PART 4. COLOMBIA COCA CULTIVATION SURVEY

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1 PART 4. COLOMBIA COCA CULTIVATION SURVEY

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3 SUMMARY FACTS SHEET 2004 Variation on Net coca cultivation (rounded total) 80,000 hectares + 8% 86,000 hectares Of which Meta-Guaviare region 28,500 hectares - 9% 25,970 hectares Pacific region 15,800 hectares + 12% 17,650 hectares Central region 15,100 hectares + 4% 15,630 hectares Putumayo-Caqueta region 10,900 hectares +28% 13,950 hectares Elsewhere 10,100 hectares +24% 12,570 hectares Reported accumulated aerial spraying of coca bush 136,550 hectares + 2 % 138,775 hectares Reported manual eradication of coca bush 2,589 hectares 31,285 hectares US$ 810 /kg Average farm-gate price of coca paste COP 2,119,000 /kg Total farm-gate value of the production of coca leaf and derivatives + 12 % - 0.5% US$ 910 /kg COP 2,109,000 /kg US$ 843 million in percent of GDP (US$ 122 billion in 2005) 0.7% in percent of GDP of agricultural sector (US$ 13.8 billion in 2005) 6% Number of households involved in coca cultivation Annual household gross income from the production of coca leaf and its derivatives 68,600 households US$ 12,300 Annual use of fertilizers on coca fields ~85,000 mt Annual use of herbicides on coca fields ~12 million litres Potential production of cocaine mt 640mt In percent of world cocaine production 68 % 70 % Average cocaine price US$ 1,713 /kg COP 4,600,000 /kg + 9% - 6% US$ 1,860/kg COP 4,315,000/kg Reported seizure of cocaine 149,297 kg + 16% 173,265 kg Reported seizure of heroin 773 kg - 4% 745 kg Reported destruction of illegal laboratories 2 1, % 1,953 1 Cocaine production for 2004 has been revised following the field findings obtained in Includes laboratories processing coca paste/base, cocaine hydrochloride, heroin, morphine, potassium, permanganate, and non specified. 105

4 Abbreviations CICAD COP DANE DEA DIRAN DNE DNP ICMP INCB IDB IDP PDA PCI RSS SIMCI II UIAF UNODC US$ Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission Colombian Pesos National Department of Statistics US Drugs Enforcement Agency Colombian Anti-Narcotics Police National Narcotics Office National Planning Department Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme International Narcotics Control Board Inter-American Development Bank Internally Displaced People Alternative Development Programme Presidential Programme against Illicit Crops Colombian Social Solidarity Net Integrated Illicit Crops Monitoring System Special Administrative Unit on Information and Financial Analysis United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. United States Dollars Acknowledgements The following organizations and individuals contributed to the implementation of the 2005 coca cultivation survey in Colombia, and to the preparation of the present report: Government of Colombia: Ministry of Interior and Justice National Narcotics Office -DNE Colombian Anti-Narcotics Police -DIRAN Ministry of Defence Colombia Agency for International Cooperation ACCI Presidential Agency for Social Action and International Cooperation UNODC: Rodolfo Llinás, SIMCI Project Coordinator Orlando González, Digital Processing Expert Sandra Rodríguez, Digital Processing Expert Zully Sosa, Digital Processing Expert Maria Isabel Velandia, Digital Processing Expert Martha Paredes, Research and Analysis Expert Leonardo Correa, Field Engineer Juan Carlos Parra, Editing Engineer Martha Luz Gutierrez, Administrative Assistant Javier Espejo, Assistant Engineer Juan Pablo Ardila, Assistant Engineer Sandro Calvani, Representative for Colombia Guillermo Garcia, National Programme Officer Coen Bussink, Remote Sensing and GIS expert (UNODC Research and Analysis Section - ICMP) Denis Destrebecq, Regional Illicit Crop Monitoring Expert (UNODC Research and Analysis Section - ICMP) Anja Korenblik, Programme Manager (UNODC Research and Analysis Section - ICMP) Thibault le Pichon, Chief (UNODC Research and Analysis Section) Thomas Pietschmann, Research Officer (UNODC-Research and Analysis Section) Martin Raithelhuber, Programme Officer (UNODC Research and Analysis Section ICMP) Javier Teran, Statistician (UNODC Research and Analysis Section ICMP) The implementation of UNODC s Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme in the Andean countries and the Colombia survey in 2005 was made possible thanks to financial contributions from the Governments of The United States of America (USAID), The Netherlands and United Kingdom. 106

5 TABLE OF CONTENT 1 INTRODUCTION FINDINGS CULTIVATION Coca Cultivation Regional analysis Meta-Guaviare region Pacific region Central region Putumayo-Caqueta region Orinoco region Amazonia region Sierra Nevada region Possible areas of new cultivation Coca plant varieties Coca cultivation and poverty Coca cultivation and displacement Coca cultivation and the forest warden families programme Coca cultivation in National Parks NEW FINDINGS ON YIELD AND PRODUCTION Coca leaf yield and coca leaf production Annual yield Coca leaf, coca paste and base production Revised potential cocaine production PRICES Coca leaf, coca base and cocaine prices REPORTED AERIAL SPRAYING AND MANUAL ERADICATION REPORTED SEIZURE Index of Maps Map 1: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, Map 2: Coca cultivation density change in Colombia, Map 4: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, Map 3: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, Map 5: Changes in coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 6: Coca cultivation by region in Colombia, Map 7: Coca cultivation density in the Meta-Guaviare region, Colombia Map 8: Coca cultivation density in the Pacific region, Colombia Map 9: Coca cultivation density in the Central region, Colombia Map 10: Coca cultivation density in the Putumayo-Caqueta region, Colombia Map 11: Coca cultivation density in the Orinoco region, Colombia Map 12: Coca cultivation density in the Amazonia region, Colombia Map 13: Coca cultivation density in the Sierra Nevada region, Colombia Map 14: Distribution of coca plants varieties in Colombia, Map 15: Index of livelihood conditions by department in 2003 and coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 16: Internal people displaced because of violence between 2000 and Map 17: Forest Warden Families Programme and coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 18: National Parks and coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 19: Aerial perspective of the National Park Sierra de La Macarena and coca cultivation in Map 20: Coca yield by region in Colombia, Map 21: Annual coca leaf production in Colombia, Map 22: Aerial spraying and coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 23: Destruction of clandestine laboratories and coca cultivation in Colombia, Map 24: Drug seizures by department and by drug type, Colombia

6 1 INTRODUCTION The objectives of UNODC s Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme (ICMP) are to establish methodologies for data collection and analysis, to increase the governments capacity to monitor illicit crops on their territories and to assist the international community in monitoring the extent and evolution of illicit crops in the context of the elimination strategy adopted by the Member States at the U.N. General Assembly Special Session on Drugs in June ICMP presently covers seven countries: Colombia, Bolivia and Peru for coca; Afghanistan, Laos and Myanmar for opium and Morocco for cannabis. During the 1980 s and 1990 s, Colombia became the country with the largest illicit coca growing area and cocaine production in the world. Illicit coca cultivation in the country expanded steadily throughout this period, in particular in remote areas of the Amazon basin. Although, coca cultivation started to decrease in 2001, Colombia still remains the largest coca-growing country in the world. UNODC has supported the monitoring of illicit crops since 1999, and has produced seven annual surveys. In October 2003, UNODC signed a new agreement with the Colombian government to continue and expand monitoring and analysis work. In this context, the SIMCI II project has established to facilitate the implementation of additional tasks in the framework of an integrated approach to the analysis of the drug problem in Colombia. The project also supports the monitoring of related problems such as fragile ecosystems, natural parks, indigenous territories, the expansion of the agricultural frontier and deforestation. It provides Geographic Information System support to the government s alternative development projects and its Forest Families Warden Programme. The new project foresees the creation of an Inter-Institutional Committee permanently assigned to the project in order to ensuring the transfer of know how to the national beneficiary institutions. SIMCI II is a joint project between UNODC and the Colombian government, represented by Ministry of Interior and Justice and the International Cooperation Agency. The national counterpart and director of the project is the head of the Ministry of Interior and Justice. The project is managed by a technical coordinator and composed of engineers and technicians: four digital image processing specialists, one field engineer, a cartographic technician, a research and analysis specialist, two assistant engineers and an administrative assistant. The team is integrated on permanent basis by technicians from DIRAN and National Parks Administration it supports several studies and investigations for government and private institutions, related to land use, environment, licit crops, etc. SIMCI provides to their experts, access to its Spatial Information Data Bank, transfer of technology and guidance to achieve their goals. Organizations that benefited from SIMCI support include DANE, local governments, the National Federation of Coffee Growers, NGO s as well as other UN agencies and projects. 108

7 Río Ma gdalena Río Caquetá Map 1: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America Barranquilla La Guajira Cartagena Atlántico Magdalena 10 N Cesar 10 N PANAMA Córdoba Sucre Bolívar Norte de Santander Cucutá VENEZUELA Arauca 5 N Pacific Ocean Río Atrato Chocó Valle Cali uca Río Ca Medellín Antioquia Caldas Risaralda Quindío Tolima Santander Boyacá Cundinamarca Bogotá Meta Casanare Arauca eta Río M Río Vichada Río Guaviare Vichada R ío Arauca Puerto Carreño Río Orinoco 5 N Tumaco Nariño Pasto Cauca Popayán Huila Florencia na Río Magdale Neiva San José Guaviare Mitú Río Inírida Guainía Putumayo Puerto Asís Caquetá Vaupés 0 0 Río P utuma ECUADOR yo Amazonas BRAZIL 5 S Cultivation density (ha/km²) >4.0 International boundaries Department boundaries PERU km Geographic coordinates WGS W Rí oamazonas Leticia 70 W 5 S Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 109

8 2 FINDINGS 2.1 CULTIVATION COCA CULTIVATION In 2005, the total area under coca cultivation in Colombia increased by 6,000 hectares, a 8% increase compared to previous year s estimate of 80,000 hectares. This is the first increase following four consecutive years of annual decreased in Colombia, between 2000 and During that period, coca cultivation decreased by 51% and the 2005 s area under coca cultivation is 47% lower compared to the peak annual estimate of 163,000 hectares in Similarly to the previous four surveys, the 2005 survey represented the situation as of the end of the year, in this case as of December As was the case last year, it covered the whole country and detected coca cultivation in 23 departments out of 32. In 2005, the area under coca cultivation represents 0.08% of the total territory. Figure 1. Coca cultivation in Colombia, (in hectares) 160, , ,000 Hectares 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20, Hectares 51,000 67,000 79, , , , , ,000 86,000 80,000 86,000 Sources United States Department of State National Monitoring System Supported by UNODC The increase in coca cultivation between 2004 and 2005 took place despite high level of aerial spraying, which in 2005 reached 138,780 hectares. In fact, aerial spraying of coca cultivation has remained above 130,000 hectares since In 2005, the Colombian Government also reported the additional manual eradication of 31,285 hectares of coca cultivation. This level of manual eradication was unprecedented, as it only reached 2,700 hectares in 2003 and 4,000 hectares in

9 Table 1: Stable and new fields of coca bush in 2005 Region Identified in 2004 and 2005 Not detected in 2004 Total 2005 Number of fields % of total fields Area (hectares) % of total area Number of fields % of total fields Area (hectares) % of total area Total Fields Total Area (hectares) Meta-Guaviare 7, , , , ,759 25,963 Pacific 5, , , , ,160 17,633 The comparison of the position of the coca fields in 2004 and 2005 revealed that about 65% of the fields were in a different position or at least not observed in 2004 for various reasons (aerial spraying, recently harvested, recently planted, etc) and therefore not in production and not accounted for in the 2004 census. This is to say that not all of these coca fields can be qualified as new fields planted in For a better assessment of the dynamic of coca cultivation in Colombia, a comparison was made between the position of the coca fields identified in 2005 and the position of the fields identified between 2001 and In total, 44% of the fields identified in 2005 had never been detected before. Such observation suggests a high mobility of coca cultivation in Colombia. Table 2: Stable and new fields of coca bush in Region Number of fields Stable New in 2005 Total 2005 % of total fields Area (hectares) % of total area Number of fields % of total fields Area (hectares) % of total area Total Fields Total Area (hectares) Central 4, , , , ,407 15,632 Putumayo- Caquetá 2, , , , ,997 13,951 Orinoquia 2, , , , ,874 9,709 Amazonia , ,528 2,320 Sierra Nevada TOTAL 23, , , , ,306 85,750 Meta-Guaviare 12, , , , ,759 25,963 Pacific 8, , , , ,160 17,633 Putumayo- Caquetá 6, , , , ,997 15,632 Central 5, , , , ,407 13,951 Orinoquia 3, , , , ,874 9,709 Amazonia , ,528 2,320 Sierra Nevada TOTAL 37, , , , ,306 85,750 The analysis of the census data also showed that the average coca field size decreased from 1.3 hectares in 2004 to 1.13 hectares in 2005 (-13%). A possible explanation could be that farmers are reducing the size of their coca fields to avoid detection and aerial spraying. 111

10 Map 2: Coca cultivation density change in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America Cartagena Barranquilla Atlántico Magdalena La Guajira 10 N Cesar 10 N PANAMA Córdoba Sucre Bolívar Norte de Santander Cucutá VENEZUELA Arauca Medellín Antioquia Santander Arauca Puerto Carreño Chocó Risaralda Caldas Boyacá Casanare Vichada 5 N Pacific Ocean Valle Cali Quindío Tolima Cundinamarca Bogotá Meta 5 N Cauca Popayán Huila Neiva San José Guainía Tumaco Nariño Pasto Florencia Guaviare Mitú Puerto Asís Putumayo Caquetá Vaupés 0 0 ECUADOR Amazonas BRAZIL 5 S Strong decrease Decrease Stable Increase Strong increase International boundaries Department boundaries PERU km Geographic coordinates WGS W Leticia 70 W 5 S Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 112

11 In absolute numbers, the most important increases of coca crops between 2004 and 2005 were noted in the departments of Putumayo (+ 4,600 hectares) in the Southern part of the country and Vichada (+3,100 hectares) in the Orinoco region bordering Venezuela. The increase in Putumayo corresponded to doubling the area under coca cultivation between 2004 and 2005, from 4,390 hectares to 8,960 hectares. Putumayo used to be the centre of coca cultivation, with 66,000 hectares in Coca cultivation had strongly declined until 2004, but this year s increase could indicate a return of farmers to coca cultivation. The largest reductions of coca crops took place in the departments of Norte de Santander (- 2,200 hectares) and Caqueta (- 1,500 hectares). The strong decrease in Norte de Santander, at the border with Venezuela, meant that there was a small coca cultivation left in 2005 in this department, with less than 1,000 hectares. In 2005 Norte de Santander was among the departments with the lowest levels of coca cultivation. Compared to 2004, Meta despite a decrease of 1,430 hectares - and Nariño remained the first two departments in terms of coca cultivation, together accounting for 36% of the total area under coca cultivation in the country. In fact 78% of the 2005 cultivation took place in just seven departments, the same seven departments that also accounted for 78% of 2004 total cultivation: Meta, Nariño, Putumayo, Guaviare, Vichada, Antioquia and Caqueta. Table 3: Coca cultivation by department in Colombia, (hectares) Department Mar Aug Nov Dec Dec Dec Dec % Change Meta 11,384 11,123 11,425 9,222 12,814 18,740 17,305-8% 20% Nariño 3,959 9,343 7,494 15,131 17,628 14,154 13,875-2% 16% Putumayo 58,297 66,022 47,120 13,725 7,559 4,386 8, % 10% Guaviare 28,435 17,619 25,553 27,381 16,163 9,769 8,658-11% 10% Vichada 4,935 9,166 4,910 3,818 4,692 7,826 67% 9% Antioquia 3,644 2,547 3,171 3,030 4,273 5,168 6,414 24% 7% Caquetá 23,718 26,603 14,516 8,412 7,230 6,500 4,988-23% 6% Bolívar 5,897 5,960 4,824 2,735 4,470 3,402 3,670 8% 4% Córdoba 1, ,536 3, % 4% Cauca 6,291 4,576 3,139 2,120 1,443 1,266 2, % 3% Arauca 978 2,749 2, ,552 1,883 21% 2% Chocó , % 1% Santander 2, , % 1% Amazonas % 1% N. de Santander 15,039 6,280 9,145 8,041 4,471 3, % 1% Guainía 853 1, % 1% Vaupés 1,014 1,493 1,918 1,485 1,157 1, % 1% Boyacá % 0.4% Guajira % 0.4% Magdalena % 0.2% Caldas % 0.2% Cundinamarca % 0.1% Valle del Cauca % 0.03% TOTAL 160, , , ,071 86,340 80,350 85, % Rounded Total 160, , , ,000 86,000 80,000 86, % Department affected Country coverage 12% 41% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% % of 2005 total 113

12 Caribbean Sea Caribbean Sea auca auca a á á Map 4: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia South America Cartagena Barranquilla Atlántico Magdalena La Guajira Cesar Río M agdalena Córdoba Sucre Bolívar Norte de Santander PANAMA Cucutá VENEZUELA Arauca ío Atrato ca Rí o Arau Río C Río Orinoco R eta Chocó Río M Vichada Río Vichada Risaralda Quindío Antioquia Medellín Caldas Pacific Ocean Tolima Cundinamarca Bogotá Santander Boyacá Casanare Arauca Puerto Carreño Valle Cali Meta Río Guaviare len Inírida Río Río Magda Cauca Tumaco Nariño Pasto Popayán Huila Florencia Neiva San José Guaviare Mitú Guainía Putumayo Caquetá Vaupés Puerto Asís Río Caquet Amazonas Río P utumayo ECUADOR BRAZIL PERU Rí oamazonas 75 W Leticia 70 W 5 S 5 S N 5 N 10 N 10 N Map 3: Coca cultivation density in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia South America Cartagena Barranquilla Atlántico Magdalena La Guajira Cesar Cultivation density (ha/km²) >4.0 International boundaries Department boundaries Geographic coordinates WGS 84 Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations km Río M agdalena Córdoba Sucre Bolívar Norte de Santander PANAMA Cucutá VENEZUELA Arauca ío Atrato ca Rí o Arau Río C Río Orinoco R eta Chocó Río M Vichada Río Vichada Risaralda Quindío Antioquia Medellín Caldas Pacific Ocean Tolima Cundinamarca Bogotá Santander Boyacá Casanare Arauca Puerto Carreño Valle Cali Meta Río Guaviare len a Inírida Río Río Magda Cauca Tumaco Nariño Pasto Popayán Huila Florencia Neiva San José Guaviare Mitú Guainía Putumayo Caquetá Vaupés Puerto Asís Río Caquet Amazonas Río P utum ayo ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL Rí oamazonas 75 W Leticia 70 W 5 S S N 5 N 10 N 10 N Cultivation density (ha/km²) >4.0 International boundaries Department boundaries Geographic coordinates WGS 84 km Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 114

13 Río Ma gdalena Río Caquetá Map 5: Changes in coca cultivation in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America Barranquilla La Guajira Cartagena Atlántico Magdalena 10 N Cesar 10 N PANAMA Córdoba Sucre Bolívar Norte de Santander Cucutá VENEZUELA Arauca 5 N Pacific Ocean Río Atrato Chocó Valle Cali uca Río Ca Antioquia Medellín Caldas Risaralda Quindío Tolima Santander Boyacá Cundinamarca Bogotá Meta Casanare Arauca eta Río M Río Vichada Río Guaviare R Vichada ío Arauca Puerto Carreño Río Orinoco 5 N Tumaco Nariño Pasto Cauca Popayán Huila Florencia na Río Magdale Neiva San José Guaviare Mitú Río Inírida Guainía Puerto Asís Putumayo Caquetá Vaupés 0 0 Río P utuma ECUADOR yo Amazonas BRAZIL PERU 5 S Abandonned coca fields Stable coca fields New coca fields International boundaries Department boundaries km Geographic coordinates WGS W Rí oamazonas Leticia 70 W 5 S Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 115

14 In 2005, coca cultivation in Colombia represented 70% of the world coca cultivation, while Peru and Bolivia represented respectively 20% and 10%. The global level of coca cultivation remained stable between 2004 and 2005, as the increase in Colombia was offset by decreases in Peru and Bolivia. 250,000 Figure 2. Coca cultivation in the Andean region (in hectares) 200, ,000 hectares 100,000 50, Bolivia Colombia Peru Table 4: Coca cultivation in the Andean region (in hectares) (please note Bolivia 2002 number) % Change Bolivia 48,600 48,100 45,800 38,000 21,800 14,600 19,900 21,600 23,600 27,700 25,400-8% Peru 115,300 94,400 68,800 51,000 38,700 43,400 46,200 46,700 44,200 50,300 48,200-4% Colombia 50,900 67,200 79, , , , , ,000 86,000 80,000 86,000 8% Total 214, , , , , , , , , , ,600 1% Sources United States Department of State National Monitoring System Supported by UNODC 116

15 2,320 13,950 25,960 17,630 9,710 15, Map 6: Coca cultivation by region in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea La Guajira South America Cartagena Barranquilla Atlántico Sierra Nevada 10 N Cesar 10 N Magdalena PANAMA Sucre Bolívar VENEZUELA Córdoba Norte de Santander Cucutá Arauca Chocó Antioquia Medellín Caldas Central Santander Boyacá Casanare Arauca Puerto Carreño 5 N Pacific Ocean Risaralda Valle Quindío Tolima Cundinamarca Bogotá Vichada Orinoco 5 N Cali Meta 0 Tumaco Nariño Pasto Pacific Popayán Cauca Puerto Asís Florencia Neiva Huila Caquetá Putumayo Putumayo - Caquetá Meta - Guaviare Guaviare Vaupés Mitú Amazonia Guainía BRAZIL 0 ECUADOR Amazonas Coca cultivation (ha) 2001 PERU S International boundaries Department boundaries km Geographic coordinates WGS W Leticia 70 W 5 S Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 117

16 Regional analysis In 2005, 46% of the coca cultivation in Colombia took place in the two traditional coca growing regions of Meta-Guaviare and Putumayo-Caqueta, both situated in the south-eastern part of the country. In absolute terms, the largest increases took place in Orinoco (+ 3,560 hectares), in the north-eastern part of the country bordering Venezuela, and Putumayo-Caqueta (+ 3,050 hectares), a traditional region for coca cultivation, bordering Ecuador. An important decrease of coca cultivation took place in the northern region of Sierra Nevada (- 57%), but in absolute numbers, this only represented a decrease of 540 hectares. Coca cultivation remained relatively stable (between +/- 10%) in Meta-Guaviare and the central region. Table 5: Coca cultivation in Colombia by region (in hectares) Region % Change % of 2005 total Figure 3. Coca cultivation in Colombia by region (in hectares) 60,000 50,000 40,000 hectares 30,000 20,000 10,000 - Meta-Guaviare 36,978 36,603 28,977 28,507 25,963-9% 30% Pacific 11,171 17,362 19,561 15,789 17,633 12% 21% Central 18,474 14,829 15,389 15,081 15,632 4% 18% Putumayo- Caqueta 61,636 22,137 14,789 10,888 13,951 28% 16% Orinoco 11,915 7,124 4,357 6,250 9,709 55% 11% Amazonia 3,768 3,018 2,508 2,588 2,320-10% 3% Sierra Nevada , % 1% Rounded Total 145, ,000 86,000 80,000 86,000 7% 100% Meta- Guaviare Pacific Central Putumayo- Caqueta Orinoco Amazonian Sierra Nevada

17 s e Map 7: Coca cultivation density in the Meta-Guaviare region, Colombia 2005 Antioquia 74 W Santander 72 W Arauca 6 N PANAMA COLOMBIA VENEZUELA 6 N Caldas Boyacá ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL Yopal Casanare Bogotá Cundinamarca 4 N Tolima Acacias Guamal San Luis de Cubarral El Castillo Cumaral Villavicencio San Carlos Guaroa Cabuyaro Puerto López San Martín Río Meta Puerto Gaitán Río Vichada Vichada 4 N Huila Mesetas San Juan de Arama Puerto Lleras Meta Mapiripán La Uribe Vista Hermosa Puerto Rico San José Puerto Concordia San José del Guaviare Río Guaviare Guainía La Macarena Río Inírida 2 N Guaviare El Retorno 2 N Calamar Rí o Vau p Miraflores Miraflores Vaupés Mitú 0 PERU Putumayo Río Putumayo Río Caguán Caquetá Río Caquetá 74 W km Geographic coordinates WGS W Amazonas Vaupés Cultivation density (ha/km²) >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Municipality boundaries Roads Meta Guaviare Region 0 Source: Goverment of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 119

18 Meta-Guaviare region Table 6: Coca cultivation in Meta-Guaviare, Department % Change Meta 11,384 11,123 11,425 9,222 12,814 18,740 17,305-8% Guaviare 28,435 17,619 25,553 27,381 16,163 9,769 8,658-11% Total 39,819 28,742 36,978 36,603 28,977 28,509 25,970 Annual trend -28% 29% -1% -21% -2% -9% In 2004 and 2005, the department of Meta remained the department with the largest level of coca cultivation, even though coca cultivation decreased of 8%, from 18,740 hectares in 2004 to 17,300 hectares in The department of Meta represented 20% of the national coca crops. In 2005, a record of 14,500 hectares of coca cultivation were sprayed in 2005 over Meta department. This represented 55% of the total aerial spraying in the region, though coca cultivation in Meta represented 67% of the total coca cultivation for both departments and the highest level of cultivation using high agro-technical efficiency. In Meta department, coca cultivation is also known to be more sophisticated than in any other department. Between 2004 and 2005, in the department of Guaviare, coca cultivation decreased from 9,769 hectares to 8,658 hectares (-11%). At the same time, aerial spraying decreased from 30,900 hectares in 2004 to 11,900 hectares in Among the thirteen national parks surveyed, the National Park of Sierra de la Macarena, located within Meta department, experienced the largest level of coca cultivation within a protected area in 2005, with 3,354 hectares. This represented an increase of 24% between 2004 and However, the increase is mostly due to a better interpretation of the coca fields in 2005 due to the absence of clouds in the images of that year. Guaviare was the department where coca cultivation first appeared in Colombia at the end of the seventies. Since then coca cultivation remained important in the department. However, an encouraging decrease has been noted in the past few years and the 8,650 hectares observed in 2005, only represented 32% of the 27,381 hectares observed in 2002, mainly owing to important aerial spraying campaigns. In 2005, Guaviare accounted for 10% of the national total. 120 Coca field in Meta department, illustrating the efficiency and sophistication of coca cultivation in this department

19 Map 8: Coca cultivation density in the Pacific region, Colombia W 76 W Montería Sucre PANA MA VENEZUELA 8 N COLOMBIA PANAMA Córdoba Bolívar 8 N ECUADOR BRAZIL PERU Cultivation density (ha/km²) 6 N >8 Río Atrato Antioquia Río Cauca Medellín 6 N International boundaries Department boundaries Roads Pacific Region Chocó Quibdó Caldas Manizales Bogotá 4 N Pacific Ocean Río San Juan Ibagué Tolima Cundinamarca 4 N Valle Cali Huila Neiva Neiva Meta Cauca Popayán Río Magdalena 2 N Tumaco R ío Patía 2 N Nariño Florencia Pasto Mocoa Caquetá ECUADOR Putumayo km Geographic coordinates WGS W 0 76 W Río Cagu 0 Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 121

20 Pacific region Table 7: Coca cultivation in the Pacific Region, (hectares) Department % Change Nariño 3,959 9,343 7,494 15,131 17,628 14,154 13,875-2% Cauca 6,291 4,576 3,139 2,120 1,443 1,266 2, % Chocó , % Valle del Cauca % Total 10,250 14,245 11,171 17,362 19,561 15,788 17,633 Annual trend 39% -22% 55% 13% -19% 12% Nariño is located in the south-western part of the country, at the border with Ecuador. The geographic features of the region include high altitudes, as well as coastline and contributed to the spread of cultivation of coca bush and opium poppy, as well as the maritime smuggling of illegal drugs and precursors through the department. Coca cultivation in Nariño became significant in 2002, at a time when coca cultivation decreased in the neighbouring departments of Putumayo and Caqueta. Between 2001 and 2002, coca cultivation decreased by 40,000 hectares in Caqueta and Putumayo, while increasing by 7,600 hectares in Nariño. Aerial spraying has been intense in Nariño department since 2000, exceeding 30,000 hectares in 2003 and 2004, and reaching a record 57,630 hectares in In 2005, coca cultivation was found in 24 municipalities out of 64. With a total of 13,875 hectares of coca cultivation, Nariño has the second highest amount of land under illicit cultivation and 16% of the total coca cultivation in the country. It is worth noting that Nariño accounted for 51% of all the fields of less than ¼ hectares found in the country, which is an indication of the coca cultivation practices in Nariño. Coca seed beds in Choco department Like neighbouring Nariño department, Cauca has a long coastline, high mountain ranges and a mainly rural economy, but coca cultivation remained relatively low in Cauca department. However, following a period of continuous decrease between 1999 and 2004, coca cultivation increased between 2004 and 2005 by 1,420 hectares (+114%), despite aerial spraying which for the first time exceeded 3,000 hectares. Several alternative development projects have been implemented in Cauca, the first one starting in Although its capital, Cali, was an important centre for narco-trafficking in the nineties, the department of Valle del Cauca always recorded less than 200 hectares under coca cultivation. 122

21 Río Magdalena Map 9: Coca cultivation density in the Central region, Colombia W Santa Marta 74 W 72 W PANAMA VENEZUELA Barranquilla La Guajira COLOMBIA Cartagena Atlántico Cesar Valledupar 10 N ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL Magdalena 10 N VENEZUELA Caribbean Sea Sincelejo Montería Sucre Río Catatumbo Catatumbo Córdoba Bolívar Norte de Santander 8 N Norte de Antioquia Sur de Bolívar Cucutá 8 N Bucaramanga Río A trato Antioquia Santander Río Cauca Medellín Arauca 6 N 6 N Quibdó Chocó Boyacá Risaralda Caldas Manizales Yopal Casanare San Juan 4 N Cultivation density (ha/km²) >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Roads Valle Central Region 76 W Cauca Ibagué Tolima Huila Bogotá Cundinamarca Villavicencio Geographic coordinates WGS W Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations Meta km Río Meta 4 N 123

22 Central region Table 8: Coca cultivation in the Central Region, (hectares) Department % Change Antioquia 3,644 2,547 3,171 3,030 4,273 5,168 6,414 25% Bolivar 5,897 5,960 4,824 2,735 4,470 3,402 3,670 8% Cordoba 1, ,536 3, % Santander - 2, , % Norte Santander 15,039 6,280 9,145 8,041 4,471 3, % Boyacá % Caldas % Cundinamarca % Total 26,500 18,118 18,474 14,829 15,389 15,073 15,632 Annual trend -32% 2% -20% 4% -2% 4% Since 2002, coca cultivation remained stable at around 15,000 hectares in the Central region of Colombia. Between 2004 and 2005, coca cultivation increased by 4% to reach 15,632 hectares.at the end of the nineties, Norte de Santander department was one of the most important centres of coca cultivation in the country, accounting for 10% of the country total in Between 2002 and 2004, aerial spraying averaged 10,000 hectares per year over this area, but in 2005 dropped to less than 1,000 hectares. At the same time, important alternative development projects have been implemented. Consequently, between 1999 and 2005, the Government has been able to reduce drastically coca cultivation in this department. In 2005, coca cultivation accounted for only 850 hectares, or only 6% of the level of coca cultivation in In the department of Bolivar, coca cultivation is concentrated in the south, in an area known as Sur de Bolivar. Coca cultivation in the department remained relatively stable, accounting between 4% and 8% of the country total between 1999 and This relative low level of coca cultivation in the area might be attributed to a combination of aerial spraying and implementation of alternative development projects. Forest logging and establishment of new coca fields in mountain areas, Antioquia and Bolivar department In Antioquia, coca cultivation averaged 3,000 hectares between 1999 and Coca cultivation has been increasing since 2002, from 3,030 hectares to 6,410 hectares in This increase over the past three years occurred despite the intensification of aerial spraying, from 3,300 hectares in 2002 to 11,000 hectares in 2004 and 16,800 hectares in In the department of Caldas, the most important coffee growing area in Colombia, 54 hectares of coca cultivation were detected for the first time in Coca cultivation reached a peak in 2004 with 358 hectares, but decreased to 190 hectares in

23 Río Caquetá Map 10: Coca cultivation density in the Putumayo-Caqueta region, Colombia 2005 PANAMA Chocó 76 W 74 W Caldas VENEZUELA Manizales Boyacá Yopal 72 W Casanare COLOMBIA Ibagué Bogotá Cundinamarca 4 N ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL Villavicencio Río Meta 4 N Valle Cali Tolima Meta Cauca Popayán Huila Río Magdalena Neiva San José Río Guaviare Río Inírida 2 N Florencia Florencia Puerto Rico El Doncello El Paujil Río Va upés Guaviare Pasto Nariño Colón San Francisco Santiago Orito Mocoa Villa Garzón Puerto Asís Valle del Guamuéz San Miguel Mocoa Puerto Caicedo SanJoséde la Fragua Morelia Albania Curillo Puerto Guzmán Valparaiso Putumayo Puerto Asís Solita Milán La Montañita Puerto Leguizamo Cartagena del Chaira San Vicente del Caguán R ío Caguán Solano Miraflores Vaupés N Caquetá Río Putumayo Amazonas ECUADOR 2 S Cultivation density (ha/km²) 2 S >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Municipality boundaries Roads Putumayo Caquetá Region 76 W PERU km Geographic coordinates WGS W Río Amazonas 72 W Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 125

24 Putumayo-Caqueta region Table 9: Coca cultivation in the Putumayo-Caqueta Region, (hectares) Department % Change Caquetá 23,718 26,603 14,516 8,412 7,230 6,500 4,988-23% Putumayo 58,297 66,022 47,120 13,725 7,559 4,386 8, % Total 82,015 92,625 61,636 22,137 14,789 10,886 13,951 Annual trend 13% -33% -64% -33% -26% 28% In 2000, coca cultivation peaked in Putumayo department at 66,000 hectares, representing 40% of the national total. Following four years of consecutive decreases, coca cultivation in Putumayo was estimated at 4,400 hectares or 5% of the national total in 2004, but this trend was reversed and between 2004 and 2005 coca cultivation soared by 105% in this department. At the same time, aerial spraying decreased from 17,500 hectares in 2004 to 11,800 hectares in 2005, while there were few new alternative development activities in Most of the new coca fields were established on the foot hills close to the border with Cauca department. Spraying is particularly difficult in these mountainous areas, which could be a reason for the migration of coca cultivation to this region. In a belt of about 10 km wide along the Ecuadorian border that cover about 550,000 hectares, in the departments of Nariño and Putumayo, almost 4,000 hectares of coca cultivation were found in This represented an increase of 1,000 hectares (or 32%) compared to the same area in In Caqueta department, coca cultivation peaked at 26,000 hectares in 2000 or 16% of the country total. Following intense aerial spraying that started in 1996 with 537 hectares and peaked in 2002 at 18,600 hectares, coca cultivation decreased. In 2005, coca cultivation was at its lowest level at 4,990 hectares, or 6% of the country total. Coca fields in Putumayo department 126

25 Map 11: Coca cultivation density in the Orinoco region, Colombia N PANAMA Cucutá 72 W ECUADOR VENEZUELA COLOMBIA BRAZIL PERU 70 W 68 W Cultivation density (ha/km²) >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Municipality boundaries Roads Orinoco Region 8 N Arauca Saravena Fortul Tame Arauca Arauquita Arauca Puerto Rondón Cravo Norte Río Arauca Puerto Carreño Puerto Carreno Río Orinoco La Primavera Río Tomo Casanare Santa Rosalía Vichada Río Vichada Cumaribo Río Meta Meta Puerto Inírida Río Guaviare Guainía Guaviare Río Inírida 2 N 2 N VENEZUELA 6 N 6 N 4 N 4 N Vaupés km 72 W Geographic coordinates WGS W BRAZIL 68 W Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 127

26 Orinoco region Table 10: Coca cultivation in the Orinoco Region, (hectares) Department % Change Vichada - 4,935 9,166 4,910 3,818 4,692 7,826 67% Arauca ,749 2, ,552 1,883 21% Total - 5,913 11,915 7,124 4,357 6,244 9,709 - Annual trend % -40% -39% 43% 56% - In Vichada department, near the Venezuelan border, coca cultivation peaked at 9,200 hectares in It remained between 4,000 and 5,000 hectares from 2002 to 2004, but increased by 67% between 2004 and 2005 to reach 7,830 hectares. This increase was the second largest in the period. In Vichada, the most important concentration of coca cultivation can be found along the Uva river. However, in the past three years, coca cultivation tended to expand to the Eastern part of the department, towards the Venezuelan border. The dispersion of coca cultivation in remote parts of the department increases the time flight and cost of aerial spraying. As a result, aerial spraying has always been relatively low in this department (below 3,000 hectares), and for 2005, no aerial spraying was reported. Coca cultivation in Arauca was detected for the first time in 2000 with about 1,000 hectares. It went over 2,000 hectares in 2001 and In 2003, aerial spraying amounted to 12,000 hectares and coca cultivation dropped to 500 hectares in December of that year. However, it increased again in 2004 and 2005 to reach 1,883 hectares. Coca fields in Arauca department interspersed with licit crops 128

27 Map 12: Coca cultivation density in the Amazonia region, Colombia 2005 Arauca 6 N Santander PANAMA 74 W Cundinamarca Boyacá VENEZUELA Yopal COLOMBIA Bogotá ECUADOR BRAZIL PERU 72 W 70 W Casanare Vichada Río Vichada Río Arauca 68 W Río Orinoco Puerto Carreño 6 N VENEZUELA 4 N Río Meta Puerto Inírida 4 N Meta Barranco Mina Río Inírida Inirida Cacahual Río Guaviare San José Morichal Nuevo Guainía Puerto Colombia San Felipe 2 N Guaviare Pana Pana 2 N Miraflores Papunahua Mitú Carurú Mitú Río Vaupés La Guadalupe Yavarate 0 Río Caguán Caquetá Vaupés La Victoria Pacoa Río Apap oris 0 Río Putu mayo Puerto Alegría La Chorrera Río Puerto Santander Mirití Paraná Río Caquetá Taraira La Pedrera BRAZIL Ig ara 2 S Parana Puerto Arica Amazonas 2 S PERU El Encanto 4 S Cultivation density (ha/km²) >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Municipality boundaries Roads Amazon Region 74 W 72 W Puerto Nariño Rí o Amazonas Tarapaca Leticia Leticia km Geographic coordinates WGS W 68 W 4 S Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 129

28 Amazonia region Table 11: Coca cultivation in the Amazonia Region, (hectares) Department % Change Vaupés 1,014 1,493 1,918 1,485 1,157 1, % Amazonas % Guainía , % Total 1,014 2,346 3,768 3,018 2,508 2,588 2,320 Annual trend % -20% -17% 3% -10% Like Putumayo-Caqueta region, the departments of Vaupés, Amazonas and Guainía belong to the Amazon basin. Although sharing important similarity with Putumayo and Caqueta, these three departments, refer to as Amazon region, have never been important centres of coca cultivation. This is due to the remoteness of the area, lack of airport and road infrastructure linking this region to the rest of the country. Consequently, aerial spraying of coca cultivation was almost not existent, except in Vaupés. Coca cultivation remained relatively stable in the region, at around 3,000 hectares, since coca cultivation was first observed in Coca field surrounded by forest areas in the Amazon region 130

29 Map 13: Coca cultivation density in the Sierra Nevada region, Colombia W 73 W 72 W n Sea 12 N La Guajira 12 N Riohacha Santa Marta Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Magdalena Valledupar 10 N 10 N 11 N 11 N 13 N 13 N PANAMA VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL Caribbean Sea Río Magdalena Cesar Gulf of Maracaibo Sucre 9 N Río Catatumbo VENEZUELA 9 N Bolívar Norte de Santander Cultivation density (ha/km²) 8 N Antioquia km Geographic coordinates WGS W Santander 73 W Cucutá >8 International boundaries Department boundaries Roads Sierra Nevada Region 72 W 8 N Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations 131

30 Sierra Nevada region Table 12: Coca cultivation in the Sierra Nevada region, Colombia, Department % Change Magdalena % Guajira % Total , Annual trend - 0% 66% 15% -24% 66% -57% The Sierra Nevada region, with the departments of Magdalena and Guajira, has never been an important centre of coca cultivation in Colombia. Coca cultivation remained between 500 and 1,300 hectares over the last seven years. Between 2004 and 2005, coca cultivation decreased by an impressive 57%, to reach one of its lowest level with only 540 hectares. Coca cultivation remained located mainly in the fringe of lowlands between the high mountains of the Sierra Nevada and the sea shore. However, the region is an important area for narco-trafficking activities, in particular for the shipping of drugs to the Caribbean Islands and the United States. For a few years already, the Sierra Nevada region benefited from important aid for alternative development, mainly due to the existence Sierra Nevada National Park. Government s data indicated an important increase in alternative development budget for At the same time, aerial spraying activities dropped from around 2,000 hectares in 2004 to 1,000 hectares in The region is also an important tourist centre and hosts the Sierra Nevada National Park. The National Park is one of the most important ecological reserves in Latin America, known for its rich bio-diversity and presence of several ancient indigenous cultures. In 2005, coca cultivation amounted to 95 hectares in the Sierra Nevada National Park, a decrease of 55% compared to Coca fields in Sierra Nevada region Source: Organización Gonawidua Tayrona

31 Possible areas of new cultivation The survey covered and interpreted 100% of the national territory, including areas previously not known as being coca growing regions. In doing so it serves as an early warning system to detect and prevent the spread of coca into new areas. Potential small coca fields have been detected in remote areas outside the established agricultural areas of the departments of the Orinoco and Amazon river basins. Field verification has not been carried out in theses areas because it was considered too time consuming and too costly to verify small and isolated patches of coca cultivation. Because of the absence of field verification, the estimate for coca cultivation in these areas are presented as indicative and not included in the final estimate. The 2005 survey 15 LandSat images analysed for vegetation having similar characteristics as coca fields. A total of 276 hectares were assessed as possible coca cultivation in new area. Table 13: Possible coca cultivation in new areas in 2005 Department hectares Amazonas 116 Vichada 79 Vaupés 77 Meta 4 Total

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33 Coca plant varieties The coca leaf yield survey carried out between May 2005 and February 2006 was the opportunity to collect samples of coca plants for the determination of their taxonomic varieties. The botanical study of the samples was performed by the Forest Herbarium of the University Francisco José de Caldas in Bogotá. A total of 439 samples were studied, from which 3 varieties of 2 species of coca plants were identified. Although only three varieties were encountered, it should be noted that farmers refer to a wide range of names, and sometimes the same vernacular names are used for two, sometimes three different botanical varieties. The reasons for this wide range of vernacular names are the difficulties to identify the botanical varieties which differ only by minute details, but also the variability the coca plants themselves within a same variety. A short description of the three varieties found in the sample is presented below. Collection of botanical samples Species: Erythroxylum coca Lam. 3 Variety: Erythroxylum coca Lam. var. coca This variety was the most popular, constituting 59% of the sample. The most common names attributed by the farmers to this variety have been: Peruana, Tingo María and Boliviana. It is a bush of up to 3 meters, with elliptic leaves, sharp end, and a pedicel of 2 to 7 mm. The fruits are ellipsoids of 6 to 12 mm long. This variety is widely distributed throughout the country and can be found between 0 and 2000 meters above sea level. Erythroxylum coca Lam. var. coca 3 Lam. From Chevalier de Lamarck, title of Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet , French Naturalist 135

34 Variety: Erythroxylum coca Lam. Var. ipadu Plowman This variety represented 21% of the sample. The most common names attributed by the farmers to this variety have been Dulce and Amarga. Both fall in the rank of morphologic variation described for the variety. It differs from the variety coca by the rounded end of leaf. This variety is confined to the Amazonia region, between 100 and 500 meters above sea level. Erythroxylum coca Lam. Var. ipadu Plowman Species: Erythroxylum coca novogranatense (Morris) Hierron. Variety: Erythroxylum coca novogranatense (Morris) Hierron. Var. novogranatense This variety represented 20 % of the sample. The most common names attributed by farmers to this variety were Pajarito and Caucana. This bush of up to six meters is taller than the other species. The leaves are more oblong and elongated than for the species Erythroxylum coca. The pedicels are about 4 to 12 mm long, and the fruits of about 8 to 13 mm long. This variety is frequently found in mountainous areas and is the most common in the Sierra Nevada region and occasionally in Arauca. 136 Erythroxylum coca novogranatense (Morris) Hierron. Var. novogranatense

35 Samples of the different varieties of coca leaves collected for the taxonomical identification Erythroxylum coca Lam. var. coca Erythroxylum coca Lam. Var. ipadu Erythroxylum coca novogranatense Var. novogranatense 137

36 Map 14: Index of livelihood conditions by department in 2003 and coca cultivation in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America Barranquilla La Guajira Cartagena Atlántico Magdalena 10 N Cesar 10 N PANAMA Sucre Río Ma gdalena Bolívar VENEZUELA Córdoba Norte de Santander Cucutá Chocó Santander Arauca Río Atrato uca Río Ca Antioquia Medellín Arauca R ío Arauca Puerto Carreño 5 N Pacific Ocean Valle Cali Caldas Risaralda Quindío Tolima Cundinamarca Bogotá Boyacá Meta Casanare eta Río M Río Vichada Vichada Río Guaviare Río Orinoco 5 N Popayán Cauca na Río Magdale Huila Neiva San José Guaviare Río Inírida Guainía Tumaco Nariño Pasto Florencia Mitú Puerto Asís Putumayo Caquetá Vaupés 0 Río Caquetá BRAZIL 0 ECUADOR Río P utuma yo Amazonas 5 S Index of livelihood conditions* by department as of % % % No data Coca cultivation 2005 International boundaries Department boundaries PERU km Geographic coordinates WGS W Rí o Amazonas 70 W Leticia 5 S 138 * In Colombia the ICV index is 77 points out of 100. The Regions at the bottom of the index have the worst conditions in terms of life quality. The Pacific Region doesn't meet the required index level in education, public services and housing. Sources: for coca cultivation Government of Colombia, National monitoring system supported by UNODC; for poverty indicators UNDP and DNP The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations

37 Coca cultivation and poverty The illicit crops problem in Colombia is the result of a number of factors which have created a fertile ground for coca cultivation to proliferate. In cases where coca is planted as a result of choice and not coercion, poverty is one of the main causes together with a lack of respect for laws. In most cases, the emergence of illicit crops does not significantly increase peasants income, but can improve their basic subsistence when other income generating activities are not present. Coca farmers are far from being the main beneficiary from the huge profits generated by the illicit business. According to the MRPD 4 of the National Department of Planning, poverty rate for Colombia in 2005 were estimated at 49.2% for poverty and 14.7% for extreme poverty. Rural poverty went up from 67.5% in 2004 to 68.2% in 2005, and in terms of the population size, the number of poor people in rural areas went up from 7.89 to 8.02 million persons. As for extreme poverty, the indicators showed a stable situation between 2004 and 2005 (27.6% in 2004 and 27.5% en 2005), and in terms of population size, about 3.23 millions persons were estimated living in extreme poverty. Table 14: Estimated poverty and extreme poverty Poverty Extreme poverty Source: MRPD of PND Year Country Urban area Rural area ,0 50,2 75, ,7 46,3 62, ,7 47,3 67, ,2 42,3 68, ,7 15,5 34, ,8 12,6 24, ,4 13,7 27, ,7 10,2 27,5 Some areas where coca cultivation is present show a lower level socio-economic development. Most of the population living in poor conditions is concentrated in the rural area. In Colombia, the GDP for the agricultural showed a decrease from 14.42% in 2000 to 13.53% in 2004 of the total GDP at constant price of The GDP of the agricultural sector showed one of the lowest increase rate compared to other sectors. This indicated a loss of the terms of exchange of the agricultural sector. The situation worsened in the 1990s following the disappearance of the protection instruments like aid or subsidies. However if Colombian poverty indicators are compared with those of other Andean Countries, the argument of a strong linkage between poverty of livelihoods and cocaine production seems weak. In fact, if poverty were to boost coca cultivation, largest coca crops should move to poorest Andean countries, which is not the case. 4 Misión para la Reducción de la Pobreza y la Desigualdad 139

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39 Coca cultivation and displacement Violence, armed conflict, drug trafficking and the search for better living conditions have generated enormous displacement of persons over the past two decades. Significant differences in the number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) are recorded by different sources. The problem is known to be important and has produced a real humanitarian crisis for the country. In Colombia, the Social Solidarity Net, known as RSS, maintains a registry at the municipality level of people who had to leave a municipality because of violence during the year. Data is indicative, as it is very difficult to track people move and motivation for move. RSS revised its previous estimates, but the trend remains the same. However, no statistically significant correlation has so far been established at the department level between number of IDPs and coca cultivation. Figure 4. Number of IDP and coca cultivation, people displaced hectare People displaced Source: RSS 2001 to 2004 data revised in 2005 Coca cultivation 141

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41 Coca cultivation and the forest warden families programme UNODC is presently carrying out the monitoring the Government s Forest Warden Families Programme. The main objective of the Forest Warden Families Programme is to motivate farmers to keep their land free of illicit crops. The programme also aims at the recovery of the forest in areas that are ecologically and socially vulnerable. The government and the families sign a contract with payments of a monthly salary (US$ 265) per family for a three years period. The map shows the geographic location of the 50 ongoing projects. The Forest Warden Families Programme has three main components: environmental, by the preservation of the environment with technical support of expert entities in the training of families for the establishment of productive and sustainable projects. The second component deals with the increase of the social capital, by a permanent training of families in community savings, leadership, project managements among others. The economic component consists in a temporary financial aid to the beneficiary families. The selection criteria for the areas of each project is based on the identification of a number of districts within one or two municipalities that constitute a geographic unit along with the commitment of the inhabitants to keep all farms of his own district free of illicit crops. A break of this commitment from just one family in a given district implies the withdrawal of all families of that district from the project. However, in practice, this criterion has been replaced by the consideration of lists of families willing to enter in the agreement. The role of SIMCI II to provide support to UNODC in this endeavour has consisted mainly in the delivery of thematic cartography and technical support in multitemporal analysis of vegetation land covers as well as the verification of presence or absence of coca crops in the districts using remote sensing tools. Forest warden families programme 143

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43 Coca cultivation in National Parks The presence of illicit crops in both Natural Parks and Indigenous Territories has been monitored by SIMCI since the 2001 survey, and the data have been delivered to the competent authorities to enable them to identify actions and projects to be applied for the preservation of its social and environmental characteristics with minimum of harm. The limits of National Parks and Indian territories have been provided by the official entities in charge of their management. In 2005, the limits of National Parks were edited by the monitoring project in cooperation with technicians from the National Parks Administrative Unit. The editing improved the match between SIMCI cartographic material and the official boundaries of the Parks. National Parks boundaries are not always precise and therefore coca cultivation estimated in each of them depends on the accuracy of their delimitation. To enable annual comparison the same boundaries were used for each year. Coca cultivation in 2005 was found in 12 of the 51 National Parks in Colombia, them. With 6,100 hectares in 2005, coca cultivation represented 0.05% of the total area covered by National Parks, and coca cultivation in National Parks represented 7% of the total level of coca cultivation in Overall, coca cultivation in National Parks increased by 14% between 2004 and This increase was mainly due to an increase in the National Parks of Sierra La Macarena (+647 hectares, or +24%), La Paya (+498 hectares or 217%) and Paramillo (+225 hectares or +49%). In most other National Parks, coca cultivation decreased, and almost completely disappeared from the National Parks of Sanquianga, Farallones and Tayrona. The detailed results by indigenous territories are presented in annexes. Table 15: Coca cultivation in National Parks in Colombia, (hectares) National Parks 2003 (hectares) 2004 (hectares) 2005 (hectares) % Change Sierra La Macarena 1,152 2,707 3,354 24% Nukak 1,469 1, % La Paya % Paramillo % Tinigua % Sierra Nevada % Puinawai % Catatumbo-Bari % Alto Fragua % Munchique % Los Picachos % Yariguíes Sanquianga Farallones Tayrona Total 3,790 5,353 6,110 Rounded total 3,800 5,400 6,100 14% SIMCI and the National Parks Administrative Unit published at the end of 2005 a Multitemporal Analysis about the impact of coca crops in National Parks in the period On this occasion, the borders of the Parks were edited which produced slight adjustments in the coca cultivation estimates within these parks. 145

44 Colombian National Parks affected by coca cultivation Indigenous community in the National Park Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 146 National Park Puinawai affected by licit crops

45 Map 18: Aerial perspective of the National Park Sierra de La Macarena and coca cultivation in

46 Río Ma gdalena Río Caquetá Map 19: Coca yield by region in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America EÔ E Ô E Ô Ô E 3.4 harvest/year Sierra Nevada 10 N 10 N PANAMA VENEZUELA Río Atrato EÔ Ô E Ô 4.5 harvest/year E EÔ Ô E Catatumbo uca EÔ E Ô E Ô E Ô 3.3 harvest/year Sur de Bolivar Río Ca R ío Arauca 5 N Pacific Ocean Pacifico eta Río M 1300 EÔ E Ô E Ô Río Vichada 7100 Orinoco EÔ E Ô E Ô 5.4 harvest/year 5 N Río Orinoco Río Guaviare EÔ E Ô E Ô 2.5 harvest/year na Río Magdale EÔ Ô E Ô E EÔ Ô E Ô E Ô E 6.6 harvest/year Meta - Guaviare Río Inírida EÔ Ô E Ô 3.9 harvest/year E EÔ Putumayo - Caqueta 0 ECUADOR Río P utuma yo Annual yield per hectare BRAZIL kg/ha/harvest kg/ha/year EÔ harvest/year PERU Rí oamazonas Region Regions for coca leaf yield survey km Geographic coordinates WGS 84 5 S International boundaries Department boundaries 75 W 70 W 5 S 148 Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations

47 2.2 NEW FINDINGS ON YIELD AND PRODUCTION Further to a pilot yield study in 2004, DNE jointly with UNODC contracted an agricultural research company (Agricultural Assessments International Corporation - AAIC) to implement a coca leaf yield survey in Colombia between May 2005 and February Samples of fresh coca leaf were harvested from 746 coca plots selected among 463 coca fields, and 1,389 coca farmers were interviewed. The objective of the survey was to collect data on the fresh coca leaf yield, the general characteristics of coca cultivation practices, as well as information and data on the processing of fresh coca leaf into coca paste. The survey relied on actual harvest samples, face to face interviews and group discussions with farmers. The averages and proportions used in the calculations of this chapter derived from the field survey, and corresponded to the average and proportions extrapolated to the sampling frame. The basis for the establishment of the sampling frame were about 75,000 hectares of coca fields, interpreted from the coca cultivation survey of 2003 or 2004, depending on the time of the survey by region. From this basis, a total population of about 58,000 farmers involved at the time of the survey in coca cultivation was extrapolated. The total for 2005 has been calculated by combining these averages or proportion and the coca cultivation figures of 85,750 hectares of coca cultivation in As the coca leaf yield survey did not cover the Amazon region, results obtained from the neighbouring region of Putumayo-Caqueta were used as best estimate for the Amazon region. The Central region defined for the coca cultivation census corresponded to the regions of Sur de Bolivar and Catatumbo in the coca leaf yield survey COCA LEAF YIELD AND COCA LEAF PRODUCTION From the weighing of 746 samples of harvest of fresh coca leaf, the fresh coca leaf yield per harvest averaged 1,360 kg/hectares. The highest regional yield per harvest was found in the region of Sur de Bolivar with an average of 1,960 kg/hectares (the 95% confidence interval ranging from 1,740 kg/hectares to 2,180 kg/hectares), and the lowest yield was found in the Pacific region with an average of 964 kg/hectares (with 95% confidence rate ranging from 900 to 1,020 kg/hectares). The regional averages are presented below. Table 16: Regional average coca leaf yield per harvest by region (from weighing of samples) Region Sample size Avg Yield per harvest Lowest limit of confidence interval Highest limit of confidence interval Coefficient of variation (CV in %) Fields Plots weighted (kg/hectares) (kg/hectares) (kg/hectares) Sur de Bolivar ,960 1,740 2, % Sierra Nevada ,607 1,530 1, % Meta-Guaviare ,489 1,430 1, % Putumayo-Caqueta ,444 1,330 1, % Orinoco ,302 1,230 1, % Catatumbo , , % Pacific , % All regions ,360 1,340 1, % 149

48 Figure 5. Regional averages of coca leaf yield per harvest, framed by their confidence interval (kg/hectares) 2,300 2,100 1,900 1,960 kg/ha 1,700 1,500 1,300 1,607 1,489 1,444 1,302 1, , Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Meta- Guaviare Putumayo- Caqueta Orinoco Catatumbo Pacific The average coca leaf yield obtained from weighing samples of coca leaf was compared to the farmer s estimates for the corresponding fields and harvest. In general, average yields obtained from weighing samples were higher than average yields as reported by farmers. Farmers tendency to underreport their yields might be a cause for such difference. However considering all data obtained at country level, the results from the two survey-types did not appear to be statistically different. Table 17: Comparison between average yields obtained from weighing of samples and average yields as reported by farmers. Average fresh coca leaf yield from Average fresh coca leaf yield from Region weighing of samples interviews # fields Average # fields Average (kg/hectares) (kg/hectares) Sur de Bolivar 55 1, ,606 Sierra Nevada 45 1, ,462 Putumayo-Caqueta 80 1, ,273 Catatumbo 45 1, ,100 Pacific Orinoco 50 1, ,365 Meta-Guaviare 103 1, ,289 All regions 463 1, ,244 Figure 6. Comparison between average yields obtained from weighing of samples and average yields as reported by farmers kg/ha Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Putumayo- Caqueta Catatumbo Pacific Orinoco Meta- Guaviare from weighing of samples from farmers' interviews 150

49 2.2.2 ANNUAL YIELD A coca field is harvested several times during the year. In order to estimate the annual yield, it is therefore necessary to know the average number of times the coca fields are harvested. According with farmers reports in the 463 fields from which coca leaf samples were weighted, the average number of harvest per year was 4.5, equivalent to one harvest every 81 days. But important regional differences were found between the highest in Meta-Guaviare reaching 6.6 harvests per year (or every 55 days), and the lowest in the Pacific region with 2.5 harvests per year (or every 146 days). Table 18: Regional average number of annual harvest (from interviews) Region Number of Average number Coefficient of variation Interviews 5 of harvests in 2004 (CV in %) Meta-Guaviare % Orinoco % Catatumbo % Putumayo-Caqueta % Sur de Bolivar % Sierra Nevada % Pacific % Country level (weighted) % Figure 7. Regional average annual number of harvest, framed within their confidence intervals # harvest per year Meta-Guaviare Orinoco Catatumbo Putumayo- Caqueta Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Pacific The annual regional average yield of fresh coca leaf was calculated by assuming that all harvests during the year were equivalent. The average yield per harvest was multiplied by the average number of harvests. The highest and lowest annual yields estimates were calculated as the highest/lowest range of the 95% confidence interval of the average regional yield, multiplied by the highest/lowest range of the 95% confidence interval of the number of harvests per year. The analysis of the vegetation cover revealed that 21% of the coca fields of the 2005 census were forest in 2004, and therefore less than one year old. From the coca leaf yield survey, it was found that coca field of less than one year old had a yield per harvest of 1,500 kg/ha, while older fields had on average a lower yield per harvest of 1,300 kg/ha. However, the number of harvest per year was lower for new fields than for older fields, respectively averaging 3.6 harvests and 4.5 harvests. In terms of annual coca leaf yields, the weighted average on new fields was 5,700 kg/ha/yr, whereas on old fields it was 6,300 kg/ha/yr. 5 Farmers interviews corresponding to the coca fields from which coca leaf samples were weighted 151

50 Table 19: Coca leaf yields in old and new fields Fields Number of parcels From coca leaf yield survey Average Number of yield per harvests / harvest yr (kg/ha) Average annual harvest (kg/ha) From satellite survey Planted area (ha) Old fields ,300 6,300 67,404 New fields ,500 5,700 18,346 Total ,400 6,300 85,750 It should be emphasized that the coca leaf yield survey was not designed to estimate annual yield from old and new fields, but rather a unique average per region. In the calculation of the total coca leaf production, it was thus the regional averages for all fields that were used. Would the distinction between old field and new fields have been made, the total coca leaf production would only have been lower by 5%. The annual regional averages were calculated from the regional average yield per harvest and the regional number of harvest per year for the individual observations and taking into account the strata each observation belong too. The annual regional averages were thus the following: Table 20: Calculations for the average regional annual yield of fresh coca leaf (kg/hectares) Region Avg annual yield Lowest annual yield Highest annual yield kg/hectares/yr kg/hectares/yr kg/hectares/yr Meta-Guaviare 9,900 9,200 10,500 Orinoco 7,100 6,400 7,900 Sur de Bolivar 6,600 5,600 7,800 Putumayo- Caqueta 5,600 4,900 6,400 Sierra Nevada 5,400 5,000 5,900 Catatumbo 4,600 4,000 5,300 Pacific 2,600 2,300 2,900 Country level 6,300 6,000 6,500 The mentioned calculations revealed that the highest annual fresh coca leaf yield was reached in Meta-Guaviare and averaged 9,900 kg/hectares/yr (ranging between 9,200 kg/hectares and 10,500 kg/hectares/yr). The lowest annual yield was found in the Pacific region and averaged 2,600 kg/hectares/yr (ranging between 2,300 kg/hectares/yr and 2,900 kg/hectares/yr). Figure 8. Average annual yields of fresh coca leaf framed by their lowest and highest estimates (kg/hectares/yr) 13,000 11,000 9,900 kg/ha/yr 9,000 7,000 5,000 7,100 6,600 5,500 5,400 4,600 3,000 2,600 1,000 Meta- Guaviare Orinoco Sur de Bolivar Putumayo- Caqueta Sierra Nevada Catatumbo Pacific 152

51 The very high annual yield obtained in Meta-Guaviare was primarily due to the high number of harvests (6.6 per year) rather than to the average yield per harvest (1,489 kg/hectares) that was not the highest of the country. It was not possible to find a single factor in the survey data responsible for such a high number of harvests per year. However, it was interesting to note that farmers from Meta-Guaviare reported that only 25% of their coca fields had been affected by aerial spraying. Aerial spraying rate in the Meta-Guaviare was one of the lowest rate among the seven regions, and much lower than the national average of 48% of coca fields reported to have been affected by aerial spraying. Coca field in Meta department In Colombia, coca leaves are traded as fresh, whereas in Peru and Bolivia they are traded after having been sun-dried. Therefore, for comparison the Colombian coca leaf yields have to be converted from fresh weight to dry weight. The conversion was done assuming average moisture content of 57%, as found during a survey carried out by UNODC in Peru in Table 21: Average regional annual yield coca leaf in equivalent of sun-dried leaf (kg/hectares) Region Sun-dried avg annual yield (kg/hectares) Meta-Guaviare 4,200 Orinoco 3,100 Sur de Bolivar 2,800 Putumayo-Caqueta 2,400 Sierra Nevada 2,300 Catatumbo 2,000 Pacific 1,100 All regions 2,700 Once converted in equivalent of sun-dried leaf, the coca leaf yields of Peru, Bolivia and Colombian can be more easily compared, although the methodology and the data collection process still differed. The Colombian regional average yields are shown in the graph below. 153

52 Figure 9. Annual coca leaf yield, in sun-dried equivalent, from various regions of Colombia, Peru and Bolivia Colombia, Meta-Guaviare Peru, Apurimac-Ene Colombia, Orinoco Peru, Alto Huallaga Colombia, Sur de Bolivar Bolivia, Chapare Colombia, Putumayo-Caqueta Colombia, Sierra Nevada Colombia, Catatumbo Bolivia, Yungas, non-traditional areas Peru, La Convención-Lares Peru, Palcazu-Pichis-Pachitea Peru, Inambari-Tambopata Colombia, Pacific Bolivia, Yungas, traditional areas Peru, Marañon 3,100 2,988 2,800 2,764 2,400 2,300 2,000 1,798 1,457 1,433 1,290 1, ,627 4, ,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 Compared to the average annual yield of 6,300 kg/hectares/yr obtained from the weighing of 746 samples, the average annual yield obtained from interviews of 1,389 farmers reporting on 1,746 fields was 9% lower and averaged 5,700 kg/hectares/yr. The lower average annual yield obtained from farmers interviews were attributed to farmers tendency to under-report their yields. Table 22: Comparison of annual coca leaf yield from weighing of samples and from farmers interviews Average fresh coca leaf yield Average fresh coca leaf Region from weighing of samples yield from interviews # fields Average # fields Average (kg/hectares/yr) (kg/hectares/yr) Meta-Guaviare 103 9, ,200 Orinoco 50 7, ,800 Sur de Bolivar 55 6, ,200 Putumayo-Caqueta 80 5, ,600 Sierra Nevada 45 5, ,100 Catatumbo 45 4, ,300 Pacific 85 2, ,700 Country level 463 6,300 1,746 5,700 Figure 10. Comparison of annual coca leaf yield from weighing of samples and from farmers interviews 12,000 10,000 8,000 kg/ha/yr 6,000 4,000 2, ,900 8,200 Meta- Guaviare 7,100 7,800 Orinoco 6,600 5,200 Sur de Bolivar 5,600 4,600 Putumayo- Caqueta 5,400 5,100 Sierra Nevada 4,600 2,600 Catatumbo 2,600 1,700 Pacific Avg annual yield from weighing of samples Avg annual yield from farmer's interviews 154

53 During the interviews, the 1,389 farmers were also asked whether or not they had lost part or all of any coca harvest. Overall, 47% of fields were found to have experienced a decrease in yield or a total loss of at least one harvest. The highest percentage of fields with loss of harvest or reduced productivity was found in the Pacific region (94%), while the lowest was found in the Sur de Bolivar region (11%). Table 23: Loss of coca harvest or reduced productivity, as reported by farmers Region Number of coca fields % fields with loss of harvest or reduced productivity Pacific % Orinoco % Meta-Guaviare % Sierra Nevada % Catatumbo % Putumayo-Caqueta % Sur de Bolivar % All regions 1,746 47% For the fields that experienced a loss of harvest or reduced productivity, the most often reported cause as aerial spraying (on average 49%). At the regional level however, it is worth noting that in Meta-Guaviare, the most often reported cause was pest (53%), and in the Orinoco region, the most often reported cause was the climate (55%). Table 24: Causes of loss of harvest, as reported by farmers Region Aerial Pest and Spraying diseases Climate Other Putumayo-Caqueta 62% 18% 20% - Catatumbo 96% 0.6% 3% - Sur de Bolivar 89% 9% - 2% Sierra Nevada 76% 6% 17% 2% Orinoco 18% 9% 55% 18% Meta Guaviare 25% 53% 18% 4% Pacific 58% 38% 4% 0.6% All regions 48% 37% 12% 3% Once their fields have been sprayed, the farmers responded that in 45% of the cases they would just wait for the coca plants to recover, in 20% of the cases they would cut the damaged coca plants, in 12% of the cases they would re-plant their fields, while the remaining 23% adopted for a combination of these solutions. Coca bush affected by a disease Coca fields affected by aerial spraying 155

54 Figure 11. Causes of loss of harvest in % 100% 96% 89% 80% 76% 60% 62% 58% 40% 20% 18% 25% 0% Putumayo- Caqueta Catatumbo Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Orinoco Meta Guaviare Pacific Aerial spraying Pest Climate Other The average annual yield reported for the fields that experienced a loss of harvest was 36% lower than the average annual yield reported for the fields that experienced no loss. On average, farmers reported an annual coca leaf yield of 6,900 kg/hectares/year from fields that experienced no loss of harvest, while they reported an annual average coca leaf yield of 4,300 kg/hectares/year from fields that experienced a loss of harvest. Table 25: Comparison of the average annual coca yield from farmers reporting losing a harvest with farmers reporting no loss of harvest Region Without any loss With loss % kg/hectares/yr % kg/hectares/yr Putumayo-Caquetá 83% 4,600 17% 4,100 Catatumbo 61% 6,400 39% 3,700 Sur de Bolivar 89% 6,000 11% 2,000 Sierra Nevada 61% 5,800 39% 3,800 Orinoquía 48% 8,700 52% 6,900 Meta Guaviare 56% 8,700 44% 7,000 Pacific 6% 3,000 94% 1,600 All regions 53% 6,900 47% 4,300 Figure 12. Comparison of the average coca yield from farmers reporting losing a harvest with farmers reporting no loss of harvest 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 kg/ha 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000-4,600 4,000 Putumayo- Caquetá 6,400 3,900 6,200 5,700 2,000 3,700 Catatumbo Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Orinoquía Meta Guaviare Pacific 7,900 7,300 9,000 7,400 3,600 1, Without any loss With loss Farmers also reported on their use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. The most often used fertilizer is Triple 15, which 54% of the farmers used on average at the rate of 176 kg every 72 days. Overall, the farmer s interviews reported the use of 32 different fertilizers. By combining their average quantity used by hectare with the frequency of use and the proportion of farmers reporting their uses, the total quantity of fertilizers used on the 86,000 hectares of coca cultivation in 2005 amounted to 85,258 metric tons and about 9 million litres.

55 As for herbicide, 55% of the farmers reported to use Gramaxone, spreading about 2.7 liters of the product every 76 days. For the total coca cultivation of 86,000 hectares, about 618,254 liters of Gramaxone were spread on the coca fields in It is also interesting to note that round up and Glyphosate, two products used in the aerial spraying, were also used by farmers. About 129,000 liters were spread by the farmers on their coca fields in As for pesticides, 25% of the farmers reported to use Tamaron, spreading about 2 liters of the product every 70 days. For the total coca cultivation of 86,000 hectares, about 223,600 liters of Tamaron were spread on the coca fields in Overall, the farmer s interviews reported the use of 30 different pesticides When asked for the main reason for growing coca plants, 55% of the farmers mentioned economic reasons, either mentioning openly the profitability of the coca market or the fact that coca plants and its derivatives were easily marketable. Another 28% claimed they had no other choice, and the remaining 17% stated that coca cultivation was part of the local culture. Table 26: Reasons for cultivating coca in the sample group Coca plants interspersed with plantain cultivation Region Profitability Easily No other Part of local marketable choice culture Putumayo-Caquetá 28% 28% 25% 20% Catatumbo 44% 6% 28% 22% Sur de Bolivar 47% 6% 32% 15% Sierra Nevada 31% 32% 25% 12% Orinoquía 41% 27% 18% 13% Meta Guaviare 36% 17% 26% 21% Pacífico 32% 24% 37% 7% All region 34% 21% 28% 17% On the other hand, only 9% of the coca farmers reported having received any kind of assistance to stop growing coca plants. Table 27: Assistance to stop growing coca cultivation in the sample group Region Proportion of farmers who received aid to stop coca cultivation Proportion of farmers who did not receive aid to stop coca cultivation Putumayo-Caquetá 12% 88% Catatumbo 0% 100% Sur de Bolivar 5% 95% Sierra Nevada 0% 100% Orinoquía 3% 97% Meta Guaviare 15% 85% Pacífico 0% 100% All regions 9% 91% 157

56 Map 20: Annual coca leaf production in Colombia, W 70 W Colombia Caribbean Sea South America La Guajira 2,900 Atlántico 10 N Sierra Nevada Magdalena Cesar 10 N PANAMA Córdoba Sucre Río Ma gdalena Bolívar 3,900 Catatumbo Norte de Santander VENEZUELA Antioquia 5 N Pacific Ocean Río Atrato Chocó 45,300 uca Río Ca Valle Pacifico 89,800 Sur de Bolivar Santander Boyacá Caldas Risaralda Cundinamarca Quindío Tolima Meta Casanare eta Río M Arauca 68,900 Orinoco Río Vichada Río Guaviare R ío Arauca Vichada Río Orinoco 5 N Cauca na Río Magdale Huila 258,300 Meta - Guaviare Río Inírida Nariño Guaviare Guainía 0 85,500 Putumayo Putumayo - Caqueta Caquetá Río Caquetá 12,700 Amazonia Vaupés BRAZIL 0 ECUADOR Río P utuma yo Amazonas Annual coca leaf production (metric tons) PERU 5 S metric Tons. Region Total coca leaf producction Regions International boundaries Department boundaries 75 W km Geographic coordinates WGS 84 Rí oamazonas 70 W 5 S 158 Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODC The boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations

57 2.2.3 COCA LEAF, COCA PASTE AND BASE PRODUCTION The potential production of fresh coca leaf in Colombia for 2005 was calculated by multiplying the regional average annual yield of fresh coca leaf by the regional area under coca cultivation. The lower and upper estimates were calculated by using the lowest and highest annual regional yields. The potential production of fresh coca leaf was estimated thus estimated at 567,400 mt, within a range of 510,400 mt and 627,200 mt (or +/- 10%). Assuming that fresh leaves lose 57% of moisture content through sun drying, this was equivalent to a total production of 244,000 mt of sundried coca leaf. The weighted national average for fresh coca leaf yield amounted to 6,600 kg/hectares/year (production/cultivation), or 2,800 kg/hectares/year in sun-dried equivalent. Table 28: Calculation of the 2005 production of fresh coca leaf in Colombia Region Coca cultivation Annual yield Production % of 2005 (hectares) (kg/hectares/year) (tons) total Meta-Guaviare 26,087 9, ,300 46% Sur de Bolivar 13,618 6,600 89,900 16% Putumayo-Caqueta 15,260 5,600 85,500 15% Orinoco 9,701 7,100 68,900 12% Pacific 17,434 2,600 45,300 8% Amazonia 6 2,261 5,600 12,700 2% Catatumbo 846 4,600 3,900 1% Sierra Nevada 543 5,400 2,900 1% Country level (totals and weighted average) 85,750 6, , % Figure 13. Production of fresh coca leaf in Colombia , , ,000 mt 150, , ,300 50,000 - Meta- Guaviare 89,900 Sur de Bolivar 85,500 Putumayo- Caqueta 68,900 45,300 12,700 3,900 2,900 Orinoco Pacific Amazonian Catatumbo Sierra Nevada Due to the high annual yield observed in Meta-Guaviare, the region accounted for 45% of the total production, although it represented only 30% of the total coca cultivation. 6 The coca leaf yield survey was not implemented in the Amazonian region. The coca leaf yield for the Amazonian region was approximated with the coca leaf of the region of Putumyao-Caqueta which has the same environmental characteristics. 159

58 In Colombia, traditional use of the coca leaf can be considered marginal, and virtually the entire coca leaf production is destined for cocaine production. There are various ways to produce cocaine. The overall process is that leaves are processed into coca paste, then into cocaine base, then into cocaine hydrochloride. The farmers can either sell the coca leaves, or process these leaves into coca paste or base. The last step, the processing of the cocaine base into cocaine hydrochloride is not carried out by farmers but in clandestine laboratories. Coca paste is the first product obtained in the process of alkaloid extraction from coca leaves using sulfuric acid and combustibles. It is then a cocaine sulfate with a high content of organic remnants, pigments, tannin, and other substances. Cocaine base is obtained by dissolving the cocaine sulphate in an acid and adding an oxidant agent (potassium permanganate being the oxidant most often used), then adding a base. The resulting substance is precipitated and filtered. The coca leaf yield survey revealed that 34% of the farmers, representing only 25% of the total coca leaf production, sell directly the coca leaves, without processing them. Another 35% of the farmers, who represent 26% of the total coca leaf production, processed them into coca paste, and the remaining 31% of the farmers, who represent 49% of the total coca leaf production, process their leaves into cocaine base. Table 29: Proportion of farmers processing and not processing coca leaves Region % of farmers not processing coca leaves % of farmers processing coca leaves into coca paste % of farmers processing coca leaves into cocaine base Putumayo-Caquetá 32% 65% 3% Catatumbo 71% 20% 9% Sur de Bolivar 43% 5% 52% Sierra Nevada 49% 22% 29% Orinoco 15% 0% 85% Meta Guaviare 9% 26% 65% Pacific 68% 31% 1% All regions 34% 35% 31% Figure 14. Proportion of farmers processing and not processing coca leaves 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Putumayo- Caquetá Catatumbo Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Orinoco Meta Guaviare Pacific % of farmers not producing paste or base % farmers producing paste % farmers producing base During the survey, the farmers who processed their coca leaves were asked about the amount of coca leaves and ingredients used, and the amount of final product obtained. The distinction between paste and base is not easy to draw because the terms are often misused by the farmers themselves. In order to distinguish between these two products, it was decided to refer to cocaine base when the farmers reported the use of permanganate potassium or ammonium for processing their leaves, and coca paste when the farmers did not report the use of these products. 160

59 Therefore, it was possible to calculate the average conversion rate of one metric ton of coca leaves into coca paste (1.63 kg) and cocaine base (1.52 kg). In other words, coca paste yielded 93% of cocaine base. Table 30: Average kg of coca paste or base obtained from one metric ton of coca leaf Region Number of PAU s 7 process coca leaf Avg kg of coca paste per metric tons of coca leaf Avg kg of cocaine base per metric tons of coca leaf Putumayo-Caqueta Catatumbo Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Orinoco Meta Guaviare Pacific All regions Figure 15. Regional average of quantity (kg) of coca paste and base obtained from one metric ton of fresh coca leaf Putumayo- Caquetá Catatumbo Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada Orinoco Meta Guaviare Pacific Avg kg of cocaine paste per ton of coca leaf Avg kg of cocaine base per ton of coca leaf 7 Agriculture Production Unit: an economical unit dedicated to the production or others licit crops under a unique management of a person or a family 8 The Orinoco farmers process only cocaine base. 161

60 About 27% of the coca leaf production was processed into cocaine paste. Thus, out of the total production of 567,400 mt of coca leaf, about 151,000 mt tons were processed into cocaine paste. Using the conversion rate of 1.63 kg of cocaine paste out of every tons of coca leaf, the total cocaine paste production from farmers was estimated at 246 mt. This was equivalent to 229 mt of cocaine base, based on a cocaine paste to base ratio of 93%. Table 31: Calculation of coca paste production Region Total leaf production Proportion of farmers producing cocaine paste Leaf production processed into cocaine paste Mt % mt Meta-Guaviare 258,300 26% 67,200 Sur de Bolivar 89,900 5% 4,500 Putumayo-Caqueta 85,500 65% 55,600 Orinoco 68, Pacific 45,300 31% 14,000 Amazonian 12,700 65% 8,300 Catatumbo 3,900 20% 800 Sierra Nevada 2,900 22% 600 Country level 567, ,000 The rest of the farmers either processed directly into cocaine base, or sell their production as leaf, corresponding to a total of 416,300 mt. Assuming that the production of coca leaf sell directly by the farmers was processed outside the farm into cocaine base at the same rate as within the farm of 1.52 kg per tons of leaf, the total amount of cocaine base was estimated at 633 mt. Table 32: Calculation of cocaine base production Region Total leaf production Proportion of farmers producing cocaine base Proportion of farmers selling leaf for base processing Total leaf production for base processing mt % % Mt Meta-Guaviare 258,300 65% 9% 191,100 Sur de Bolivar 89,900 52% 43% 85,400 Putumayo-Caqueta 85,500 3% 32% 29,900 Orinoco 68,900 85% 15% 68,900 Pacific 45,300 1% 68% 31,300 Amazonia 12,700 3% 32% 4,400 Catatumbo 3,900 9% 71% 3,000 Sierra Nevada 2,900 29% 49% 2,300 Country level 567, ,300 Overall, either produced from coca paste or directly from coca leaves, the total production of cocaine base in Colombia in 2005 was estimated at 862 metric tons. During the interviews, the farmers also reported on their use of Potassium Permanganate, an important precursor for cocaine hydrochloride. The use of Potassium Permanganate is restricted by law. Based on the average quantity of Permanganate used per ton of coca leaf processed and the proportion of farmers reporting its use, it was possible to estimate the total use of Permanganate at the farm-gate level at about 90 tons. 162

61 Table 33: Calculation for estimating the quantity of Permanganate used by farmers Region Leaf production (mt) % of farmers using permanganate Avg use of Permanganate per tons of leaf (kg) Total use of Permanganate (mt) Meta-Guaviare 258, % Sur de Bolivar 89, % Putumayo-Caqueta 85, % Orinoco 68, % Pacific 45, % Amazonian 12, % Catatumbo 3, % Sierra Nevada 2, % Country level 567, Processing coca leaves into coca paste Cutting the coca leaves Preparing the coca leaves The coca leaves mixed with gasoline The cocaine paste 163

62 2.2.4 REVISED POTENTIAL COCAINE PRODUCTION The coca yield survey implemented by UNODC in 2005 focused on obtaining data on the yield of coca leaf and on the processing by farmers of coca leaf into coca paste or cocaine base. The data on annual coca leaf yield and the conversion rates of coca leaves into coca paste and cocaine base were combined with the annual census estimating coca cultivation to estimate the total productions of coca leaf, coca paste and cocaine base. To estimate cocaine production, UNODC relied on external sources. Indeed, investigating clandestine laboratories was not possible because these laboratories are directly in the hands of narco-traffickers. So far, UNODC did not collect any data to estimate the efficiency of these clandestine laboratories nor on the quantity of cocaine hydrochloride that can be produced from coca paste/base. In addition to the technical difficulties to obtain these data, this kind of survey is also complicated by the existence of several techniques to produce cocaine hydrochloride, and various purity level of the end-product. The UNODC calculation for cocaine production in 2005 relied on its own estimate of cocaine base and on data obtained by the US Operation Breakthrough regarding the conversion rate from cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride and the purity level of cocaine hydrochloride for conversion into equivalent of pure cocaine production. US Operation Breakthrough mentioned a 1:1 conversion rate from cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. However, this was obtained from laboratories especially set up for this kind of survey, and thus this conversion rate is likely to correspond to ideal circumstances not always obtained in reality, especially by farmers. The same source also communicated to UNODC that cocaine base contained about 75% of pure cocaine alkaloid and the cocaine hydrochloride contained about 85% of pure cocaine alkaloid. From this data, UNODC derived a 1:0.9 ratio from cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. This ratio of 1:0.9 was deemed to apply better to the cocaine base production which corresponded to cocaine base obtained from farmers not working in ideal conditions. Based on this data, the 862 metric tons of cocaine base were equivalent to 776 metric tons of cocaine hydrochloride or 660 metric tons of pure cocaine. This represented an average pure cocaine yield per hectare of 7.7 kg/hectares. Since 2002, UNODC estimated the cocaine production in Colombia based on the average of the two cultivation figures recorded as of December of the previous year and December of the current year. This average was then multiplied by the estimated yield per hectare. This method enables to take into account that coca fields are harvested more than once in a given year and eradication activities are spread over several months. Therefore, based on an average coca cultivation level of 83,000 hectares, the pure cocaine production in Colombia for 2005 amounted to 640 metric tons. Annual cocaine production figures for previous years relied on estimates of cocaine yield per hectare from external sources (4.7 kg/hectares, Operation Breakthrough), and therefore were not comparable with the 2005 estimate of 7.7 kg/hectares which was based on the results of the first coca leaf yield survey implemented jointly by the Colombian Government and UNODC. Based on the results of the pilot yield study in 2004, which already indicated that cocaine yield could be higher, as well as the findings of the coca yield survey in 2005, which found that farmers reported similar yields for 2004 and 2005, it was concluded that potential cocaine production in 2004 should be revised using the new findings. With the newly established cocaine yield of 7.7 kg/ha, the 2004 cocaine production was revised at 640 metric tons (previous estimate of 390 metric tons). For the 2003 cocaine estimate, the cocaine yield of 5.8 kg/ha reported by the Colombian Government to the UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaire was used to revised the cocaine production to 550 metric tons (previous estimate of 440 metric tons). 164

63 The coca leaf yield survey carried out in 2005 jointly by the Colombian government and UNODC helped to better assess the cocaine production in Colombia, and could help to revise previous estimates. It also enabled to understand better why the increasing rate of cocaine seizures reported to UNODC in the recent years did not lead to price rises or any significant decline in cocaine purity in the main consumer markets of the United-States and Europe. Figure 16. Cocaine production in Colombia (in metric ton) (note color change) Metric tons Metric tons * 640* * Production data for 2004 and 2005 is based on new field research. In 2005, at the global level, the potential cocaine production in Colombia represented 70% of the global potential cocaine production of 910 metric tons. Table 34: Global potential cocaine production, % change % of 2005 total Bolivia % 10% Peru % 20% Colombia % 70% Total % 100% Source: UNODC, in italic revised figures as of 2005 Figure 17. Global potential cocaine production, (note change in graph) 1,000 Colombian production data for 2004 and 2005 is based on new field research metric ton Bolivia Colombia Peru 165

64 2.3 PRICES COCA LEAF, COCA BASE AND COCAINE PRICES Between 2004 and 2005, coca leaf prices increased by 57% in US$ and by 35% in Colombian Pesos (COP). Average prices have usually been higher in the Pacific region (Nariño department). However, as of December 2005, prices in Nariño decreased and converged towards the national mean of about COP 2,500/kg (US$ 1.1/kg). In Nariño, the decrease in coca leaf prices is also reflected in a decrease in coca paste prices. In Colombia, coca leaf is traded as fresh, whereas in Peru and Bolivia, coca leaf is traded as dried. Converted in equivalent dried coca leaf (assuming a moisture loss of 57% between fresh and sundried coca leaf, from 2004 UNODC coca leaf yield in Peru), coca leaf price in Colombia in 2005 established at US$2.56 /kg, which is comparable to prices of dry-coca leaf in Peru (US$ 2.9/kg) but lower than in Bolivia (US$ 4.4/kg). Table 35: Coca leaf price ( 000 of COP/kg) in some regions of Colombia, 2005 Months Sample size Weighted national average Centre Pacífico Putumayo Caquetá Sierra Nevada January 10 1,920 2,400 2,930 1, February 8 2,070 2,400 3,200 1, March 6 2,510 2,400 4,000 2,020 1,600 April 6 2,560 2,400 4,200 2,020 1,600 May 6 2,410 2,400 3,600 2,020 1,600 June 7 2,310 2,240 3,360 2,020 1,600 July 6 2,330 2,400 3,280 2,020 1,600 August 5 2,640 2,800 4,160 2,000 1,600 September 6 3,170 2,200 5,000 2,320 October 6 2,630 3,000 4,000 2,300 1,200 November 7 2,670 3,000 4,200 2,120 1,360 December 9 2,450 3,070 2,800 2,240 1,680 Annual Average (COP) 82 2,470 2,560 3,730 2,070 1,370 Annual Average (US$) Source: National Monitoring System Supported by UNODC-SIMCI Most peasants sell coca paste that they themselves produce in small kitchen located on the farm. The necessary technical know-how was brought to the farmers during the 90 s by drug-traffickers to facilitate and increase the commercialisation of cocaine Most coca growers sell their production as coca paste (a product the farmers called "pasta básica"). It is therefore a fair proxy indicator of the situation prevailing in the Colombia coca market. But one should take into account that the armed groups that tend to monopolise this trade often imposed their prices and conditions to the farmers. Therefore prices do not always react quickly according to the economic law of supply and demand. Prices of coca paste increased from an average of US$ 810/kg in 2004 to US$ 910/kg in 2005 (+12%). However, during 2004 the Colombian Peso strengthened against the dollar by about 12%, and during 2005 strengthened another 4%. As a result of this appreciation, in local currency (Colombian pesos, COP), prices for coca paste remained virtually unchanged, from COP 2,119,000 in 2004 to COP 2,190,000 in 2005 (- 0.5%). 166

65 Looking more closely at the prices trends within the year 2005, it is worth noting the decrease (-14%) between August (US$ 980/kg) and December (US$ 861/kg). As can be noted on the graph, the decrease at the national level can be attributed to the decrease in prices in the Pacific region (Nariño department), and to a lower extent to a decrease in prices in Putumayo-Caqueta. The decrease in prices in Nariño since August 2005 might be attributed to the intense drug control and aerial spraying efforts in this region that hindered its trade. In the absence of traders, prices would have decreased. Balancing the decrease in prices in Nariño, prices of coca paste in the northern region of Sierra Nevada established at a rather high level of about US$1,200 /kg since May 2005 (or about 30% higher than the national average of US$915 during the same period). Reportedly, these high prices in Sierra Nevada would be due to the increase in prices of the various chemicals and precursors necessary to produce the paste, in particular the increase of the prices of gasoline that sometimes comes from Venezuela. Table 36: Monthly coca paste price in Colombia 2005 (in '000 COP/kg) Months Sample size Weighted national average Meta Guaviare Pacific Putumayo- Caqueta Sur de Bolivar Sierra Nevada January 15 2,122 2,300 2,067 1,700 2,166 2,380 February 13 2,093 2,300 2,500 1,700 2,166 1,800 March 14 2,019 2,300 2,100 1,700 2,194 1,800 April 14 2,154 2,400 2,175 1,700 2,194 2,300 May 13 2,124 2,100 2,025 1,500 2,194 2,800 June 14 2,103 2,000 1,900 1,600 2,214 2,800 July 13 2,163 2,300 1,900 1,600 2,217 2,800 August 12 2,260 2,300 2,400 1,600 2,200 2,800 September 13 2,129 2,100 2,300 1,875 2,243 - October 11 2,115 2,100 2,200 1,675 2,100 2,500 November 14 2,059 2,000 1,900 1,525 2,071 2,800 December 12 1,963 2,000 1,400 1,475 2,140 2,800 Average 158 2,119 2,183 2,072 1,638 2,175 2,507 (COP) Average (US$/kg) ,080 Source: National Monitoring System Supported by UNODC-SIMCI Figure 18. Monthly coca paste price in Colombia 2005 (in '000 COP/kg) 3,200,000 2,700,000 COL/kg 2,200,000 1,700,000 1,200,000 J-05 F-05 M-05 A-05 M-05 J-05 J-05 A-05 S-05 O-05 N-05 D-05 Centre Pacific Putumayo-Caqueta Sierra Nevada Meta-Guaviare 167

66 The collection of prices data and their analysis is complicated by the absence of standard in naming the products, and in the absence of indications on the quality of the products. This is the case for cocaine base and coca paste which can easily be confused. However, the data on cocaine base, albeit less frequently reported than the data on coca paste, confirmed that cocaine base is a more refined product than coca paste, and that both product can be traded. On average, for 2005, prices of cocaine base were 20% higher than the prices of coca paste. Coca paste is the product most often traded by farmers, whereas cocaine base would be produced mainly in clandestine laboratories as an intermediary product to cocaine hydrochloride. Table 37: Monthly cocaine base price in Colombia 2005 (in '000 COP/kg) Months Sample size Weighted national average Sur de Bolivar Pacific Putumayo Caqueta Sierra Nevada Orinoc o Meta- Guaviare January 2 2, ,650-2,200 - February 2 2, ,650-2,200 - March April May 2 2,650 2, June 5 2,617 2, ,750 2,200 - July August September 22 2,631 2,867 2,267 2,750 2,475 2,725 2,700 October November December 9 2,443 2,588 2,275-2,800 2,150 2,400 Average 42 2,532 2,751 2,271 2,683 2,675 2,295 2,550 (COP/kg) Average (US$/kg) - 1,090 1, ,150 1, ,110 Figure 19. Comparison of the prices of coca paste and cocaine base in 2005 in US$/kg US$/kg Sur de Bolivar Pacific Putumayo- Caqueta Sierra Nevada Orinoco Meta-Guaviare Cocaine paste Cocaine base Because of the clandestine nature of the trade, cocaine prices are less easily collected than prices of coca paste or coca leaf. This explains the fewer data available for cocaine prices than for other products. In Colombia, prices of cocaine hydrochloride are collected by DIRAN (the Anti-Narcotics 168

67 Police), and refer to whole sale prices in the main cities. The purity level was not investigated in this study. The graph below presents the annual averages of cocaine prices since The prices are presented both in Colombian Pesos (COP) and US$ as constant price of 1991 to correct for the inflation. In addition, reported annual aerial spraying of coca cultivation has been plotted on the right axis. As can be hinted from the graph, the analysis of the data revealed a positive correlation between the annual prices of cocaine in Colombian pesos and the annual total of area sprayed ( = 0.92 for constant prices between 1994 and 2005), meaning that in general an increase in area sprayed corresponds to an increase in cocaine prices in Colombian Pesos. However, that relationship cannot be so strongly established for prices of cocaine in US$ ( = 0.19 for constant prices between 1994 and 2005). Table 38: Cocaine HCl price in Colombia Year '000 COP/kg US$/kg , ,020 1, ,377 1, ,488 1, ,232 1, ,762 1, ,769 1, ,101 1, ,800 1, ,100 1, ,599 1, ,389 1, ,500 1, ,600 1, ,315 1,860 Sources: DIRAN Figure 20. Annual average cocaine prices and annual aerial spraying levels, , Colombia 160,000 '000 COP and US$/kg 1,900 1,700 1,500 1,300 1, , , ,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 coca fumigated (ha) , Aspersion '000 COP/kg US$/kg 0 169

68 The data from the monthly survey on prices of the Andean coca market combined with the data from the coca leaf yield survey, enabled to calculate theoretical income from the sale of coca leaf, coca paste and cocaine base. The differences between these incomes give an indication of the value-added given by the farmers to coca paste and cocaine base. The table below shows a definite increase in the value added at each step of the processing. The value-added of cocaine base (+51%), the final product that can be produced by the farmers, also explained why 49% of the coca leaf production was transformed into cocaine base by the farmers. Table 39: Annual income per hectare of coca cultivation for different derivatives of coca leaf Derivates Annual yield/hectares Average annual price Annual income/hectares Value-added from coca leaf kg/hectares US$/kg US$/hectares % Coca leaf 6, ,930 Coca paste ,370 35% Cocaine base 9.6 1,090 10,460 51% Cocaine hydrochloride 7.7 1,860 14, % Figure 21. Theoretical annual income per hectare of coca leaf, coca paste, cocaine base and cocaine hydrochloride 16,000 14,000 14,320 US$/ha 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 6,930 9,370 10,460 4,000 2,000 - Coca leaf Cocaine paste Cocaine base Cocaine hydrochloride Based on the total production of each product sold by the farmers and the respective prices in 2005, the total farm-gate income value resulting from coca cultivation was estimated at about US$ 843 millions. This value does not take into account the farmers production costs, like cost of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers and labour wages. It should also be noted that 51% of this value (US$ 430 million) is made in the region of Meta-Guaviare, because of its very high annual yield (9,900 kg/hectares) and high proportion of farmers processing cocaine base (65%) Table 40: Value of the production of coca leaf and its derivative at farm-gate level Product kg sold US$/kg US$ value Leaf 138,657, ,522,700 Paste 246, ,860,000 Base 428, ,520,000 Rounded total farm-gate value 843,000,000 The total farm-gate value of production of coca leaf and its derivatives, corresponded to 0.7% the 2005 s GDP of US$ 122 billion according to DANE. In 2005, the total farm-gate value of coca cultivation represented 6% of the agricultural GDP of US$13.8 billions. The coca leaf yield survey also enabled to collect data, through interviews, on the average area of coca cultivation by family. It was found that on average, a family cultivated about 1.25 hectares of coca plants. For a total area under coca cultivation of 86,000 hectares in 2005, the number of family cultivating coca plants was thus estimated at 68,600 families. 170

69 Table 41: Number of families involved in coca cultivation in Colombia in 2005 Region Coca cultivation person per hectares (hectares) family per family # family # person Meta-Guaviare 25, , ,000 Sur de Bolivar 14, ,000 32,900 Putumayo- Caqueta 13, ,900 83,580 Orinoco 9, ,600 11,440 Pacific 17, ,700 74,970 Amazonia 2, ,300 13,860 Catatumbo ,360 Sierra Nevada ,040 All regions 85, , ,150 Thus, US$ 843 million divided among 68,600 families represented an annual gross income per family of US$ 12,300. For a total of 336,150 persons in these families, this was equivalent to an annual per capita gross income of US$2,500. The gross income value, which do not take into account the production costs, like costs of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers and labour wages. 171

70 2.4 REPORTED AERIAL SPRAYING AND MANUAL ERADICATION The Colombian anti-drugs strategy includes a number of measures ranging from aerial spraying, to force or voluntary manual eradication, including alternative development and crops substitution programmes. UNODC did not participate in or supervise the spraying activities. All data were received directly from DIRAN. By far the most important is the spraying programme carried out by the Antinarcotics Police DIRAN. This is realized through aerial spraying with a mixture of products called Round up composed of an herbicide called glyphosate - and a surfactant called Cosmoflux and other additives. In late 2002, the National Narcotics Council approved an herbicide concentration of 2.5 litres per hectare for opium poppy and 10.4 litres per hectare for coca, with a view to increasing the spraying effectiveness rate, which was estimated as being 90%. However, it should be kept in mind that the chemical mixture has effect over the leaves and not over the roots or the soil, and therefore the bush can be subject of a prune operation at about one feet over the ground to obtain a renewal of the bush in about six months. The Illicit Crop Eradication Programme foresees an Environmental Management Plan and environmental auditing, as well as periodic verifications on the ground of the effectiveness of spraying activities and their environmental impact. The Ministry of Environment certified in July 2004 to the Eradication of Illicit Crops Programme by Aerial Spraying with Glyphosate, the observance of the environmental obligations imposed in the Management Plan. Reports from DIRAN showed that, for the fifth consecutive time, spraying activities reached record level in The DIRAN sprayed a total of 138,775 hectares, representing an increase of 2% compared to last year aerial spraying levels. For the first time in 2005, spraying activities were implemented in the departments of Chocó, Cundinamarca and Valle. Regarding the estimates on spraying area, it is important to differentiate between the accumulated sprayed area reported here which is the sum of areas during a given time period (calculated by multiplying the length of flight lines by their width), and the effective sprayed area, which make correction for the overlap between adjacent sprayed bands and areas sprayed several times in the same calendar year. Once coca fields are sprayed, it takes approximately six to eight months to recover productive crops when the bushes are pruned or replanted. However, when heavy rain occurs or bushes are washed by the farmers immediately after the spraying, the loss in coca leaf can be reduced and the crop recovered quickly. Therefore, coca cultivation sprayed during the first semester of 2005 had time to re-establish a vegetation cover that could be detected on the satellite images. The sustainability of the eradication efforts depends to a large extent on the real alternatives open to the farmers and to the displacement of the cultivation into new and more remote areas of the country (balloon effect). In addition to spraying, the Army reported the manual eradication of 31,287 hectares of coca cultivation, a record compared to previous levels of 6,234 hectares in 2004 and 4,011 hectares in The total of both types of eradication (spraying and manual) amounted to 170,062 hectares in The Government also reported the aerial spraying of 1,624 hectares and the manual eradication of 484 hectares of opium poppy cultivation. The total of both types of eradication (spraying and manual) amounted to 2,108 hectares. 172

71 Table 42: Reported aerial spraying and manual eradication of coca cultivation 2005 (ha) by month Department Aerial spraying Jan Feb Mar Apr Mar Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Manual eradication Total aerial spraying and manual eradication Amazonas Antioquia ,003 6,490 2, ,677 18,510 Arauca , ,810 Atlántico Bolivar ,436 2, ,597 Boyacá ,233 6,158 Caldas , ,665 Caqueta , ,536 Cauca , ,383 4,675 Cesar Chocó Cordoba , ,498 4,265 Cundinamarca ,221 1,264 Guajira ,681 2,253 Guaviare 3,197 2,988 2, , ,888 13,753 Huila Magdalena ,180 1,563 Meta 2, ,833 1,604 1, ,170 1, ,191 Nariño 9,953 14,289 21,327 9, ,023 5,712 63,342 N. Santander ,209 3,108 Putumayo ,193 2,420 1,337 3,236 2,577 1,543 13,306 Santander , ,145 3,187 Tolima Valle ,551 1,556 Vaupés Vichada Total 15,723 18,076 24,410 16,150 11,306 9,928 6,266 10,087 7,847 7,636 6,676 4,671 31, ,062 Table 43: Aerial Spraying and manual eradication of coca cultivation, by department and year(ha) Sources Environmental Audit of the National Narcotics Bureau Antinarcotics Police Department Department Guaviare Meta Caqueta Putumayo Vichada Antioquia Cordoba Vaupés Cauca N. Santander Nariño Santander Boyacá Bolivar Arauca Magdalena Guajira Caldas Valle Chocó Cundinamarca Sub-total Manual Erad Total eradication , Net cultivation

72

73 As can be seen from the graph below, the reduction in coca cultivation noted between 2001 and 2004, corresponded mainly to an increased and sustained spraying efforts. As aerial spraying stabilized after 2002 around 130,000 hectares, coca cultivation kept decreasing, although to a lower rate between 2003 and However, coca cultivation increased between 2004 and 2005, while spraying activities rose. Figure 22. Comparison of net coca cultivation and accumulated sprayed areas (hectares). 180, , , ,000 hectares 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20, Sources: DIRAN, UNODC/SIMCI Coca cultivation Aerial spraying When analysed at the department level, the data showed that the level of aerial spraying in 2001 had a statistically significant impact on the reduction of coca cultivation between 2001 and There was a significant negative correlation (-0.83) between the amount of aerial spraying in 2001 and the change in the extent of coca cultivation between 2001 and For the following years, aerial spraying had an impact in the total reduction of coca cultivation. The impact became statistically less significant in later years due to heavy replanting. Manual erradication in Sierra La Macarena National Park. 175

74 2.5 REPORTED SEIZURE UNODC was not involved in the collection of data on seizures and destruction of laboratories. However they are reproduced here for information and because they provide interesting indications as to the existence of possible trafficking corridors and allow for a better understanding of the dynamics that surrounds the overall drug business. According to DNE, a total of 1953 illegal laboratories were destroyed in Out of these, a total of 1,786 corresponded to laboratories processing coca paste or coca base, 151 to processing cocaine hydrochloride, 16 permanganate of potassium, and 6 of heroin. Compared to 2004, it represented an increase of 5% in the number of illegal laboratories destroyed, demonstrating the high intensity of the actions taken by the Colombian Government against illicit drug production and coca cultivation. Figure 23. Number of illegal laboratories destroyed and coca cultivation, Coca cultivation in ha 180, , , , ,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20, Coca Cultiation in ha 79, , , , , ,071 86,000 80,000 86,000 Illegal laboratories destroyed ,574 1,448 1,489 1,865 1,953 2,500 2,000 1,500 1, Illegal laboratories destroyed Source: Drug Observatory, DNE Coca Cultiation in ha Illegal laboratories destroyed Illegal laboratory (photo DIRAN) 176

75 The distribution by department of the number of illegal laboratories destroyed and which were processing derivatives of coca leaves (coca paste/base and cocaine hydrochloride), also highlighted the department of Nariño as the most important illicit drug production centre in Colombia, as was the case in In the department of Guaviare, which accounts for 10% of the total coca cultivation, the number of coca paste/base laboratories destroyed increased from 4 in 2004 to 131 in Table 44: Illegal laboratories destroyed and coca cultivation in 2005 Department Permanganate of Cocaine Heroin Coca paste or base potassium Laboratories laboratories laboratories destroyed laboratories destroyed destroyed destroyed Nariño Antioquia Magdalena Guaviare Putumayo Cauca Caqueta Meta Valle N. Santander Santander Bolivar Vichada Cordoba Choco Cundinamarca Boyaca Arauca La Guajira Amazonas Caldas Bogota Huila Tolima Cesar Total Source: DNE 177

76

77 The data reported by DNE also showed an increase of 16% in cocaine seizure, from 149 metric tons in 2004 to 173 metric tons in Table 45: Reported seizures of illicit drugs Drug unit Coca seeds kg 1,678 98,916 27, , ,444 Coca leaf kg 897, , , , , ,010 Coca paste kg ,368 1,218 2,651 Coca base kg 9,771 16,572 22,615 27,103 37, ,491 Basuco kg 802 1,225 1,706 2,988 2,321 19,607 Cocaine hydrochloride kg 89,856 57,140 95, , , ,265 Opium seed kg Opium latex kg ,632 Morphine kg Heroin kg Raw cannabis kg 75,465 86,610 76, , , ,795 Cannabis resin kg na 0 3,5 Cannabis seeds kg 121,350 11, Synthetic drugs unit na 22, ,382 5,042 19,494 Source: Drug Observatory, DNE Out of the 173 metric tons of cocaine seized in 2005, 96 metric tons or 56% were seized by the Colombian Navy on sea or in seaports. This suggests that most of the shipment of cocaine seizure took place by sea. The Pacific route continued to be the most important route for trafficking (63% of the maritime seizure in 2005). Table 46: Reported seizures of cocaine in the Pacific and Atlantic routes, Pacific 43,435 47,137 46,128 61,042 Atlantic 16,065 23,157 30,928 35,856 Total seized by sea 59,500 70,294 77,056 96,898 Total seizures 95, , , ,265 % of seizures seized on sea 62% 62% 52% 56% Source: Colombian Navy, Intelligence Division Figure 24. Reported seizures of cocaine in the Pacific and Atlantic routes, ,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 kg 30,000 20,000 10,000-43,435 47,137 46,128 16,065 23,157 30,928 61,042 35, Pacific Atlantic 179

78