2. Aviation terminology Aviation terminology in historical perspective A brief history of international aviation

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1 Table of Contents List of Figures 3 INTRODUCTION 4 1. Terminology Terminology as a discipline Development of terminology Terminology versus lexicology Classification of terminology Descriptive terminology Prescriptive terminology Systematic terminology Ad hoc terminology Terminology and specialized communication Specialized communication Special language Characteristics of special language Artificial language Terminological unit Definition of a term Characteristics of a term Term formation Means of term formation Morphological means of term formation Syntactic means of term formation Semantic means of term formation Lexical means of term formation Impetus for term formation Types of terminological products Standardization of terms Translation of terminology 41 1

2 2. Aviation terminology Aviation terminology in historical perspective A brief history of international aviation A brief history of Czechoslovak and Czech aviation History of Czechoslovak and Czech air navigation ANS terminology Air Navigation Services of the Czech Republic The principles of air traffic and airspace organization The operation divisions of ANS CR Aeronautical Information Service The main characteristic of aviation terminology Abbreviations and codes in aviation International organizations in civil aviation Preparation of terminological glossary 97 CONCLUSION 103 BIBLIOGRAPHY 108 Appendix 1: The cover of Aviation ou Navigation Aérienne (1886) 113 Appendix 2: The patent drawings for the Wright's from Appendix 3: The statistics of scheduled passenger km in Appendix 4: The development of Praha Ruzyně Airport 116 Appendix 5: The average daily IFR movements and delays per a flight in FIR LKPR in 2013 and Appendix 6 : The Plan of Aerodrome and Lighting of the Prague Airport from the time of former Czechoslovakia 118 Appendix 7: The contemporary Prague Airport Chart 119 Appendix 8: Radionavigation chart of Czechoslovakia 120 Appendix 9: Czech Republic En-route Chart ICAO lower airspace 121 Appendix 10: Czech Republic En-route Chart ICAO upper airspace 122 Appendix 11: Contemporary radio facility chart displaying VOR/DME 123 Appendix 12: IT support of the air traffic controllers at the APP 124 Appendix 13: The aircraft types coded and decoded designators 125 Appendix 14: The map of ICAO location indicators 126 Appendix 15: Word spelling alphabet and its phonetic representation 127 Appendix 16: Numbers and their phonetic representations 128 Appendix 17: Terminological Glossary 129 RESUME 2

3 List of Figures 1. The basis of terminographical and lexicographical processes Three principal features of special language The relevant criteria for classifying a term The hierarchical structure of the air traffic control services The organization chart of ANS CR Operational Division The division of the ANS CR Section Approach and Airport Services The division of the ANS CR Section of Regional Navigation Services The pragmatic character of aviation terminology compared to general language Coded and decoded ICAO location indicators The major terminological concepts of my termographic work 101 3

4 INTRODUCTION Language is a continuum in time, which changes its form according to the needs of people who speak it. In that sense, it is fascinating to observe the rapid growth of the special aviation lexicon, namely aviation terminology and phraseology. In my thesis, I attempt to have a closer look at this unique language used especially by a narrow range of aviation professionals and specialists. First of all, I am interested in the historical and technological driving forces of the enormous expansion of general aviation. My objective is to find out whether the unprecedented development in aviation technology has had any direct impact on the growth of the quality and quantity of aviation terminology and if so, how these changes have had further impact on the use of this terminology in aviation practice. Since I focus my work primarily on the terminology used within the state enterprise Air Navigation Services of the Czech Republic (ANS CR), it is necessary to clarify the fundamental principles, rules and procedures applied in the current air traffic control and flight information services in the Czech Republic, where the use of the special and unique aviation discourse is absolutely crucial for communication and exchange of information among all 4

5 the operational components, whether individuals or the entire organizations involved in aviation. Apart from that, I would like to outline the main types of the ANS CR principal services and describe their character and classification. Their main division into various subfields has had a considerable impact on the further distribution of the aviation terminology and on its usage in particular. I would like to point out that the extensive knowledge of this issue and understanding of the subject matter are essential for the quality of the final terminological products. Finally, I intend to scrutinize whether the aviation terminology meets the characteristics of a special language and in that sense represents an artificial language on its own. In the final part of my work a bilingual glossary of selected terms is presented, based on the frequency of their use within the air traffic control services and flight information services in the Czech Republic. The motivation for choosing the topic of my work is my passion for aviation, the love of the English language, my concern about history and a considerable interest in etymology in general. This comprehensive task on the relatively complex theme would not be possible to accomplish without the thorough search in the many theoretical resources and consultations of experienced professionals from the field of terminology, aviation, history and economics. 5

6 The first part of my thesis is therefore principally engaged in the theoretical aspects of terminology. It introduces terminology as a separate, recently established linguistic discipline, which was only lately recognized as a new scientific branch. In this section the main differences between terminology and lexicology are explained, the concept of a term is described and artificial language is characterized. Furthermore, the main principles of word creation in terms of morphology, syntax, semantics and lexicology are introduced. In the second part of my thesis the aviation terminology is dealt with, predominantly from the historical perspective, mentioning briefly the history of international aviation and especially the Czechoslovak and Czech aviation history. Significant milestones of aviation development in general and key moments leading to the expansion of the Czechoslovak aviation from regional to an international level are summarized. For my work it was necessary to bring forward the fundamental changes in this technical field and the phases of its scientific progress that have had a major impact on the evolution and development of the air traffic control services. The next section deals with the current situation in the Czech aviation with a special focus on the state enterprise ANS CR. In this sense, it is necessary to understand the character and types of services the enterprise provides, but also the main principles of air traffic control in general, such as airspace and air 6

7 traffic organization. The types of the required services have a direct impact on the company layout and this in turn affects the use of specific terminology in practice. It is also necessary to specify the main characteristics of aviation terminology and compare it to the unmarked general language. I further mention the highly significant and most typical subdivision of aviation terminology, the discourse represented by codes and abbreviated designators. Several essential categories are listed and further divided according to the methodology of their formation and usage, as well as the operational areas within which they are employed. Several international organizations in civil aviation that are principal for terminology unification, standardization and its prescription are also mentioned. Finally the procedure followed during the compilation of my terminological glossary is described. I focus on the most frequently used terms and phrases applied within air traffic control and flight information services. My work is based on information obtained from the primary and secondary sources listed in the Bibliography at the end of my work, my personal experience as a Briefing Officer (BO) at the Air Traffic Services Reporting Office (ARO) of the ANS CR, as well as on the valuable information and knowledge of my colleagues, professional experts in the respective fields. 7

8 1. Terminology 1.1 Terminology as a discipline Terminology is the most important characteristic of specialist communication because it differentiates special languages from the general language and also the various special languages from one another. Experts use terminology not only to order thought, but also to transfer specialized knowledge in one or more languages and to structure the information contained in specialized texts. (Cabré 45) Terminology is an interdisciplinary field. It deals with the naming of concepts of special subjects, provides basic information on the methodology of term formation, its recording, standardization and documentation. It prescribes the proper use of professional terms and terminological data alike. Terminology is mostly based on linguistics, but it is interlinked with other non-linguistic disciplines, whose nomenclature needs to be created, stabilized, integrated and described. Its elementary principle is assigning linguistic signs or designations to specific concepts of human thought. Designations are individual words terms, groups of words or complex syntactic connections phrases that indicate the objective reality. The basic content of terminological work is then the identification and analysis of concepts, selection of appropriate language 8

9 naming, definitions of individual terms, storing information, their presentation and transmission in various ways. In this sense, terminology is technical and functional language style designated for specialized purposes used in all areas of human activities. It is characterized by the use of professional terms in the relevant field of specialized communication based on the experience and knowledge of language. For successful communication in special language environment, it is absolutely necessary to have at least basic knowledge of the subject matter. 1.2 Development of terminology Terminology is a young discipline. It has acquired a scientific orientation and has been recognized as a socially important activity only in the 20 th century. Behind its emergence there were the needs that resulted from the technological development in our society. In her view of terminology as a separate field of study, Teresa Cabré formulates that terminology, a discipline concerned with the study and compilation of specialized terms is not a new field of study. It has only recently been systematically developed and moved towards more scientific approach as we know it today (1). 9

10 The founder of modern terminology is considered to be E. Wüster. In her other work Theories of Terminology (2003) Cabré describes that Wüster, the Austrian engineer with a strong interest in information science and an advocate of a single language for scientific and technical communication first developed a theory of terminology on the basis of his terminographic experience. She follows, that his main aim was to eliminate ambiguity from technical languages by means of standardization of terminology in order to make them efficient tools of communication ( ). The current development of terminology is the outcome of advances in technology and the increasing need for specialized communication among experts. Utilization of computers brought major changes in the area of data processing. Information technology helped to make cooperation and information exchange among experts faster and more effective. Nowadays, terminology rapidly expands within all fields of human endeavour on national as well as international scale. Terminological theory arose through practical experience. In the same way it has been developing until today. We can say that terminology is motivated by the human need to provide solutions to language-based problems in communication. 10

11 1.3 Terminology versus lexicology Even though terminology and lexicology are seemingly similar disciplines, terminology requires a different approach to its object of study. The whole terminological processes of words creation, methodology, lexical gathering and presentation are distinct. The difference is also between the terminography, the applied branch of terminology and lexicography, which is the applied branch of lexicology. Cabré (1999) explains that terminography is concerned with assigning names to concepts. It is an onomasiological process, which moves from concepts to terms segments of specialized professional reality. Terminography is adapted to the actual communicative needs of contemporary professionals. In the form of a dictionary it describes terms, which are part of terminology of some thematic area. Therefore the aim of pragmatic thermographic work is to record the terms of a thematic area, summarize, describe and integrate them into a dictionary or glossary according to certain concepts. On the other hand, the process in lexicography, the pragmatic side of lexicology, is semasiological. It starts with naming the word, which is then characterized functionally and semantically, and moves from the word to the concept. Below, there are brief outlines of the fundamental characteristics of both processes according to Cabré (1999). 11

12 TERMINOGRAPHICAL ONOMASIOLOGICAL PROCES CONCEPT WORD LEXICOGRAPHICAL SEMASIOLOGICAL PROCESS WORD CONCEPT Figure 1. The basis of terminographical and lexicographical processes Furthermore, thermography works with specific primary texts rather than with their equivalents or translations. Another integral part of termographic work is precise determination of the target users. Most often they are specialists and experts of relevant disciplines that on daily bases use and work with the final termographical products generated specialized glossaries, databases, or minor terminological systems. Further, the main characteristics of both disciplines are listed. The differences between thermography and lexicography can be clearly seen. 12

13 The specificities of terminography versus lexicography TERMINOGRAPHY - ONOMASIOLOGICAL PROCES LEXICOGRAPHY SEMASIOLOGICAL PROCESS from concept to the term priority of terminological units language reduction - discarding variants unified prescriptive language high degree of internationalization systematic ordering - focus on concepts prior to the names prime object of study are the specialized terms synchronic approach to words standardization, international criteria for term formation (includes variants such as initialisms, short forms, abbreviations) intervention, creation of artificial language focus on the term formation from word to the meaning priority of interpretation vocabulary variation descriptive language low degree of internationalization focus on the words prior to the concepts always linked to grammar diachronic approach to words free language evolution historical formation of language descriptive formulations focus on explanation 13

14 formal expressions pragmatic aspects and goals formal and informal expressions theoretical aspects concern with the written rather than the spoken form concern with both the spoken and written forms objective subjectivity is maximally reduced dictionaries start with the concepts homonymy - one form is given priority over the others specialized documents are the only source material aimed at achieving precise and unambiguous professional communication balanced subjectivity and objectivity dictionaries start with the words polysemy, synonymy wide range of source materials aimed at general principles and methods of writing dictionaries As it was already mentioned, termographical work starts from concepts. Technical dictionaries addressed to people who are already experts in a special field are usually structured according to some concepts or fields of knowledge. The terminological reference of those special termographical products often present entries in a systematic order as opposed to the alphabetic order that can be found in general language dictionaries. 14

15 1.4 Classification of terminology Terminology is divided according to several criteria. It can be assessed either according to the terminological area it belongs to, its activities within a scientific discipline, or its aims to solve a particular terminological problem in a translation. Further, the four major types of terminology are described: descriptive, prescriptive, systematic and ad hoc terminology Descriptive terminology Descriptive terminology focuses on creating professional terminology. It is used especially in social sciences and fields, where the denominations used are vague and ambiguous and the terms cannot be easily attributed to a single concept. In descriptive terminology, unification of terms is important for assessing man's stands or opinions Prescriptive terminology Prescriptive terminology deals with terms that have to be precisely determined and defined in relation to other terms within one professional linguistic area. It is linked to exact and natural sciences, deductive sciences and various technical fields. In scientific discourse, the linguistic accuracy is an 15

16 absolute necessity. Each term corresponds to one entity and the use of the specified denominations is binding for all interlocutors. The professional terminology is further assumed by specialists and terminologists, whose task is to identify, consolidate, stabilize and standardize it internationally. In simple terms, prescriptive terminology is applied whenever it is necessary to find an exact and accurate denomination to facilitate understanding between a sender and receiver at national as well as international level Systematic terminology Systematic terminology allows terminologists the access to a wide range of terms across the lexicon of a specific scientific area. Terminological units that were previously standardized in the past are already available in existing technical texts. Terminologists thus have enough time to collect key materials to analyze the necessary data they need for scientific research and processing. It requires close cooperation of specialists in terminology and the corresponding fields. The systematic approach to terminological data leads to new, welldefined sets of professional terminology. They are provided with precise professional definitions incorporated in detail into the already existing standard terms. 16

17 1.4.4 Ad hoc terminology Ad hoc terminology is occasional, mostly time-limited, specific terminology created for specific purposes. Ad hoc terminological searches are restricted to a single term or a small set of items that are homogeneous in the sense that they all belong to a single domain. Work on small groups of terms belonging to different fields is also considered ad hoc. Individual terms are not defined in the concept of coherent contextual relationships. Ad hoc terminologists concentrate on any issue relating to a single specialized term and create a diverse range of terms allowing a global perspective on the specific discipline. The result of this activity is a diverse terminology list, which according to Teresa Cabré (1999) consists of no more than 60 terms. Terminology is used above all in structured communicative situations. In reality the experts in a given domain can use the specialized terminology in a variety of communicative acts and at several different levels of abstraction. From the different nature of the various criteria of terminology classification it can be deduced, how the various approaches to terminology affect the final accuracy and reliability of the resulting data. 17

18 1.5 Terminology and specialized communication The difference between general and special languages is the degree to which the fundamental characteristic of language are maximized or minimized in special languages. Special languages are used more selfconsciously than general languages and the situations in which they are used intensify the users concern with the language. (Sager, Dungworth & McDonald 1980) Specialized communication Technical and scientific discourse is generally considered to be the typical unified type of discourse used in specialized communication. According to the hypothesis supported by Rondeau, science and technology is the most representative example of single special languages in the field of all specialized communication. He continues that the specificity of the lexicon and the functional as well as pragmatic characteristics of the discourse should be always taken in consideration. (Cabré 68) Specialized communication requires specific language rules that are different from those followed in general communication. The more specialized communication is, the more international units and standardizing rules will be incorporated and the more restricted number of users there will be. 18

19 One of the main elements that represent special communication is the participants. They have to be experts, which mean that they have to share a certain amount of information in the same area of knowledge to a certain extent. In the view of Sager: Special languages or more precisely special subject languages are usually thought of as the means of expression of highly qualified subject specialists like engineers, physicians, lawyers, etc. and are often derogatively referred to as jargon. (Sager 64) The scope of communication is limited to the special field and becomes formally conceptualized. The text types are informative, descriptive and formal with preference for systematic ordering. Their main function is referential. The situations in which special communication occur are considered as marked situations. In that way, the use of specific, standardized terminology helps to make communication among specialists and experts more efficient. The possibility to use standardized terminology is the best way the scientific and technical specialists have to refer to a topic of knowledge they share. Internationally unified features are expressed by means of equivalent universal signs independent of cultural differences. 19

20 Special language There is not a single and clear definition of the concept of special language. The unifying factors of special languages are specific according to the scientific field and type of terminologies they use. Special language refers to a set of sub codes that can be specifically characterized by certain particulars such as subject field, type of interlocutors, situation, speakers intentions, the context in which a communicative exchange occurs, the type of exchange, etc. (Cabré 59) Special language may be viewed as a set of linguistic phenomena which occurs within a certain sphere of specialized human communication. It is structured and limited by specific intentions, conditions and the users themselves. In the opinion of Picht and Draskau (1985) special language is a formalized and codified variety of language, used for special purposes and in a legitimate context. That is to say that special language fulfils the function of fast and exact exchange of information at any level of specialization. From the highest level of complexity between initiated experts to the lower levels of complexity, it aims at informing other interested parties in the most economic, precise and unambiguous way possible. 20

21 Characteristics of special language Special languages are recognized as pragmatic or extra-linguistic subdivisions of a language. Their major aspect is their communicative potential. The purpose of exchanging objective information is more important than other functions. Cabré (1999) implies that scientific and technical communication is generally characterized by the following three particular text characteristics. CONCISE PRECISE IMPERSONAL Figure 2. Three principal features of special language Cabré (1999) states that Picht and Draskau (1985) refer to special languages as one single type and list a series of shared common features as following: - they have single purpose - they are used for communication in specific settings - they have limited number of users - they are acquired voluntarily - they are autonomous possible variations do not affect the general language 21

22 Cabré (1999) herself supports the view that special languages are linguistic codes and units that differ from general language and are subject to specific rules. She describes some further significant characteristics of special languages as following: - they have a prior controlled conceptualization set by users themselves - they do not admit new terms unless there are defined and named concepts - they do not comprise of any polysemous terms - the written terms are in majority over the spoken forms - many terms are internationally valid - they have the same limited functions - to facilitate mutual comprehension they are standardized internationally - nouns, noun phrases and nominal groups predominate - written language is preferred over oral language - symbols are frequently used Another widely held classification of special languages is hierarchical. It is based on the specific subject fields, their interrelationship and degree of abstraction. Hierarchical classification divides the subject areas further to subjects, groups of subjects, sub-subjects etc. according to their own focus. The highly marked aviation terminology is most frequently divided and classified according to hierarchical structures. It follows the general principles of 22

23 categorization which goes from complex, elaborate concepts to simpler, basic forms. The vast majority of specific data is predominantly shortened and communicated in the form of elaborated system of codified messages and abbreviated denominations. These special linguistic units are part of so called artificial language system Artificial language The most significant characteristics for defining artificial languages according to Cabré (60) are the following: - they are invented and constructed languages - they are subject to a previous, controlled conceptualization - they do not admit new units without been previously set and conceptualized - they are unambiguous - they do not consist of synonyms or polysemous terms - their syntax is reduced - their meaning does not accept variations - they have standardized inventory of unified written signs - the terms and phrases are used in fixed appropriate forms - they encompass uniform coded signs, abbreviations and symbols 23

24 Cabré suggests that the criteria for defining artificial languages are similar to special languages (60). However, the entire sets of artificial denominations are unified and standardized according to internationally agreed rules. That means, no synonyms or variations are allowed. 1.6 Terminological unit A lexical unit becomes a terminological unit or term when it is clearly defined and when it is repeatedly used in specialized texts. Professionals in the same field share the whole sets or subsets of specialized vocabulary, which they acquire naturally as their knowledge of a certain field advances. Cabré argues that terminological units are not semantically isolated and that at the same time the knowledge of those specialized words is not produced by means of isolated terms (82) Definition of a term Terms are distinctive and meaningful signs. They are symbols that represent certain concepts. Scientific concepts are defined within a particular field of knowledge. Specialized terms occur in specific language communication and scientific texts. They are lexical units that aroused as a by-product of professional communication in modern science. 24

25 According to the Dictionary of Literary Czech Language (1989), term is the professional name of a precise unambiguous meaning. Cabré claims that apart from the fact, that terms are different from words in general language because of their ability to name a specialized reality (113), and the fact that terms are not isolated units in a texts, but always occur in a specific context (99), she also concludes that: Besides being formal, conceptual and functional grammatical units, terms are also pragmatic units of communication and reference and as such, they have certain discourse characteristic and occur in well-define communicative situations. (Cabré 112) Characteristics of a term Terms are classified into categories according to certain criteria by which these lexical units are determined. According to Wüster's teachings, each word it is a term because: - it results from a convention - its expression is a symbol - its content is its most important trait - the concept it represents is explicitly defined - the description of a concept leads to the field of knowledge in which it occurs. 25

26 The prime important feature of a term is its capacity to be professionally defined and explicitly expressed. Another significant feature of a term is the reduction of certain aspects, such as emotions or expressions that are, on the contrary, carried by general lexical items. Cabré (1999) claims that the most relevant criteria in specialized texts are concision, precision and suitability. As she puts it, a term must be concise because it reduces the possibility of distortions in the information. It also must be precise because of the nature of scientific and technical topics and function among specialists (70). Every text has to be adapted to the interlocutors and the level of their knowledge about the topic. Therefore a term should be appropriate to the communicative situation in which it is produced. CONCISE PRECISE APPROPRIATE Figure 3. The three relevant criteria for classifying a term 26

27 The main characteristics of a term: Definable Concise Precise Appropriate Standardized Transparent Codified Systematic Internationalized Unique No expressive Communicatively functional Forms complex expressions phrases Terms are usually created by teams of specialists responsible for the concepts, who introduce a certain designation into a special subject field. Experts communicate with each other and discuss their subject matter using designations they consider suitable to the system of their language. Terms are much more closely related to the other terms in the same discipline with which they form specific structures, than to other terms from different subject fields. (Cabré 82) In that sense, terms are often combined with other terms to form phraseological expressions. In aviation language those expressions are used very often and constitute the whole sets of phraseological glossaries created and employed by teams of professionals. 27

28 1.7 Term formation When discussing word-formation, we must differentiate between the appearance of new words, i.e. the output of word-formation rules, and these abstract rules themselves. Word-formation rules are both language-specific and subject to diachronic change, especially in regard to their productivity, i.e. the frequency and flexibility with which they are used to coin new words. (Schendl 26) Language is a complex, heterogeneous system made up of interrelated subsystems, each of which can be described at the phonological, morphological, lexical and discourse levels. Terminology subjects to the same rules for word formation processes as general linguistics. Therefore term formation in terminology is technically based mainly on lexicology and common patterns of word-formation processes, such as new syntactic connections, combination of lexicological units, their contractions, changes in morphology, etc. Lexical units become terms when they are clearly defined and undergo a process of standardization. They have to carry the attributes and satisfy the criteria described above. Apart from that, they should also be reused in professional texts and get into the awareness of terminologists and scientific experts. Their official assignation by terminology institutes is the final stage of the term formation process. 28

29 1.7.1 Means of term formation Speakers constantly have to adapt language to changing communicative needs in a changing environment. Thus new words are coined, old ones get their meanings extended, while on the other hand, existing words or meanings constantly fall into disuse. (Schendl 25) As mentioned above, when creating new terms, terminology cooperates with linguistics. The same linguistic and lexical knowledge is used for the professional purposes of term formations as well as for constituting new words in general. The principles of word formation are essentially identical in English and Czech language. Both languages employ standard morphological, phonological, syntactic and semantic means of term formation and they also borrow words from other languages. The only difference is in the frequency of use and the preference of the various word formation types. Terms in general are most represented by nouns, especially proper nomenclature names, followed by verbs and adjectives. 29

30 Morphological means of term formation The most frequent and common morphological method of term formation according to Sager (2001) is modification or adaptation of already existing terms according to grammatically familiar patterns. It is for example affixation, which is a process of appending prefixes or suffixes to the existing words to form new derivates. These words form so-called verbal series, which are words derived from the same base. Above that, suffixes have the ability to change the grammatical category of words. Some affixes are of Latin or Greek origin. Some examples of affixations used in contemporary aviation are: inbound, outbound, overcast, pre-flight information, pre-departure clearance, en-route, coordination, non-precision approach, non-directional radio beacon, defrost, reroute, omnidirectional. (Source: Doc 8400 Abbreviations and Codes). Another common morphological means of forming terms is compounding. According to Schendl (2001), it is one of the oldest methods of word formation in English. Compounding is a process that involves a combination of two or more components, which create a new lexical unit with a new, independent meaning. Compounds are usually written with a hyphen or as separate words that can hereafter become one word. The meaning of most compounds is selfexplanatory and more explicit than, for example, the meaning of derivates. 30

31 In contemporary aviation terminology, there is a large number of compounds, such as: airway, runway, taxiway-link, stopway, clearway, stopbar, stop-end, pilot-controlled, point-in-space reference point, right-hand circuit, touch-and-go landing, way-point, altimeter sub-scale setting, off-block time, radioteletypewriter, touchdown zone, threshold point, en-route altitude, takeoff, ground-based system, air-to-air, air-to-ground, sunset, direction-finding stations, airborne, telecommunication network. (Source: Doc 8400 Abbreviations and Codes). A very important principle of forming technical terms is abbreviating one or more words. Abbreviations are created by shortening longer words or phrases. According to Campbell (1998) there are various abbreviated forms, such as: - phonetic abbreviations - acronyms words formed by combining the initial or first few letters of two or more words (EU) - further syllabic abbreviations or blends formed from parts of existing words - initialisms abbreviations with the initials pronounced separately (BBC) - international abbreviations (laser, robot, etc.) - codes 31

32 Various forms of abbreviations are commonly used in aviation language. Especially acronyms are abundant, as they proved to be an effective and productive way of creating new terms and phrases. It is a method of communication, which allows accuracy, clarity and fast transmission of information. Some examples of abbreviations used in contemporary aviation: ACARS aircraft communication addressing and reporting system (acronym) ACC area control centre (acronym) ADF automatic direction-finding equipment (acronym) AFTN aeronautical fixed telecommunication network (acronym) AIREP air report (blend) ALERFA alert phase (blend) ATA actual time of arrival (acronym) ATC air traffic control (acronym) ATIS automatic terminal information service (acronym) CPDLC controller-pilot data link communications (acronym) DETRESFA distress phase (blend) DME distance measuring equipment (acronym) ELBA emergency location beacon-aircraft (acronym) 32

33 ETA estimated time of arrival (acronym) GNSS global navigation satellite system (acronym) IFR instrument flight rules (acronym) ILS instrument landing system (acronym) INCERFA uncertainty phase (blend) LORAN long range air navigation system (acronym) NOTAM notice to airmen (blend) OPS operation (shortening) PDC pre-departure clearance (acronym) PAPI precision approach path indicator (acronym) RADAR - radio detecting and ranging (acronym) RNAV area navigation (blend) RNP required navigation performance (acronym) RVR runway visual range (acronym) RWY runway (shortening) SELCAL selective calling system (blend) SNOWTAM a special series NOTAM (blend) SSR secondary surveillance radar (acronym) TACAN UHF tactical air navigation aid (blend) TCAS traffic alert and collision avoidance system (blend) UTC coordinated universal time (acronym universal time coordinated) (Source: Doc 8400 Abbreviations and Codes). 33

34 Syntactic means of term formation At the syntactic level, there are terminological phrases, which represent grammatical and lexical principles of new terms formation. They are made of special terms in syntactic relationship, have fixed word order and are able to create so-called terminological systems. When they appear in conjunctions where the individual components have different meanings, they form so called specialized terminological phrases, which are the most explicit forms of all terminological discourse Semantic means of term formation Vocabulary of a language is arranged into semantically related words, namely semantic or lexical fields that are delicately balanced within their structure, which means that any change in meaning, disappearance or addition of any member of a semantic field affects the meaning of the other members as well. (Schendl 33) The source of new professional designations may be also the process of semantic transfer or alteration of meaning. The semantic change, which is an expansion of already existing concepts, is caused by linguistic and extra linguistic forces. For metonymy, for example, it is possible to compare the parts of human body to a device, structure or concept. Metaphor, on the other hand, transfers the meaning between disciplines. 34

35 Two distinctive forces of semantic shifts are called extension and narrowing of meaning. The former one, also known as generalization, is the tendency of a word to become more general. It may include loss of some of the meaning components. The word s signification unit becomes gradually wider. It adds more meanings until it covers much more than the original idea. Extending the resources of the vocabulary is one of the commonest phenomena of the utilizing an old word in a new sense. On the other hand, the process of narrowing functions is the opposite tendency. When a word narrows its meaning it acquires a more restricted sense or is used only in one specialized connection. An example of extension of meaning in aviation terminology is GPS global positioning system used formerly only for one specific system created by NASA. Nowadays, this abbreviation is used for any system of global positioning in general operated by various corporations. Terms are created in a language because the ideas, processes or objects that these terms represent have been created or invented in the society using that language. As Schendl concludes although not much is known about the general principles of semantic changes, these processes often reflect transformations in the social, economic, political and cultural contexts in which they happen (32). 35

36 Lexical means of term formation A special phenomenon of term formation is the process of terminologization. Cabré explains that by terminologization process a word from the common communication loses its generality and becomes linked to the concept of a particular science (66). A lexical unit from a general language thus acquires the character of a term. These processes create homonyms that often occur in several disciplines and are called interdisciplinary borrowings. Problems arise when homonyms occur within one terminological system. Then the more frequent, productive or more operational term must be selected. The process of borrowing words from other languages is called internationalization. Predominantly, the whole sets of terminological units of one specific discipline are borrowed from the source language. They are often accompanied by their equivalents in the targeted language. From the historical perspective view on borrowing in languages Schendl explains that old English, for example, only had about three per cent of borrowed or loan words, while seventy per cent of modern English is said to consist of loan words from more than eighty different languages, primarily Latin and French (25). 36

37 According to Baugh the cosmopolitan character of English language is caused by loan words borrowed from other languages. English contains a lot of such borrowings primarily from French and German, but also from other languages (285). Nowadays, English influences many other languages. Coinage represents another creative process of forming new words in language. In that way, new terms called neologisms are created whenever it is necessary to identify a unique phenomenon or fact for which there is no linguistic model or precedent. For example, nowadays there are a lot of neologisms created in the field of modern information technology. In aviation too, experts have to seek linguistic solutions to new needs based on unprecedented linguistic situations in the technical communication environment Impetus for term formation The primary impetus for the term creation is the need for the special language within a particular scientific or professional field. The stimulus may be of different nature. It can be based on the accidental discovery or invention. Then it answers the call for an immediate and direct expression. A new phenomenon may also occur more frequently, but it lacks the language expression. According to Sager (2001) terms are formed according to so-called primary and secondary principles. 37

38 In the case of primary formation of extra-linguistic reality or phenomenon, the subject of a field exploration, invention, etc., appears unexpectedly and there is no convenient term for it. The denomination is therefore created spontaneously. In the case of secondary formation, a new term formally subjects to the influence of already existing terms. Its modified, derived or otherwise abstracted form is consistent with the term formation rules within the scientific field in question. 1.8 Types of terminological products As it was already mentioned, the purpose of terminological processing is to achieve and facilitate fast, precise and efficient communication among specialists. When planning a terminological product terminologists must always consider the nature of the situation and the context in which the language exchange takes place. The whole conceptual system has to be logically and ontologically related. As Cabré explains the logical relationships are based on similarities, while the ontological relationships are based on the proximity or contact in space or time (44). Terminologists assign certain designations to each concept. The designations are then unified and standardized terms of a specific domain. All these aspects determine the final form of the terminological products and result in a wide range of documents: glossaries, dictionaries, lexicons, terminological databases, electronic visions of dictionaries, etc. 38

39 To sum it up, terminology as a discipline and a branch of applied linguistics has to develop in theoretical as well as practical way. This praxis is evaluated through scientific principles, mainly through the so-called glossaries or lexicons, which are its end results. Cabré (1999) provides a brief list of common terminology products as follows: - Current language dictionaries contain basic terms in the field of special terminology known to a wider public. - Encyclopaedias in addition to professional terminology they also contain information about the concept, such as descriptions, tables, illustrations, etc. - General scientific and technical vocabularies contain only terminology. - Specialized dictionaries state equivalent terms, explanations and classification. These are often more accurate than the foregoing. - Specialized visual dictionaries the concept is introduced by illustrations, symbols, etc. - Lexicons, thesauri and dictionaries sorted thematically without definitions. Thesauri also provide an overview of the structures of the thematic areas. - Terminology databases are the most complex terminology projects. Due to the use of computers, they have become the most current terminology resources that facilitate updating the terminological concepts and data. 39

40 1.9 Standardization of terms Specialists in various fields express their knowledge and ideas through the use of standard terms. The purpose of standardization is to facilitate communication in a special or technical language between disciplinary areas within the same language or internationally. Specialists use terminology regardless the fact whether a term is appropriate within a particular linguistic system or not. Their communicative needs start from the knowledge of the concept and from the need to communicate it. Standardization of terms according to Cabré (1999) is a complex process, which consist of: - concept unification - term definition - reduction of homonymy and synonymy - new terms creation Terminology is primarily the business and the responsibility of several specialists who introduce a certain designation into a special subject field. These experts then discuss their subject matter using designations they consider suitable to the system of their language. Terminologists, with their working methods and knowledge, are merely technical aids in a multidisciplinary field. 40

41 Types of terminological standardization: - Institutional standardization process when a team of professionals suggest a certain preferred denomination. - International standardization process when an international team presents the basic characteristics or conditions that a term should satisfy. - Standardization without intervention it is governed by the final users. The processes of standardization are approved and carried out by organizations with the authority to make such decisions. In aviation the standardizing concepts and processes the process for choosing a standard terms, names or concepts are carried out by committees of specialists. In the case of alternatives they choose only one of the various available terms in order to establish a single, unified international designation Translation of terminology Every technical translation is supported by a bilingual or multilingual terminological dictionary. Effective and precise translation needs understanding of the source text, which requires further knowledge of the specific terms of the source and target languages. It is obvious that the translator must be familiar with the subject matter, use precise terms and bear in mind the final target readers the specialists in the field. 41

42 Summary In the first part of my thesis I dealt with the basic concepts of terminology as an independent linguistic discipline and described the fundamental principles of terminology formation and standardization. The general issues of thermography and lexicography were mentioned together with the main differences between them. The concept of linguistic term as a special unit was introduced as well as the various types of terminological work. Apart from that I described the general patterns of term formation and added some examples from contemporary aviation. The introductory section is based primarily on the results of studies of the literature listed in the Bibliography and serves as an overall view on general terminological principles. It is by no means the ultimate or the only description of terminological area of linguistic. The first part is followed by the second part, which focuses on the specific aviation terminology and phraseology, its types, methods of formation and ways of utilization within the state owned enterprise Air Navigation Services of the Czech Republic (ANS CR). 42

43 2. Aviation terminology Words designate the things a culture knows, and just in the same way, the vocabulary of a language must keep pace with the advance of the culture's development. The date when a new word enters a language is in general the date when the object, experience, observation, or whatever it is has entered public consciousness. (Baugh 284) Terminology is closely linked to an activity carried out within the field of knowledge and thus it is inseparable from its social context and its obvious applications. In the 20th century, it was the engineers and technicians who became the leaders involved in creating new terminology. As Cabré (1999) puts it the overwhelming technological progress and the value attached to information have created the needs for new professions, information processing and new ways of organizing interpersonal communication. The rapid progress of aviation and development of information technology required an appropriate language codification and establishment of new linguistic forms for prompt and efficient communication. Experts involved in aviation started to express unprecedented needs for new, standardized language forms at various international meetings. All the required terminographical products that were meant to be published and distributed internationally had to be also internationally unified. 43