Ephesus. would become part of the Eastern Roman Empire. A major trading area because of its

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1 Schloemer 1 Ephesus The city of Ephesus was located in the delta region of modern day Turkey in what would become part of the Eastern Roman Empire. A major trading area because of its harbor, Ephesus was very important in the ancient world because it served as a gateway between eastern and western cultures. In its most significant periods, the city of Ephesus was under the control of the Greeks and then later the Romans. Through their domination, both the Greeks and Romans influenced the architecture and culture of Ephesus. Though Ephesus had already become an important city during the Hellenistic period due to the popularity of its Artemision temple, it was under the Romans that the city gained the most prestige. As a result of Greek and Roman influence, Ephesus experienced an increase in the trade and culture between the visiting peoples. Due to both Greek and Roman occupation, Ephesus underwent a number of cultural and social changes and as a result the city itself began to grow becoming one of the most diverse centers of the ancient world. As a part of the Roman Empire in the east, Ephesus served as a gateway between cultures not only in the trade of goods but also in the trade of traditions. Although trade did benefit the city, the Artemision was by far one of the greatest sources of economic opportunity for the city. Through the Artemision, the foot traffic of Ephesus increased as more people came to see one of the Seven Wonders of the World. 1 Some of the people who visited Ephesus decided to take up permanent residence in the city, bringing with them their own culture and traditions. This would leave a lasting impression on Ephesian society as a whole. Due to the increase in population, the Ephesians began to construct new building to fit their increasing population which is said to have eventually reached 40,000 in its male citizens alone. 2

2 Schloemer 2 Throughout its history, various rulers governed Ephesus. In ancient times, Ephesus was considered to be the most important metropolis in Ionian Asia Minor. The city was founded upon land that had belonged to the Carians and Leleges. 3 Later under the leadership of Androclus, many Greeks moved from the Greek mainland to an area about 1200m west from an earlier version of the Artemision. 4 There, they founded the city of Coressus. However in 560 BC Croesus of Lydia besieged Coressus and then proceeded to resettle the Greeks closer to the Artemision. It was here that the joint Greek and Lydian city of Ephesus was formed. During the Hellenistic Period, Lysimachus took over Ephesus from 301BC to 287B after he won the Diadochi wars. Throughout this period, Ephesus moved from government to government eventually becoming a part of the Ptolemaic Empire in 196BC and again in 188BC becoming a part of Pergamum under King Eumenes II. Finally in 133BC, the Romans took control of Ephesus. However as an act of defiance towards their Roman masters, the Ephesians allied themselves with Mithridates VI in 89 and 88BC and killed the city s Roman population. Years later after conflict was resolved in 30/29 BC, Octavius made Ephesus the seat of the proconsul of Asia. In 23AD an earthquake hit Ephesus, causing extensive destruction within the city. However, with the help of the Emperor Tiberius these areas were rebuilt. Ephesus also experienced periods of reconstruction under the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian around 114AD and 130 to 131AD. Sadly, another catastrophic earthquake devastated Ephesus in 262 AD and left lasting damage to the city that was not fixed until the time of Theodosius I in 379AD. 5 As a result of its large size, the city of Ephesus has been excavated in sections by a number of different archaeologists for almost one hundred fifty years. Excavations in

3 Schloemer 3 Ephesus first began in 1863 under John Turtle Wood whose primary goal was to locate the Artemisia, a temple dedicated to the worship of the goddess Artemis. Later in 1904, D. G. Hogarth continued Wood s excavations with three specific goals in mind. First, Hogarth wanted [t]o open the Croesus Stratum in order that a detailed plan might be made of all its remains and any further fragments of its architecture and sculpture [to] be recovered. Second, he desired [t]o dig both under that stratum and round about it in order that its limits might be determined, and [also to test] Wood s conclusion, that no earlier remains underlay it [.] Finally, Hogarth wished [t]o probe part of the surrounding Precinct so far as was necessary for the determination of the character and condition of the remains at the various levels [found there]. 6 R. Heberdey and O. Benndorf were the next series of archaeologists to excavate Ephesus from 1895 to Within their excavation of the site Heberdey and Benndorf discovered the Large Theatre, the Library of Celsus, the Marble Street, the Bouleuterion, and other buildings. J. Keil was the next person to be associated with the Ephesian site. He excavated Ephesus from 1926 to Finally from 1954 to 2004 F. Miltner, F. Eichler, H. Vetters, G. Langermann, S. Karwiese, D. Knibbe and A. Bammer helped to discover the area along the Curetes Street and the Structures on the State Agora. They were also known for their work with the architecture and history of the Artemision temple. 7 Different societies affected the construction of Ephesus buildings. These cultural changes in the city were evident during the excavations of the Artemision. During his excavation of Ephesus in 1869 J.T. Wood discovered a wall, which he considered to be a part of the Artemisia Precinct constructed in the Augustan age. Later Wood decided to try his luck at excavating an area about half a mile from the Precinct where he eventually

4 Schloemer 4 located the original Artemisia. In the process of excavating this temple, Wood discovered evidence for some of its earliest stages in history. Two pieces of evidence that he found for this were the base and lowest drum of a temple column, which indicated the existence of the Artemision during the Hellenistic period. He also discovered some of the pavement that was used in the construction of the Artemision when it was maintained as a Christian Church. Hogarth led the next excavation of the Artemision. This yielded information for different historical periods. For example, in the process of clearing the Croesus Platform of this temple, Hogarth found artifacts in both the cella and peristyle which dated back to two different authorities in Ephesus. These findings included fragments from two reliefs that date back to the Hellenistic Period and fragments of sculptures from the Roman Period of Ephesus. Hogarth also found evidence that indicated that some of the platform s stone had been quarried away and used for a Christian Church. Similarly blocks made of mud mortar were discovered underneath the Hellenistic level of the excavation indicating an even earlier period for the temple. 8 Unfortunately, excavations under the Croesus Platform were cut short due to flooding of the site which caused the Hellenistic piers of the platform to be washed out. In excavating the main area of the Artemision, Hogarth discovered three successive small Temples, each of which was a modification of its predecessor 9 As a result of this discovery, the Artemision came to be divided into three temples, Temple A, Temple B, and Temple C, to indicate a specific period of restoration. For example, the green schist of Temple A was replaced by the yellow limestone of Temple B. 10 By changing the type of materials used in the construction of the Artemision the Ephesians showed how they were continually adapting

5 Schloemer 5 to the new developments occurring within the city. As a result of its many conflicts with other ancient societies, the city of Ephesus was built by the Greeks within the confines of a surrounding wall. This wall was about 10 feet and 6 inches in thickness measured feet in length, and consisted of massive towers which were about 100 feet apart from one another. The citizens of Ephesus did not completely surround their city with the wall, choosing instead to use some of their natural defenses provided by the topography of land. This natural defense mechanism was most likely built during the Hellenistic Period to ensure the safety of the city. Ephesus had two gateways, the Magnesian Gate and the Koressos Gate. The Magnesian Gate not only served as the main entranceway into the city, it also played a part in the processional route for religious festivals. 11 In Roman times, this gate was later added onto by the Emperor Vespasian and its name changed to the Gate of Honor. The Coressus Gate is located between both the bath-gymnasium complex and the stadium. It is through this gate that a visitor was immediately absorbed into a world created by the signs and symbols of a monumental urban classicism befitting the Roman metropolis of Asia. 12 By constructing many buildings on the other side of the Coressus gate, the Romans sought to illustrate their dominion over the Ephesians. Through the fortifications and gates of Ephesus the changes that occurred over time are made visible. In using Hippodamus orthogonal street plan, the city of Ephesus contained certain roads that were reserved for a specific everyday activity. For instance, the Marble Road of Ephesus held both the threatre and threatre baths of the city whereas Curetes Street was used to house specific monuments to the Emperors Hadrian and Trajan. 13 Through both this physical and social organization of Ephesus is seen the length of

6 Schloemer 6 influence that the Greeks and Romans had upon the city. This impact is also evident in the introduction of new buildings to the city. Within Ephesus, the architecture from both the Greek and Roman periods of the city are especially visible in the housing complexes found within its walls. The mansions of the wealthy class of Ephesus were very decorative. These mansions contained embellished interiors made up of beautiful mosaics and wall frescos which were very similar to the domestic spaces of Rome s Western Provinces. 14 However unlike Roman buildings, the placement of rooms in these houses is often inspired by the natural topography of Ephesus itself. Such a technique is probably the result of the Ephesians history with the Greeks, who chose to construct their buildings in areas where they did not have to change the landscape. Although these mansions were beautiful places to live not everyone was so fortunate as to be able to afford such a luxury. Instead the majority of people in Ephesus resided in the insulae or apartments of the city. Unlike the mansions of the wealthy the insulae of the city are rather cramped and provided only one room per family. 15 Within Ephesus diversity is not only reflected in its interaction with other nations, it is also seen in the different social levels of the Ephesians themselves. As a result of both Hellenistic and Roman occupation, many entertainment and social buildings sprouted up within the city of Ephesus. The two theatres that experienced the most influence as a result of both governming bodies were the Theatre of Ephesus and the Stadium. During the Hellenistic Period, the Theatre of Ephesus was the first theatre to be constructed within the city walls. Later during the reigns of the Emperors Claudius and Trajan the theatre was enlarged so that it could hold people. 16 According to Focus Magazine an online magazine for tourists, the theatre s primary

7 Schloemer 7 purpose in the Hellenistic Period was to host play productions. The magazine also describes how during the Roman Period in Ephesus the theatre also began to host gladiatorial fights. 17 Unlike the Theatre, the Stadium is a totally Roman complex which the Romans built primarily for festivals, athletic contests and chariot races. However this building was not totally innocent of the bloodshed, seen in the Theatre as it too sometimes hosted gladiatorial and beast fights within its round field. 18 Like the Stadium, the bathhouses found in the city are also completely Roman structures. During Roman occupation, Ephesus saw the construction of the East Gymnasium and the Baths of Varius. Built by the Ephesian Sophist Flavius Damianus and his wife Phaedrina, the East Gymnasium contained rooms both for the purpose of exercising and for social gatherings. In front of this structure archaeologists located an auditorium and another room that held a statue of the Emperor Septimius Severus. 19 The Baths of Varius has a very interesting history because of its association not only with the Roman world but also the world of Christianity. Within its early period the Baths of Varius are affiliated with the Romans who built the bathing complex in the Second Century AD. However years later in 400AD the Baths of Varius were reconstructed by the Christian woman Scholastika. This link with Christianity consequently resulted in its name being changed to the Baths of Scholastika. 20 These two bathhouses illustrate the extensive influence of Roman culture in Ephesus. Another building that is constructed as a result of Roman domination in Ephesus is the Library of Celsus. The library was dedicated in 110AD by the son of the Roman consul Gaius Julius Celcus Polemaenus to honor the memory of his father. The library consisted of four sets of double-columns which supported a two-storied portico. Located

8 Schloemer 8 within the three large doorways of this structure are four niches which once contained four statues [representing] Celsus cardinal virtues: Sophia (wisdom), Arête (excellence), Eunoia (benevolence), [and] Episteme (knowledge). 21 This structure also held three rooms in which scrolls were stored. In ancient times, the library s western hall held a statue of Athena. This room also contained an arched tomb in which Celsus is supposed to have been buried. Ultimately by constructing the library, Celsus son hoped to spread the renown of his father throughout the Roman Empire. Having been influenced by both Greek and Roman culture, Ephesus contained both a Lower Marketplace and a State Agora where its people could go to conduct their daily business. The Lower Marketplace was in the shape of a square that was 110m on each of its sides and was surrounded by double-aisled stoas with shops behind them. 22 In the center of this marketplace was a combination of a water clock and sundial which allowed the people to keep track of the time as they went about the market contracting business. Perhaps the most diverse building in the marketplace is the Temple of Serapis. This temple was built in the Second Century AD for the Egyptian merchants of Ephesus. However after the Ephesians themselves are inducted into the cult of the god Serapis, they also begin to use this temple to worship their new deity. 23 The Temple of Serapis is just one example of how diverse the religions of the Ephesians were. The next area of Ephesus that reflected its diversity was the State Agora. Originally built by the Romans, the State Agora served as a gathering place for the citizens of Ephesus. The State Agora was over 160 m in length and was bounded on [its] S and E [sides] by marble benches and on [its northern side] by a basilica which was 20m wide. Though it is Roman built, the State Agora also provided a connection with the

9 Schloemer 9 city s Greek heritage. This is especially evident in the inscription on one of its walls, which recorded the dedication of the Artemision in both the Greek and Latin language. 24 Also located on the State Agora are buildings once used for governmental and religious purposes. One such building found in the State Agora is the Prytaneion. This building served as both a political center and a major religious center for the city of Ephesus. As a religious center the Prytaneion housed the sacred fire of the city, a tradition that began as way to remember the reign of Lysimachos. Another building located in the State Agora is the Temple of Dea Roma and Divus Julius Caesar which was also known as the Temenos. This building was constructed by the Roman Emperor August in 29BC to honor his adopted father Julius Caesar. 25 Similarly, the Temple of Domitian was built by the Romans with the State Agora in hopes of encouraging the worship of the emperor Domitian. 26 The temple of Hadrian was set up for the same reasons that both the Temenos and Temple of Domitian were themselves built. This temple held both a cult statue and relief of the Emperor Hadrian which dated back to the time of Hadrian himself. 27 Through each of these temples is seen the push of the Romans to encourage the people of Ephesus into their way of thinking, especially when it came to the worship of important Romans. Also located in the State Agora is the Bouleuterion or Odeion as it was sometimes called. This structure was a small 23 tiered building that was about 46 m wide and had a semicircular auditorium that could seat over 1400 people. As the Bouleuterion, this building served as the political meeting place for the wealthy members of the city of Ephesus. However as the Odeion, this building provided entertainment for the people of Ephesus in the form of concerts. 28

10 Schloemer 10 Originally built as a great sea port, Ephesus consisted of an outer harbor and an inner harbor. The outer harbor was part of the land-locked gulf, and the inner harbor, which, through the deposit from the river, had been cut off from the gulf was entered only with some difficulty by a long and shallow channel. 29 Therefore, although the harbors of the city seemed to benefit the city in actuality they harmed it. This harm was because the river had been cut off from the gulf. Within the city water primarily came to Ephesus through aqueducts which would then lead to a system of pipes that then carried the water to the necessary areas of the city. Though there is evidence for aqueducts that existed during the Hellenistic period, the majority are from the Roman period in Ephesus. One such aqueduct is the Trajanic Aristion Aqueduct, which came from the Caystros Valley and ran under both the Stadium and Theatre until it reached Curetes Street. Although water provided many benefits to the city, it also caused many problems. This was especially evident in the excavations done by Hogarth whose research was often put on hold because of flooding at the excavation site. In ancient times, the increasing population caused Ephesus landscape to be constantly changing as people continued to make adaptions to it. For example, the Kucuk Mederes Canal was constructed by the people of Ephesus to alleviate flooding conditions [and] facilitate irrigation to crops. 30 However, instead of helping the city the canal caused sand barriers to form along the shoreline of the Aegean Sea. This human intervention also caused two marine embayments in the Harbors of Ephesus to become surrounded by marshes. Similarly, another issue that arose because of Ephesus population was the deposition of the soil along the river. This deposition of soil steadily began to increase in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods in Ephesus. As a result of this environmental change, the harbors of

11 Schloemer 11 Ephesus were forced to move westward as the shoreline of the city began to rapidly change. 31 This eventually caused the city to be built into a floodplain and in-turn later buried under 5m of alluvium until it was rediscovered centuries later. 32 The final area of Ephesus that reflects the diversity of its society can be found in its Necropolis which surrounds the city. Being a city of many different religions, the necropolis reflected the individual beliefs of those buried. These diverse ideas were especially reflected in the scale and decorations of each tomb found on the necropolis, which indicated the peoples desire for the preservation of differences among the citizens of Ephesus. 33 Having later become a city under Turkish control, Ephesus also has evidence for a Turkish mosque tomb. This tomb was found during excavations of the Precinct of the Artemision. In these findings, were discovered two skeletons whose tomb was made from preexisting Roman brick. Ultimately through the tombs in Ephesus can be found the greatest amount of diversity in the city because each tomb reflects the different believes of the person buried there. During its periods of significance, the city of Ephesus was greatly influenced by its association with both the Greek and Roman world. As a result Ephesus came to be known for its diverse culture. Throughout the excavations that have occurred there over the years, evidence has been found that reflect this contact especially when it comes to Ephesus buildings. Ultimately through the study Ephesus one comes to see how important this city was in the preservation of the different cultural traditions found within the ancient world.

12 Schloemer 12 1 Lance Jenott, Ancient Ephesus: Silk Road Seattle, Washigton.edu/silkroad/cities/ephesus/ephesus.html/ (April ). 2 Preston Duane Warden and Roger S. Bagnall, The Forty Thousand Citizens of Ephesus, Classical Philology 83, no. 3 (July 1988): 220, /269738?uid= &uid=2&uid=4&uid= &sid= (accessed March 21, 2012). 3 Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald, and Marian Holland McAllister, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1976), Ibid. 5 H. Canick., ed., Antiquity CYR-EPY, Brill s New Pauly Encyclopedia of the Ancient World, (Netherlands: Goethe Institut Inter Nationes, 2004), D.G. Hogarth, Excavations at Ephesus: The Archaic Artemisia (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1908), Canick, Brill s New Pauly Encyclopedia of the Ancient World, D.G Hogarth, Excavations at Ephesus: The Archaic Artemisia, 26. Ibid., 52. Ibid., J.T. Wood, Discoveries at Ephesus, (Boston: James Osgood and Company, 1877), 80-81, J&oi=fnd&pg=PA147&dq=ephesus+excavation+&ots=SBpwamiSy7&sig=QreBxqQGQ PxKEbr9AYE5wt03K8#v=onepage&q=ephesus%20excavation&f=false (accessed March, 14, 2012). 12 Zeynep Celik, Diane Favro, and Richard Ingersoll Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space (1994), 98, (accessed March 22, 2012). 13 Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald, and Marian Holland McAllister, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1976), Susan E. Alcock, Robin Osborne, Classical Archaeology (West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2012), , also available online nttvlo9cific&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage& q&f=false (accessed April 9,2012). 15 Ibid., 237.

13 Schloemer Richard Stillwell, William L MacDonald, and Marian Holland McAllister, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Izmir Kusadasi. "THE FOUNDATION OF EPHESUS." FOCUS on TURKEY -. Focus Mediterranean Online Magazine. < (March 15, 2012). 18 Stillwell, MacDonald, and Holland McAllister, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Ibid., 307. Ibid., Jenott, Ancient Ephesus: Silk Road Seattle, http: //depts. Washington.edu/silkroad/cities/ephesus/ephesus.html/ (April 22, 2012). 22 Stillwell, MacDonald, and Holland McAllister, Ephesos. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid Ibid., 308. Ibid. Ibid., W.M. Ramsay. Ephesus, The Biblical Word 17, no. 3 (March 1901):168, March 15,2012). 30 John C. Kraft et al., Results of the Struggle at Ancient Ephesus: Natural Process, Human Intervention 0,Human Interactions with the Geosphere: The Geoarchaeological Perspective, ed. Lucy Wilson (Bath: The Geological Society, 2011), 28, also available online at PA27&dq=Results+of+the+struggle+at+ancient+Ephesus:+natural+processes+1,+human +intervention+0+&ots=ihknratkiz&sig=5dlucuoj64mzktmpohyoteatqxw#v=one page&q=results%20of%20the%20struggle%20at%20ancient%20ephesus%3a%20natur al%20processes%201%2c%20human%20intervention%200&f=false (accessed March 16, 2012).

14 Schloemer Ibid., 30. Ibid., Austrian Archaeological Institute, The Harbor Necropolis of Ephesos, Ephesos, (accessed March 20, 2012). Bibliography Alcock, Susan E., Robin Osborne, Classical Archaeology.West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Also available online at =onepage&q&f=false (accessed April 9, 2012). Austrian Archaeological Institute. The Harbor Necropolis of Ephesos, Ephesos, (accessed March 20,2012). Canick H ed. Antiquity CYR-EPY: Brill s New Pauly Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. Netherlands: Goethe Institut Inter Nationes., Celik, Zeynep, Diane Favro, and Richard Ingersoll, Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space, (accessed March 22, 2012). Hogarth, D.G. Excavations at Ephesus: The Archaic Artemisia. London: William Clowes and Sons, Jenott, Lance. Ancient Ephesus: Silk Road Seattle, April 22, 2012). Kraft, John C., Rapp, Helmut Bruckner, and Ilhan Kayan Results of the Struggle at Ancient Ephesus: Natural Process, Human Intervention 0,Human Interactions with the Geosphere: The Geoarchaeological Perspective, ed. Lucy Wilson. Bath: The Geological Society, 2011, 28, Also available online at m/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cn-tvyp-ml4c&oi=fnd&pg=pa27&dq=results+of+ the+struggle+at+ancient+ephesus:+natural+processes+1,+human+intervention+0 +&ots=ihknratkiz&sig=5dlucuoj64mzktmpohyoteatqxw#v=onepage&q= Results%20of%20the%20struggle%20at%20ancient%20Ephesus%3A%20natural %20processes%201%2C%20human%20intervention%200&f=false(accessed March 16, 2012). Kusadasi, Izmir. "THE FOUNDATION OF EPHESUS." FOCUS on TURKEY -. Focus Mediterranean Online Magazine. (accessed March 15, 2012).

15 Schloemer 15 Ramsay, W.M. Ephesus, The Biblical Word 17, no. 3 (March 1901):168, (accessed March 15, 2012). Stillwell, Richard, William L. MacDonald, and Marian Holland McAllister The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, Warden, Preston Duane and Roger S. Bagnall. The Forty Thousand Citizens of Ephesus. Classical Philology 83, no. 3 (July 1988): 220, /269738?uid= &uid=2&uid=4&uid = &sid= (accessed March 21, 2012) Wood, J.T. Discoveries at Ephesus, Boston: James Osgood and Company, 1877.

16 Map of Ephesus Schloemer 16