Higher farmer debt. Solutions The Indian government introduced various schemes to improve farming during programmes of 5 and 7 years plus. This involved a range of measures including: Land reform schemes whereby small farms resulting from the land inheritance system have been amalgamated into larger farms. Schemes encourage farmers to borrow money to improve their farms. Introduction of miracle (hybrid) seeds in order to increase yields. Using chemical fertilisers to improve soil fertility. Increasing mechanisation by using tractors and other farm machinery. Employing agricultural advisers and setting up various training schemes for farmers. Spraying insecticides onto crops to prevent crops being eaten and destroyed by insects. Introducing modern irrigation methods to replace inefficient methods such as inundation canals. Raising the level of technology used on farms such as introducing motorised ploughs. Introducing legislation designed to increase the size of fields and allow the system to use large machinery and become more efficient. Benefits of Green Revolution All of the measures were designed to increase yield and output from the farms. The changes brought about by the Green Revolution have had some success. For example in India during the 1970s and 1980s. As a result of the uptake of Green Revolution techniques, production doubled during these decades. Greater amount of food has reduced malnutrition and starvation. Surplus crop may be sold, improving quality of life. Land reform, helped to speed up the process of mechanisation and modernisation.

21 Improved infrastructure including increased electrification and better roads improving access to markets. Larger, more effective irrigation schemes and drainage systems. The Green revolution has been successful in some areas where land reform was successful. Problems of Green Revolution The changes also brought problems. Use of fertilisers, pesticides and other new techniques cost farmers a great deal of money. Farmers were encouraged to borrow money from banks to supplement government loans and grant. As yields increased prices fell due to increased supply. Many farmers did not earn enough money to both achieve a reasonable income and able to repay the money the have borrowed. Increased mechanisation may lead to reduction in farm labour. Migration of farm workers to urban areas and impact on demography of rural areas. Consolidation of farms may also lead to larger fields, increased mechanisation and drift to cities due to lack of work also less chance of providing food for their family. In areas the success rate has been much lower and in some cases many farmers have become poorer as a direct result of the Green Revolution. Urban Urban Land Use A city is usually divided into recognisable areas or zones. Each area serves a function or purpose. The main types of function are shops and offices, industry, housing, and open space. Although different in some ways, towns and cities all tend to be set out in a similar way. Central Business District The Central Business District (CBD) is found in the centre of town. This is where shops, offices, banks, public buildings, and entertainment may be found. Government buildings are usually found in the centre of town as well. The CBD is the route centre meaning major roads meet there, this can cause traffic congestion. It is very crowded and busy. This means there is very little spare land so this means land here is expensive as it is in demand. Identifying CBD on an Ordnance Survey Map Bus station, train station, tourist information, museums,

22 art galleries Many churches Narrow unplanned roads Many main roads meet here Inner City/19 th Century The inner city is close to the town centre. It is where most of the old industrial buildings & factories are found. There was not a lot of transport available when the factories were opened. This meant that housing was built beside the factories for the workers and their families. Many of the factories have now closed many being left abandoned. Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map Large buildings Canals and railways Works, factories, warehouses, breweries Near CBD Little open space Football stadiums Churches Straight streets Grid-iron pattern Main roads Suburbs/20 th Century The suburbs are nearly all housing. Mostly homes that were built in 1920s and 1930s. There is more open space with many houses having gardens and parks nearby. The newest part of town is on the edge of the city. This is where the modern housings schemes are found. Most of these houses have gardens and garages. There are also new shopping centres, small industrial estates appearing. This is because the land is cheaper than nearer the city. Open space is also a main feature of the outer suburbs. Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map Cul-de-sacs & crescents Spaced out housing

23 Gardens Main roads on edge of area Identifying Suburbs Industrial Area (industrial estates) One or two storey units with few or no chimneys. It is located beside main roads. It has a planned layout. There are plenty of parking spaces and wide roads. It is landscaped with grass and trees. It is built on cheap land with room to expand. Identifying the Suburbs Business District High order shops such as furniture stores. Restaurants and entertainment. It is located beside main roads. It has plenty of parking spaces and wide roads. It is landscaped with grass and trees. It is built on cheap land with room to expand. Case Study Developed City Edinburgh Problems in the CBD CBD Shopping (St James Centre) Vs Out of Town Shopping (The Gyle) The doughnut effect occurs when the commercial activity of a city becomes contracted around outskirts out of town shopping centres e.g. The Gyle in Edinburgh have become more common and shops in CBD have problems competing. Chain stores like Marks and Spencer's have increasingly located in new shopping centres on the outskirts leading to the closure of high street stores or their reduction in size. This leaves a hollow or empty area in the middle of the city. Advantage of St James Centre

24 Easy Access Near railway station (Waverly) Close to St Andrew Bus Station Trams and Taxis Indoor shopping so stay warm and dry. Helps local shops in the CBD. Disadvantage of St James Centre Overcrowding at peak times No room to expand Limited number of parking spaces Heavy traffic Goods lorries cause congestion High land rental Advantages of The Gyle No travel to city Less traffic congestion Need park and ride Close to M9 Reduces traffic congestion in city. New station at Edinburgh Park Cheap Land Rental Easy to expand Pleasant Environment Provides jobs away from CBD Disadvantages of The Gyle Uses up the Greenbelt land Takes customers away from the CBD so shops there may close down. Solutions

25 Providing different environments for shopping (Princes Mall and St James Centre). German Market at Christmas every year which attracts many people to the city centre. Improved the gardens with more seat to sit in (Princes Street Gardens) and Rose Street (behind Princes Street) has been pedestrianised so people can go to shops without fear of traffic. Harvey Nichols and John Lewis have located to CBD which attracts more people as these a high end shops. Traffic Congestion Causes of Traffic Congestion There has been a growing number of cars that are owned which is linked with a high disposable income. The increase in the use of lorries as rail freight has declined. Also the sizes of the Lorries are issues for the tight streets. The old road pattern, width and surface cause huge problems for traffic. The number of commuters driving from dormitory settlements and the borders into the city has increased. Great increase in the number of service buses in the 1990 s. Also Edinburgh has many tourist buses which cause problem particularly in the Royal Mile. Traffic Lights, Pedestrian Crossings and Road Works Cyclists when a cycle lane is not available. Solutions The Edinburgh city by-pass was built along the foot of the Pentlands linking up with the M8, M9 and the Forth Road Bridge to take the heaviest traffic out of the city centre. Unfortunately, the volume of traffic has increased so much that there are frequent delays on the bypass itself. The use of gap sites, disused railway land and old bus garages as car parks and construction of multi-storey car parks like St James Centre Car Park. Introduction of traffic meters and traffic wardens to control kerbside parking Greenways have been designed within the city. They are bus only lanes which operate all day. Improved bus services meaning they carry more passengers and have much faster times into the CBD.

26 On Princes Street only buses and taxis are allowed to travel westward, but not eastwards. Cars travelling east are diverted around Charlotte Square and along Queen Street Possibility of charging tolls on cars travelling into the city centre has been considered. Improving rail services in to Edinburgh from Lothian's and Fife. Introducing a tram service running from the airport to York Place in the city. Park and Ride schemes on the edge of the city from Ingliston, Straiton or Hermiston Gate to the city centre. One-way streets like McEwan Square and Brandfield Street Regeneration of the Inner City Leith In the past the main function of Leith was a port with many industries particularly associated with the port. The houses had been built quickly along the industries to provide homes for the workers. In the past 10 years large areas of the port and the town itself became derelict. Buildings were left to fall in disrepair and many houses were substandard. There were limited shopping facilities and the population was declining and it was the elderly that were left behind. Regeneration High rising of flats were built Some of the old tenement blocks were renovated Gentrification people were given grants by the government to move back there and to smarten up the properties. The opening up of expensive restaurants across the harbour. Old stone built whiskey bonds were converted into open plan offices, luxury flats, boutiques and restaurants. Three new large hotels were built for example a travel lodge and upper class Malmaison Hotel Businesses have relocated from the CBD to new premises on Victoria Quay, for example the Scottish Executive. Leith was chosen to be the final anchorage for the Royal Yacht Britannia A decision was made to build an Ocean Terminal for visiting liners. Try to improve the road from Leith to centre of Edinburgh landscape for example Leith Walk has planted trees, flowers and seats

27 Rural-Urban Fringe This is the area on the outskirts of the city. An increasing number of land users see the rural-urban fringe as the ideal location for future developments. This location is less congested, has easier access, provides cheaper land for building and it is more attractive than places nearer to the city centre. This is sometimes known as Urban Sprawl. Development first begins in narrow strips along the main routes in to the city. This is called Ribbon Development. Over time, the area between the strips fills in. As a result, farmland is being dug up, woodland has been felled and there are fewer recreational areas and there has been a loss of wildlife habitats. Traffic levels have increased in these areas and noise and air pollution has increased. House prices have also increased. As a result, many people are not happy with these developments. They do not want to see urban areas spreading out any further. They want to protect the rural environment and retain the pleasant and attractive countryside that surrounds most towns and cities. It is hoped that the regeneration of the CBD will halt some of these new developments. Some other solutions include Very difficult to obtain planning permission to build. development of Brownfield sites inner city renewal Country Park status landfill tax increased Case Study Developing City Mumbai, India Changes in the CBD Transport Facilities Building transport facilities has become more and more difficult because of the cities site and situation; It was originally on several islands so bridges have had to be built. Bombay Island itself is narrow, so there is little space for roads and railways. The CBD is at the southern tip of the island so can only be accessed from the North As a result, very few roads and railways reach the centre although 8 million commuters manage to head there everyday. This means the roads are congested and buses and trains are over crowded with people hanging to their sides and roofs. This problem is only getting worse.

28 Solutions Mumbai has two main ways for dealing with this problem; The Urban Transport Project in 2002 that used four ways to solve traffic congestion; Improved railways Improved roads More buses Speed up road traffic In 1979 the building of a new town called New Bombay on the mainland opposite Mumbai. Housing in Mumbai Away form the CBD, housing takes up a far greater area than any other land use in Mumbai. Housing has to cater to everyone s different tastes and also the incomes of all the people in the city. So there are million pound apartments for the rich and famous, tenement blocks for the factory workers, shanty towns for the impoverish and squatter camps for the destitute immigrants. Squatter Camps Squatter areas are places where people settle on land which they do not own or rent. This is the poorest accommodation in Mumbai. No one owns or rents them. They are makeshift shelter with no amenities and no services; this means there is a high level of disease. There are lots of immigrants and it is very unsafe. Shanty Towns Shanty towns are large squatter camps with slightly better living conditions. The house structure and material is better (sometimes brick walls and tin roofs), they also have water supplies and sometime the local authority provides basic community toilets. The houses are still very small and very overcrowded. There is also no organised rubbish collection so refuse is dumped anywhere. Low Cost Housing Half the people in Mumbai live in shanty towns and a lot of the others live in low cost housing. These are single room tenement blacks with electricity but only for a few hours a day. They also have running water but also for only a few hours a day. The problem with these housing areas is parts have become ghettoes lived in by single religion groups for security reasons. High Cost Housing Luxury accommodation is in high rise apartment blocks found in CBD and suburbs. Land is really expensive and gated to prevent crime. Many of the complexes have there own swimming pools, tennis courts, gyms, even shopping centres, schools and health centres.

29 Executives of companies, owners of factories and Bollywood stars all live in these areas. In a way this area because another kind of ghetto. The solutions to the housing problems There are several solutions to the problems of Mumbai s housing. These include; The people have been evicted and houses bulldozed. This failed because the people just build elsewhere in the city People have been relocated to safer areas with basic amenities supplied. But, the people often resist this move because they will be too far from their work The authorities can improve the housing, by providing toilets, standpipes, schools, reinforcing the walls and giving the people legal rights to the land. Some areas, however, are so overcrowded that it is difficult to improve them. The residents form co-operative groups and organise improvements themselves. New Bombay As Mumbai could not provide for its entire people so the city authority started to build a new town called New Bombay, as an extension to Mumbai. The hope was it would reduce overcrowding in Mumbai and have jobs and services for everyone. At present it does not and people still have to travel into Mumbai everyday, making congestion worse. Development Any improvement that is made in the standard of living of people is called development. Some countries have developed more than others so have a higher standard of living. These are Developed countries. Those that have not developed as much as called Developing countries. Measuring Development It is very difficult to work out one person s standard of living. To try and measure precisely the standard of living of all the people in a country is impossible. The best that can be done is to select a few indicators of development and measure them. Three types of development indicators are studied here. Economic Indicators of Development These have been the most commonly used indicators. They measure the wealth and industrialisation of a country. They include:

30 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person The GDP is the value of all the goods produced and services provided in a country in one year. This is divided by the number of people living in the country to indicate the wealth of the average person. Gross National Product (GNP) per person The gross national product is similar to the GDP, but it also included services earned abroad. Energy used per person The amount of energy that is used in a country can also indicate economic development. Countries with a lot of industries producing much wealth will also use a lot of energy. People employed in Agriculture A country with a high proportion of its people in agriculture will have little industry to produce wealth. In addition, farms are likely to be small and unprofitable. So, a high percentage of people in agriculture are a good indicator of a less developed country and vice versa. Problems with Economic Indicators Although a country may produce a lot of wealth, it may not be spread out amongst its entire people. A small number may be extremely wealthy while the vast majority remain poor. The amount of wealth does not give enough information on people s quality of life. For example how wealthy they are and how well educated. The amount of income and wealth does not even show how well off people are. This needs to be compared with prices to find out what people can buy with that amount of money. Social Indicators of Development Social indicators show how a country uses its wealth to improve the quality of life of its people. Those measure health include: Population per doctor per 1000 Infant mortality (the no. of children who die before they are 1 year old) per 1000 Life expectancy at birth in years Those that measure diet include: Calories per person per day Protein per person per day