THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF THE NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS VOLUME II: Mesoamerica

Transcription

1 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF THE NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS VOLUME II: Mesoamerica

2 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF THE NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS VOLUME I: NORTH AMERICA Edited by Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn VOLUME II: MESOAMERICA Edited by Richard E. W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod VOLUME III: SOUTH AMERICA Edited by Frank Salomon and Stuart B. Schwartz

3 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF THE NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS VOLUME II MESOAMERICA PART 1 Edited by Richard E.W. Adams Murdo J. MacLeod University of Texas University of Florida at San Antonio CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

4 PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY , USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon 13, Madrid, Spain Cambridge University Press 2000 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2000 Printed in the United States of America Typeface Adobe Garamond 11/13 pt. System DeskTopPro /ux [BV] A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mesoamerica / edited by Richard E. W. Adams, Murdo J. Madeod p. cm. - (Cambridge history of the Native peoples of the Americas) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN o o 1. Indians of Mesoamerica-History. I. Adams, Richard E. W. II. Madeod, Murdo J. III. Series. E77.N O.oo4'97-dc2O CIP Volume I: North America ISBN hardback complete set Volume I: North America, Part 1 ISBN Volume I: North America, Part 2 ISBN Volume II: Mesoamerica ISBN hardback complete set Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part 1 ISBN Volume II: Mesoamerica, Part 2 ISBN Volume III: South America ISBN hardback complete set Volume III: South America, Part 1 ISBN Volume III: South America, Part 2 ISBN

5 CONTENTS List of Illustrations page ix Part i 1 Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica RICHARD E. W. ADAMS i 2 The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica 45 ROBERT N. ZEITLIN AND JUDITH FRANCIS ZEITLIN 3 The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica 122 DAVID C. GROVE 4 The Precolumbian Cultures of the Gulf Coast 156 RICHARD A. DIEHL 5 The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes 197 NORMAN HAMMOND 6 The Central Mexican Highlands from the Rise of Teotihuacan to the Decline of Tula 250 GEORGE L. COWGILL 7 Western and Northwestern Mexico 318 SHIRLEY S. GORENSTEIN 8 Cultural Evolution in Oaxaca: The Origins of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations 358 JOYCE MARCUS AND KENT V. FLANNERY 9 The Southeast Frontiers of Mesoamerica 407 PAYSON D. SHEETS

6 vi Contents 10 The Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast 449 ROBERT J. SHARER 11 The Aztecs and Their Contemporaries: The Central and Eastern Mexican Highlands 500 THOMAS H. CHARLTON Index to Part Part x 12 Mesoamerica since the Spanish Invasion: An Overview 1 MURDO J. MACLEOD 13 Legacies of Resistance, Adaptation, and Tenacity: History of the Native Peoples of Northwest Mexico 44 SUSAN M. DEEDS 14 The Native Peoples of Northeastern Mexico 89 DAVID FRYE 15 The Indigenous Peoples of Western Mexico from the Spanish Invasion to the Present 136 ERIC VAN YOUNG 16 Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico 187 SARAH L. CLINE 17 Native Peoples of Central Mexico since Independence 223 FRANS J. SCHRYER 18 Native Peoples of the Gulf Coast from die Colonial Period to die Present 274 SUSAN DEANS-SMITH 19 The Indigenous Population of Oaxaca from the Sixteendi Century to the Present 302 MARIA DE LOS ANGELES ROMERO FRIZZI

7 Contents vii 20 The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present 346 GRANT D. JONES 21 The Highland Maya 392 W. GEORGE LOVELL Index to Part 2 445

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9 ILLUSTRATIONS MAPS TO PART I I.I A general map of Mesoamerica, showing major ancient, colonial, and modern population centers page North America, showing Bering land bridge, Late Pleistocene glacial zones, and probable migration routes into Mesoamerica Mesoamerica, indicating location of Paleoindian sites Archaeological sites of the Mesoamerican Archaic period Preclassic sites in the central highlands Archaeological sites of the Mexican Gulf Coast region Important sites in the Maya Area: Preclassic through Postclassic period Mayan language areas Major environmental divisions The central Mexican highlands Sites in Guanajuato, Michoacan, Jalisco, Colima, and Nayarit Sites in Zacatecas, Durango, and coastal western Mexico Guerrero: The Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin Sites in northern Sinaloa and in Sonora Archaeological sites and ethnic groups of Oaxaca Archaeological sites and obsidian sources of ancient Mesoamerica The southeastern Mesoamerican frontier in the Middle Formative period, B.C.E Mesoamerica, the Intermediate Area, and the frontier in the Late Formative period, 500 B.C.E.-C.E IX

10 x Illustrations 9.4 Mesoamerica, the Intermediate Area, and the frontier in the Early Classic period, C.E Mesoamerica, the Intermediate Area, and the frontier in the Late Classic period, C.E Mesoamerica, the Intermediate Area, and the frontier in the Postclassic period Archaeological sites of the Maya highlands and the adjacent Pacific Coast Central Mexican symbiotic region Epi-Teotihuacan period occupation Early Aztec period occupation Late Aztec occupation 505 FIGURES TO PART I 2.1 Temporal framework for the Paleoindian and Archaic periods Clovis-type fluted projectile point from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, and Ladyville, Belize "Fishtail" point from Madden Lake, Panama Projectile points from Santa Isabel Iztapan: (A) Scottsbluff; (B) Lerma; (C) Angostura Tequixquiac carved camelid sacrum Typical Archaic period mano and metate from Tehuacan Corncob remains from excavations at Tehuacan Guila Naquitz Cave, in its environmental setting Naquitz-phase lithic artifacts: (A) notched flake; (B) denticulate scraper; (C) crude blade Net bag fragment from Guild Naquitz Wild plant food remains from excavations at Guila Naquitz Cave Late Archaic/Early Formative lithic artifacts from Belize Experimentally grown teosinte from the Valley of Oaxaca Typical Early Preclassic clay figurines Crocodilian supernatural, Tlapacoya Paw and wing motifs, Tlatilco Sharklike supernaturals, La Bocas Ritual scene, Monument 2, Chalcatzingo 143

11 Illustrations xi 3.6 Cliff carving, Monument 1, Chalcatzingo Stela depicting a woman, Monument 21, Chalcatzingo Olmec colossal head, San Lorenzo Monument Olmec diopside-jadeite figurine Tres Zapotes Stela C La Mojarra Stela Matacapan kiln El Taj in Pyramid of the Niches Carved panel, El Tajin South ballcourt Stone yoke Smiling face figurine, El Zapotal Monumental hollow sculpture, clay, El Zapotal Huastec stone sculpture at Castillo de Teayo Castillo de Teayo pyramid Mausoleums at Quiahuiztlan Hernan Cortes and Dona Marina after landing on the beach at Quiahuiztlan Structure 326 at Cuello, Belize, seen from above Rio Azul, an Early Classic city The popol na or council house at Copan after restoration The palace at Palenque Puuc-style palace at Sayil The Castillo at Chichen Itza The Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, the largest in Mesoamerica The first and second churches at Lamanai An aerial view of Teotihuacan Teotihuacan talud-tablero architecture One of the "Kneeling Jaguar" murals from the Tetitla apartment compound Archaeological map of Teotihuacan West facade of the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Temple of Quetzalcoatl One of the feathered serpent and headdress pairs on the Feathered Serpent Pyramid A sacrifice victim in military attire Nose pendants worn by sacrificed victims Stone skulls from die Sun Plaza, Teotihuacan 274

12 xii Illustrations 6.10 Some Miccaotli Early Tlamimilolpa ceramics Relief carving from Soyoltepec Teotihuacan candeleros, Xolalpan-Metepec phase A Teotihuacan composite censer, Xolalpan-Metepec phase Principal buildings at Tula Grande Plan of the archaeological site of Tula Workmen building a protective wall around remains of Structure 6, San Jose Mogote Vessels of B.C., showing stylized depictions of "Lightning" and "Earthquake" Late Formative settlements in the Yanhuitlan Nochixtlan Valley Artist's reconstruction of a Middle Formative building at Huitzo Villages and hamlets in the western Valley of Oaxaca, B.C A public building from San Jose Mogote, dating to B.C Upper surface of Monument 3 at San Jose Mogote Aerial view of the Main Plaza at Monte Alban Valley of Oaxaca settlements, c. 300 B.C Remnant of Building L at Monte Alban Aerial view of Pena de los Corrales Plan of Monte Negro in the Mixteca Alta Plan of Main Plaza at Monte Alban A Classic period palace at Monte Alban Classic Zapotec effigy vessels Classic period temple from Monte Alban Monumental structure at Cerro de la Campana Classic period sites in the Yanhuitlan Nochixtlan Valley The Lapida de Bazan A Zapotec "genealogical register" of A.D Postclassic settlements in the Yanhuitlan-Nochixtlan Valley Postclassic settlements in the central Valley of Oaxaca Postclassic polychrome dish in Mixteca-Puebla style 398

13 Illustrations xiii 8.24 Small jadeite figurine A scene from the Codex Bodley The Hall of Columns at Mitla The rocky fortress of Mitla Excavation of the main Middle Formative period pyramid E-3-1, Trapiche area of Chalchuapa Artist's reconstruction of Structures 3 and 4 at Quelepa, El Salvador Part of Structure 1, communal building of Household 1 at the Ceren site Isometric drawing of Structure 2a at the Ceren site Artist's reconstruction of Structure 2a at the Ceren site Isometric drawing and plan of Structure 3 at the Ceren site Artist's reconstruction of Structure 3 at the Ceren site Excavation at El Mesak Rubbing of a figure on Monument 12, Chalchuapa, El Salvador Kaminaljuyu Stela 11, portraying a Late Preclassic ruler Abaj Takalik Stela 5 in situ with its accompanying "altar" Example of Usulutan (resist) pottery from Chalchuapa, El Salvador El Baiil Stela Monument 16 from the Salama Valley, Guatemala Abaj Takalik "Pot-bellied" Monument TABLES TO PART I 1.1 Major cultural institutions universal to human cultures (not exhaustive) Material correlates to cultural institutions (not exhaustive) Correlation of cultural institutions with field and other research methods of archaeology (not exhaustive) Chronological history of major Gulf Coast archaeological sites 161

14 xiv Illustrations MAPS TO PART X 12.1 A general map of Mesoamerica showing major ancient, colonial, and modern population centers page Northwest Mexico Native groups of northwest Mexico Northeast Mexico Northeast Mexico, c The Mexican states, including the Center-West Native languages of Center-West Mexico in North frontier of New Spain Center-West Mexico Nahua area of Central Mexico Central Mexico: Colonial boundaries and topography Native cultural/linguistic areas Areas where more than 40 percent of adults spoke native languages before Areas of developing ranchero economies in the late nineteenth century Totonacapan Modern-day Veracruz Indigenous groups of Oaxaca State of Oaxaca and the Republic of Mexico Geographical regions of Oaxaca Distribution of Spanish colonial-period lowland Maya languages The Maya lowlands Native language groups of Chiapas Native language groups of Guatemala Chiapas Guatemala 399 TABLES TO PART % 14.1 Some estimates of native population of northeastern Mexico at contact The highland Maya of Chiapas, The highland Maya of Guatemala, Maya speakers in Chiapas,

15 Illustrations xv 21.4 Maya speakers in Guatemala, Native depopulation in sixteenth-century Guatemala The Indian population of Chiapas and Soconusco, Awards of encomienda in early colonial Guatemala, The tributary population of Huehuetenango and subject towns, and Encomienda obligations in Huehuetenango in and Pueblos de Indios founded in the sixteenth century by regular and secular clergy Pueblos and parcialidades in Totonicapan, c Profits earned on repartimientos by the alcalde mayor of Ciudad Real (San Crist6bal de las Casas) in Chiapas,

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17 1 INTRODUCTION TO A SURVEY OF THE NATIVE PREHISTORIC CULTURES OF MESOAMERICA RICHARD E. W. ADAMS This section both introduces the chapters of my colleagues that follow and is an attempt to outline the intellectual context within which the work and thought have been accomplished. A short historical background is also provided as well as a description of the basic theoretical underpinnings of American archaeology. THE FUNDAMENTAL INTELLECTUAL STRUCTURES OF MESOAMERICAN FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY The basic theoretical structure of American archaeology is derived from its association with anthropology as well as parts derived from Western scholarly and traditions in general. Briefly, anthropology (and therefore archaeology) argues that most human behavior is patterned and that the patterns are culturally determined. Furthermore, any given culture is made up of such patterned behavior, functionally integrated, and driven by a core of beliefs about the nature of the universe and humanity's place in it. These disciplinary premises have been distilled from the study of hundreds of cultures, mainly non-western, over the past 150 years, although Herodotus (c. 425 B.C.) is often claimed as an early anthropologist. All cultural patterns, such as differentiated social status, have material correlates, as witness differential housing. For archaeologists, the important part of this premise is that the material remains of any culture therefore have some relation to the formerly operative nonmaterial behaviors. For example, ancestor veneration among the Maya drove them I am deeply indebted to Harry Shafer, Thomas Hester, Jeffrey Quilter, and Laura J. Levi for commentary on this introductory chapter. While I did not take all of their advice, I carefully considered it, and any errors, therefore, are doubly my own.

18 2 Richard E. W. Adams to create shrines and temples, large and small, which are now found in ruins across the landscape. Analytically, the anthropologist and archaeologist both may artificially break cultures down into component parts called cultural institutions. The use of cultural institutions is not the only means of analysis, but it is a particularly useful concept for archaeology because of the direct logical linkage between institutions and their material remains. Thus ancient irrigation canals reflect not just a farming technique but a segment of a former economic system. Examples of both cultural institutions and their material correlates are provided in Tables I.I and 1.2. Research methods that generate the data are listed in Table 1.3. A final point is that archaeology depends greatly on analogy to ethnographic or historical cultures in order to interpret material remains. A mild dispute exists between those who argue that only the sixteenthcentury Mesoamerican cultures are appropriate analogies and those who cast their nets wider and include parallels from other historical or prehistoric civilizations. Scholarly tradition in Western civilization has evolved so that it is commonly practiced in three distinct stages. The first is the gathering of information (fieldwork), then the elicitation of patterns from it (analysis), and finally the attempted explanation of those patterns (theory). It should also be observed, as it was by Sir John Ecdes, "that all of science is based on a metaphysical assumption: There is a lawful order to the universe" (Michael Warder, WSJ i9apr96). This is the most fundamental of the premises of Western science and modern scholarship. Warder also observes that "metaphysical beliefs cannot, by definition, be disproven by the scientific method" (op. cit). Finally, explanation (theory) is derived from patterns in the data through the use of analogy or of greater perception. Analogical theory is epitomized by systems theory, and greater perception by cultural ecology, for example. Systems theory largely depends on the demonstrable or arguable linkages among the active parts of a cultural institution. Greater perception is dependent to some degree on personal experience. It is bemusing to note the amazement of scholars whose lives have largely been spent in urban areas when they write of agricultural systems and their linkages to the natural environment. Cultural ecology makes these linkages explicit in both static and dynamic forms. Cultural institutions exist(ed) within ecological and biological contexts, the major categories of which seem to be:

19 Table I.I. Major cultural institutions universal to human cultures (not exhaustive) I. Kinship Cultural institutions z. Non-kin groups (associations, sodalities, etc.) 3. Social structure 4. Economics 5. Politics 6. Ideology 7. Warfare 8. Settlement patterns 9. Technology 10. Intellectual developments, communicative systems, and administrative and educational tools Subcategories residential rules terminological categories descent and inheritance rules ranking principles, etc. warrior societies religious sodalities occupational guilds (flint-knappers, scribe-artists?) tribal secret fraternities, etc. principles of ranking within society; ascribed and achieved status rank, class, or caste societies economic factors in social ranking occupational specializations, etc. food production craft production internal exchange and distribution external trade tribute systems and taxation, etc. allocation of power relative to social structure and kinship units centralization versus diffusion of power; differences among regional states bureaucracy geographical units; hierarchical organization regional state and city-state models tribute systems, conquest states, etc. formal religion folk religion magic and witchcraft world view political ideology regional and temporal variation, etc. military organization weapons systems fortifications strategy and tactics, etc. urban networks settlement hierarchies rural fabric major landscape modification (wetland drainage, terracing, leveling, paving, wall networks, roadnets, dams, reservoirs, etc.) argicultural crafts (weaving, pottery, woodwork, feather working, etc.) construction (quarrying, masonry, mortar, stucco, plaster preparation [factor in deforestation]), engineering, architecture (heavy transport), etc. writing mathematics astronomy art and iconography, etc.

20 Richard E. W. Adams Table 1.2. Material correlates to cultural institutions (not exhaustive) Material remains Analytical results Cultural institutions Trash deposits Artifacts (pottery, stone tools, jewelry, etc.) Architecture General construction Burials discard patterns; artifacts taxonomic categories functional categories; e.g., formal and informal buildings, ritual, residential, administrative, military, and burial structures functional categories: agricultural, site preparation, hydraulic, etc. classification ranges (interments to tombs); content analysis social structure, trade patterns, etc. technological development, trade patterns, craft specializations, etc. social, religious, political, demographic, kinship, and other institutions technology, economic, political, and demographic institutions social, religious, economic, kinship, and other institutions 1. Climate and climatic cycles 2. Human demography, and its fluctuations 3. Health and disease parameters 4. Topographic and ecological characteristics: soils, drainage, minerals, and so forth 5. Major landscape modification 6. Plant and animal inventories. The interactions of these elements of the natural world with those of the cultural world constitute what has been called cultural ecology. Processualism, particularly espoused by the "New Archaeology," attempts to explain cultural change and creation not only in terms of this interaction but also by the interactions of cultural institutions among and within themselves. Beyond these postulated factors are what I term secondary theoretical structures, such as those purporting to explain the origins of state-level political organizations or particular events of culture history. However, these derive either from the basic theoretical foundation or from the rapidly changing mass of data. To be sure, the fundamental theoretical structure of (especially Americanist) archaeology has been under attack by scholars who have estab-