South Tombs Cemetery: The 2010 Excavations at the Wadi Mouth Site. Excavation Report

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1 South Tombs Cemetery: The 2010 Excavations at the Wadi Mouth Site Excavation Report M. King Wetzel July 2010

2 Contents Summary 4 Setting and site formation 6 Results 10 Treatment of the body 10 Burial goods and offerings 12 Grave layout and architecture 13 Excavation methodology 13 Conventions and acknowledgements 14 Progress of excavations and description of interments by grid square 15 Square AZ Square AZ Square AZ Square AO Square AO Square AO Square AP Square AN Square AM Sections of squares opened to expose interments 54 AP References 55 Appendix 1: Unit index 56 Appendix 2: Summary of interments 62 2

3 x ancient road x x x 24A 2005 burials wadi mouth site 78 x x x 25 x x x modern huts 80 x x x x x x x x x lower site ancient quarry 84 KEY ancient quarry excavation squares pre-2010 excavation squares x x x x x x x upper site rock tomb 20 visible limits of cemetery N metres Figure 1. Contour plan of the South Tombs Cemetery (excavation grid 14) showing the location of the three excavation sites. The 2010 excavation squares are marked in black. Map prepared by B. Kemp, based on a survey by Helen Fenwick. 3

4 Summary The 2010 excavations at the South Tombs Cemetery marked the first investigations conducted at an area of the Amarna Period South Tombs Cemetery termed the wadi mouth site. The name derives from its location along the northeastern wall of the South Tombs Cemetery, near the rock-cut tombs of Amarna s officials. As with examining a new section of the cemetery in 2009 (the lower site), the wadi mouth site was chosen for exploration to broaden the demographic profile of skeletal material from the cemetery, as well as to further examine how the cemetery was used. Other goals were to test the theory that those interred nearer the South Tombs were of a higher socio-economic status than those interred further south in the cemetery and to establish the northern boundary of the cemetery along the eastern bank of the wadi. Following the results obtained from excavations at the lower site in 2009 (Stevens 2009), the possibility that interments nearer the South Tombs may represent people of higher affluence arose from the data. The lower site yielded a higher number of wooden coffins and mortuary monuments than did the upper site, and the graves at the lower site appeared to be placed in a more orderly, and uniform manner (Stevens 2009). These findings led to the theory that, if the trend were to continue towards the official s tombs to the north, that the graves nearer the mouth of the wadi may show more elaborate features conducive to interments of wealthier individuals. As excavations at the wadi mouth site progressed, it became apparent that the trend for more elaborate interments was not to continue beyond those investigated at the lower site in It seems from the results of the wadi mouth interments investigated during the 2010 season that the exact opposite may be the case. Of the seventeen interments investigated, only one burial was placed within a wooden coffin, the others having been buried within simple plant stem mat coffins. Further indication that the interments in this area were not of higher social standing than others within the cemetery was the paucity of grave goods recovered from the wadi mouth site. Only one interment contained an object placed within the burial; a kohl stick (obj a) with a piece of kohl attached to it (obj b). Only four other small objects that may have once been interred within a burial were recovered, primarily found loose within the general sand and rubble fill covering the site. Of the seventeen interments investigated, six were intact; all having been interred within a plant stem mat coffin and all devoid of burial goods. An interesting discovery, however, was that all six of the intact burials exhibited some form of intact burial superstructure, a feature that has not previously been found at the South Tombs Cemetery. Despite these findings, however, there does appear to be a trend for orderly, southeast to northwest alignment of the interments at the wadi mouth site, with all but one interment having been cut in this orientation. The lower site has reported similar consistency (Stevens 2009), while the upper site appears to have more randomly oriented graves (Shepperson 2009). The graves at the wadi mouth site were also spaced quite close, with some even overlapping at their extreme southeastern and northwestern ends. By examining the location of the investigated graves, the topography of the wadi mouth site, and considering the wadi washes cutting through the area, it gives the impression that the graves were placed strategically between the areas prone to heavier down-slope water flow. This, however, is merely conjecture, as the course of these washes has quite likely changed considerably over the past 3000-plus years. It is probable that graves were located in the areas of the washes and have been eroded away, though one would expect to find evidence of partially intact graves adjacent to the washed out areas and this has not been the case as yet at the wadi mouth site. The wadi mouth site area appears, at least on the surface, to be topographically and geologically similar to that of the upper and lower sites within the cemetery. As with the upper and lower sites, a complex network of channels of varying widths and lengths cut across the area, running primarily east to west, though often traversed north 4

5 AP AO AN AM grid north magnetic north m grave pit grave cut number 183 Individual number, placed at the head end of the grave, or beside the grave if this is unclear Possible graves, unexcavated Figure 2. Location of individuals in relation to burial pits. 5

6 to south by smaller channels. These wadi washes are caused by water rushing down-slope from the low hills bordering the east and west sides of the wadi. The wadi washes appear as low, linear channels of fine homogenous sand between higher areas of gravelly sand with scattered limestone and black boulder rubble, and other debris, creating an irregular, undulating surface. The most striking difference between the wadi mouth site and the upper and lower sites within the cemetery is the shallowness of the sand, as well as the interments, in the area. Of the eleven, 5 x 5 m squares investigated during the 2010 excavation season, bedrock was reached or observed within the walls of grave cuts in all but one. It is possible the shallowness of the soil in this region of the cemetery made it a less desirable area to place an interment, as cutting into the limestone bedrock would require a considerable amount of effort as opposed to digging a grave into soft sand. Setting and site formation The wadi mouth site upper area (Figure 3) is situated atop a broad platform of outcropping bedrock on the eastern bank of the wadi near its terminus with the desert plain to the north. Excavation efforts were focused initially to the immediate west of Tomb 24a, an unfinished tomb documented by Davies (1906: pl. XIII; 1908: 15, pl. XVIII, and its associated spoil heap where two 5 x 5 m squares were examined. The investigation then continued in a south-westerly manner, diagonally along the slope of the wadi wall towards the wadi floor. The topography of the wadi mouth site lower area (Figure 4) slopes gradually from east to west towards the wide floor of the wadi. The slope is continuous from the top of the tell down to the wadi floor, with no lower bench feature as noted at the upper and lower sites of the cemetery. A total of eleven 5 x 5 metre (m) squares were excavated at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 season. The first squares were placed to the west of Tomb 24A, nearly adjacent to the large spoil heap, presumably the result of previous excavations of the tomb in the early twentieth century. It was very quickly realized that bedrock lies just beneath the surface in this area. Each of the two squares (AZ133 and AZ135) contained only about 5 to 20 centimetres (cm) of sandy rubble fill mix lying directly on top of bedrock. Bedrock was visible on the ground surface in the area of the squares prior to excavation and an outcropping of bedrock in the southwestern portion of square AZ133 served as a benchmark for elevations during the 2010 season. Several small mounds of white limestone rubble and reddish coarse sand was observed within squares AZ133 and AZ135 just beneath the sandy rubble fill mixture present on the ground surface. It is likely these small mounds are the result of modern activity to expose the salt-rich limestone bedrock in attempts to collect salt. The only cultural material recovered from this area includes one highly sun-weathered long bone fragment and 25 non-diagnostic pottery sherds from the top 5 cm of AZ135. It is most likely these materials have been washed down from the large spoil heap from Tomb 24A directly to the east of this square. Although square BA135 was prepared for excavation, the results of examination of squares AZ133 and AZ135 suggested anything beyond a surface collection of the square would be fruitless. A few highly sun-weathered long bone fragments were collected from the ground surface in square BA135, again, likely washed down slope from the large spoil heap associated with Tomb 24A. As no graves were found to be likely located in the immediate area of Tomb 24A, it was decided to focus efforts on delineating the northern boundary of the South Tombs Cemetery along the eastern wall of the wadi. In order to maximize efforts during the 2010 excavation season, we focused on strategically placing squares in a diagonal fashion from the northeastern-most area around Tomb 24A going south-westerly down the slope of the wadi wall towards the wadi floor; while at the same time targeting the northern-most edge of where the black boulders appears on the ground surface (refer to Figure 4). It has been postulated that the presence of the black boulders on the ground surface within the wadi in effect marks the general boundaries of the cemetery. The diagonal placement of the squares along the slope hoped to test this theory further. 6

7 Figure 3. Wadi mouth site upper area, facing site west. Figure 4. Wadi mouth site lower area, facing site south (arrow marks first appearance of black boulders from the wadi mouth along the eastern bank of the wadi). 7

8 Figure 5. Square AO 123 showing grave outlines, facing site east. Square AR125 was the next to be explored. No black rock was observed on the ground surface in this area, however, a lug handled pottery sherd was observed on the ground surface. Additionally, 16 non-diagnostic pottery sherds were recovered from the top 5 cm of the square. These 17 artifacts would prove to be the only cultural material recovered from within this square. The soil was consistent throughout the excavation: a sandy rubble mixed fill with a small triangular shaped area in the northeast corner catching the edge of a wadi wash. Square AR125 was excavated to a maximum depth of 53 cm below the existing ground surface with no other cultural material being recovered and no evidence of burials being noted. Excavations were abandoned square AR125 and continued on to square AO123 where the northern-most presence of black boulders was noted on the ground surface (refer to Figure 4). After removal of between 5 and 10 cm of the sandy rubble fill mixture, two clusters of black rock ((13094) and (13095)) and a bone cluster (13098) were noted. These were recorded and removed, and following removal of an additional 10 cm of the sandy rubble fill mixture, outlines of five burials were clearly observable (Figure 5). To fill out the remainder of the 2010 excavation season at the wadi mouth site, an additional five 5 x 5 m squares were examined (Squares AO122, AM120, AN120, AO120, and AP120) to the south of square AO123 as well as portions of squares AN122, AN123, AP119, AP122, and AP123 to expose the remainder of burials partially uncovered within the main squares. Each of these squares was located in areas where the black rock was visible on the ground surface of the wadi wall. In total, seventeen burial pits were excavated at the wadi mouth site yielding remains of seventeen individuals (one pit was completely robbed of all skeletal material and one interment was a double infant burial). An additional five possible burials were noted, though time constraints prevented their examination during the 2010 season. The seventeen individuals include six adults and eleven subadults. Table 1 summarizes the interments removed during the 2010 season at the wadi mouth site by age. 8

9 Table 1. Breakdown of individuals interred at the wadi mouth site in terms of age-at-death. Age in years Neonate adult of uncertain age Quantity Total One of the most interesting results of excavations at the wadi mouth site is the high amount of intact burials. Of the seventeen interments excavated, six (or 35 percent) were intact burials. And of these six intact burials, five exhibited a linear cluster of rock either directly on top a plant stem mat coffin or atop a layer of sand fill placed between a plant stem mat coffin and the rock. One interment had what appears to be the deliberate placement of large sherds of a pottery bowl to form an arch-like feature covering the head of the interment. One disturbed burial (Ind. 170) had a rock cluster atop the burial, though the location of the rock at the northwestern end (possibly the head area) of the grave, the uniformity of the rocks (all limestone), and the presence of a very large cut piece, suggest the rock on this interment may have been a cairn or grave marker that has fallen over the grave rather than rock intentionally placed along the length of the burial. Table 2 summarizes the interments investigated at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 excavations in terms of tomb layout and architecture and degree of disturbance. Table 2. Wadi mouth interments: degree of disturbance and presence of superstructures Individual Intact or Disturbed Superstructures 126 Disturbed No 130 Intact Yes, internally. Cluster of limestone and black rock found alongside intact plant stem mat coffin. May have been placed on top of coffin and became displaced when burial was backfilled during interment. 133 Intact Yes. Linear cluster of black boulders immediately on top plant stem mat and bone with very little sand fill between them. 135 Disturbed No 137 Disturbed No 140 Disturbed No 165 Disturbed No 167 Disturbed No 169 Disturbed No 170 Disturbed Yes. Four limestone rocks (includes obj ) that together may have been a grave marker fallen over to partially cover disturbed burial. 172 Intact Yes. Linear cluster of black rock directly on top of plant stem mat and bone 176 Intact Yes. Mixture of 13 limestone rocks (one of which is a cut piece-obj ) and 2 black rocks stacked to form a pyramidal shape along the length of interment. 177 Disturbed No 179 Disturbed No 180 Intact Yes-internally. Four black rocks placed at the head and feet of the plant stem mat coffin and skeleton, then covered with burial fill. 181 Intact Yes. Mixture of limestone rock, and a large broken pot stacked to form a pyramidal shape along the length of interment. Pot was broken into 2 large pieces, the pieces were turned and inverted so that one outer edge (rim) met with the broken edge of the other half to form an arch-like feature and placed over head of body. 184 Disturbed No 9

10 Figure 6. Textile strip wrapping on legs of Individual 176 (13329), facing site north. Results Treatment of the body It appears the treatment of the body prior to interment at the wadi mouth site is the same or similar to that reported from previous seasons at the upper and lower sites within the cemetery. The body was wrapped in textile, placed inside a plant stem mat coffin, and then interred. Coffins represented at the wadi mouth site were, in all cases, made of plant stem material held together by woven twine or rope between the stems, with an outer layer of varying sizes and quantities of rope to either form a carrying strap (as in the case of the coffin of Ind. 133) or for possibly just the purposes of holding the rolled coffin together around the body. Plant stem material used varied between large sticks of up to 2 to 2.5 cm in diameter (as observed in (13329), Ind. 176) to thinner twigs and also fine grass-like material. It appears the larger materials were used for interments of larger bodies, while the finer materials were reserved for the interments of children. Degree of preservation ranged from excellent to quite poor, with disturbed interments and the more shallow interments showing a higher degree of degradation. Textile wrappings of the bodies varied considerably in preservation, even within the same interment. Most was reduced to an almost sand-like state, though was still observable for indications of how the textile was employed. Of the best preserved examples includes the wrapping on Ind. 176 (13329) which clearly shows the use of long strips of fabric wrapped around the feet, legs, torso and arms (Figure 6) while the head covering appears to have been more of a shroud-like covering, twisted at the crown to form somewhat of a tassel (Figure 7). Ind. 137 (13128) had an interesting twisted textile at the neck constructed of long, thin strips of textile (Figure 8). Other 10

11 Figure 7. Textile wrapping on head of Individual 176 (13329), facing site south. Figure 8. Textile twist at neck of Individual 137 (13128), facing site northeast. 11

12 interments featured remnants of fabric clumps that may have served as fillers or cushions beneath the skull, hips, and also lower legs and feet of the interred. Bone preservation, too, varied considerably, even within a single interment. There appears to be no real difference between the preservation of disturbed interments versus that of the intact burials, unless the displaced bone lies near or on the existing ground surface. No evidence of intentional mummification was observed, though a few interments had soft tissue remaining such as skin and or tendons, most definitely mummified by the natural arid environment. Several interments exhibited preserved hair, with most being rather short dark-brown to black. Burial goods and offerings Burial goods were extremely few at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 excavations. A single wooden kohl applicator (obj a) with a length of kohl (obj b) attached to it was found in (13315); the fill of a highly disturbed burial containing also Ind The kohl applicator and length of kohl were found within the plant stem mat coffin in the northeastern edge of the burial, lying directly on top of the base of the plant stem mat coffin. The plant stem matting had folded over slightly and covered the objects, possibly hiding them from immediate view of the robbers. Other objects found were recovered from the sand/rubble mix found across the wadi mouth site. These include half of a blue faience date pendant (obj ) recovered from the top five centimetres of Square AO121; a red faience plant form bead (obj ) recovered from an apparent plant root (13313) within the sand/rubble fill (13126) of Square AM120; and a blue faience cylinder bead (obj ) recovered from the sand/rubble fill (13106) of Square AP120. Several objects cut from the locally available limestone were recovered from the wadi mouth site (Table 3). All but one was present within some sort of intact superstructure placed on top of an interment. The single exception was obj , which may have possibly been part of a grave marker placed at the southeastern end of a grave that has fallen over to partially cover the interment. This piece, found amongst several other large, not visibly cut limestone boulders, was a large (approximately 30 cm by 40 cm), somewhat square block of limestone with one edge visibly cut at an approximate 90 degree angle. The other limestone objects were likely discarded pieces of limestone building blocks produced at one of the many limestone quarries immediately bordering the cemetery; the persons preparing the grave likely gathering them, as well as other readily available boulders such as the black rock which naturally outcrops on the top of the eastern wadi wall, to place them on the graves. Object may have possibly been the initial shaping for an object rather than a building block, but this is not for certain. Table 3. Wadi mouth objects Object no. Description Unit Square Context Small Objects Half a blue faience date pendant 39927a & 39927b a: kohl applicator b: length of kohl Red faience plant form bead Blue faience cylinder bead (13097) AO121 Within sand and rubble fill covering site (13315) AO120/ AP120 Recovered from disturbed interment of Ind. 167 (13313) AM120 Within a possible plant root within sand and rubble fill (13106) AP120 Within sand and rubble fill covering site 12

13 Object no. Description Unit Square Context Objects recovered from superstructures Part of a cut limestone block (13330) AP120 Part of superstructure covering interment of Ind Piece of cut limestone (13327) AO122/AP122 Part of superstructure covering interment of Ind Corner fragment of large limestone block (13318) AO122 Part of a possible grave marker Large piece of cut limestone, perhaps the initial shaping for an object rather than a building block (13327) AO122/ AO123 Part of superstructure covering interment of Ind. 176 Grave layout and architecture Of note in excavations at the wadi mouth site were several intact burials providing a clear picture of tomb layout and architecture employed at the South Tombs Cemetery. This season marked the first discovery of completely intact interments showing both above ground architecture and subsurface treatment. Five interments showed above ground rock features, four being stacked rocks lining the length of the grave ((13109), (13320), (13327), and (13330)) and one possibly the remnant of a grave cairn or stelae (13318) that has either fallen or been knocked down on top of the grave (13103) during its disturbance by looters. Two interments exhibited rocks (and pottery) intentionally stacked to form a long, pyramidal shape along the length of the grave. Pointed-top stelae have been recovered from both the upper and lower sites within the cemetery and it has been noted that these, along with pyramidions also recovered from the area, are suggestive of rock-cut tombs within a mountainous landscape (Stevens 2009). Perhaps the pyramidial stacked rocks atop these two interments at the wadi mouth site are less-expensive, or hastily constructed versions of the same? Excavation methodology The excavations at the wadi mouth site were conducted by the author and a varying team of three to five local workmen. Mr. Jo Lewis joined the excavations at about mid-season. The local workmen were responsible for removing the sand and rubble fill, carrying buckets of soil to be sieved, sieving the matrix removed during excavations, and assisting in recordation of elevations prior to Mr. Lewis arrival. Each 5 x 5 m square was handexcavated by trowel and brush, and all spoil removed was sieved through a 4-mm sieve, or smaller when required as in the case of infant burials. Spoil piles were placed within lower portions of wadi washes and as near the wadi floor as strategically feasible. A single spoil pile of all limestone and black boulders removed during the investigation was placed along the eastern edge of the wadi floor, west of squares AO123 and AO122. Horizons Soil horizons encountered at the wadi mouth site were relatively simple in that essentially two main horizons (the surface sand and gravel on the upper 5 cm and the underlying sand and rubble fill) was observed across the site. These horizons were cut by numerous wadi washes weaving their way down to the wadi floor. Exceptions are found in the presence of a coarse reddish rubble layer beneath the sand and rubble fill in portions of several squares (eg. AZ135, AZ133, the southern area of AO123, the northern area of AO122, the southwestern corner of AM120, and exposed in the walls of several burial cuts at the wadi mouth lower site). This horizon, devoid of 13

14 cultural material, appears to be the result of degradation of the underlying limestone bedrock and a transitional layer between the bedrock and the upper-most horizon of sand and gravel fill. Each soil horizon typically followed the westerly, downward slope of the wadi wall and is described below. Horizon I-Surface sand and gravel The thin (approximately 5 cm) shell of sand and gravel lying on the ground surface of the wadi mouth site was consistent with that recorded at both the upper and lower sites within the cemetery. At the wadi mouth upper site, very little cultural debris was noted within this horizon. Also of note at this portion of the wadi mouth site was the lack of black boulders on the ground surface. The presence of these boulders was noted further south along the eastern wadi wall, at grid square AO123. At the wadi mouth lower site, the density of cultural material and bone was much higher. Horizon II-Softer sand and gravel fill Beneath the thin layer of surface sand and gravel was a softer sand and gravel fill mixture. This horizon was quite shallow at the wadi mouth upper site, but much deeper at the wadi mouth lower site. Gravel content of this horizon appeared to be less than that found in Horizon I, though the horizons are nearly identical in colour. To facilitate provenance of artifacts recovered, this matrix was primarily assigned individual context numbers based on square and sometimes depth. These contexts are discussed by square in more detail below, but as a general rule, the sand gravel fill was rather consistent across the wadi mouth site. Variances were found in depth and whether this horizon directly overlies bedrock or lies atop areas of reddish limestone rubble (Horizon III). Horizon II was found to be at its deepest in square AR125, extending to approximately 55 cm below the current ground surface. It should be noted here that bedrock was not encountered in square AR125 during the 2010 excavations at the wadi mouth site. Horizon III-Reddish limestone rubble layer This horizon consisted of medium-sized, rough limestone rubble (approximately 3 5 cm) with very little sand content. Its presence was noted in intermittently within various squares across the wadi mouth site and also observed in the profiles of several grave cuts at the wadi mouth lower site. This horizon was completely devoid of cultural material and appears to be the result of natural degradation of the limestone bedrock across the site. Bedrock The Limestone bedrock underlying the wadi mouth site was noted as being located quite shallow over most of the area. It appeared at various depths within the squares, from as little as 5 cm below the ground surface in squares AZ135 and AZ133 at the wadi mouth upper site (even being exposed on the ground surface in this area), to between 30 and 40 cm below the ground surface in squares AM120 and AN120 at the wadi mouth lower site. Although excavation of matrix in several squares (such as AO123 and AO120) was ceased while still in the sand and rubble fill (Horizon II), bedrock was observed in the profiles of grave cuts in these squares at between 5 and 25 cm below the base of the 2010 excavations. Many interments excavated during this season were found to have been cut, at least partially, into the limestone bedrock. Conventions and acknowledgements Maintaining the standard of the South Tombs Cemetery, individual numbers were assigned to groups of bone that are found in situ within a grave or, if a burial is disturbed, at least 50 percent or more of the individual is recovered otherwise. In only two instances were bone clusters found outside a grave recorded as individuals; and these were readily identifiable as belonging to adjacent graves. Each skull, regardless of being found alone or articulated with an in situ skeleton within a grave, is assigned a separate skull number. 14

15 With the exception of two burials excavated early in the season, separate unit numbers were assigned to the rock lying in situ atop a burial (if applicable), the fill beneath the rock and above the plant stem mat coffin, and the coffin and its contents (plant stem matting, rope, bone and any fill contained therein). Bone refers to human bone unless stated otherwise. When referring to orientation of features documented at the wadi mouth site, in all cases the orientations are to the excavation grid, where north is aligned towards the mouth of the wadi and is approximately true northwest. Many thanks to Anna Stevens for her willingness to help when needed. And to her abundant patience while I became acquainted with the terminology and conventions of the South Tombs Cemetery. Progress of excavations and description of interments by grid square In excavation of each square in the wadi mouth site, surface features were photographed and planned, then cleared in an approximate 5 to 10-centimeter spit. If any features (black boulders, large limestone rock, or other variances in the general sand and rubble mix covering the site) were observed at this depth, the square was again planned prior to removal of any further matrix. During excavation of each square, the general sand and rubble mixed fill was often assigned different unit numbers based on depth in order to facilitate documentation of cultural material, if any was found. As so little cultural material was recovered from squares AZ135, AZ133, and AR125, context numbers have been combined for the intents and purposes of this report and are defined within the descriptions of the squares below. Excavations proceeded with examination of squares AZ135, AZ133, AR125, AO123, AO120, AP120, AN120, and AM120 in sequential, but often overlapping, order. Sections of several adjacent squares to these were opened to facilitate examination of interments and are discussed separately within the corresponding square summaries below. A list of excavation units is provided in Appendix 1 and a summary of Interments is provided in Appendix 2. Square AZ135 Square AZ135, the northern-most square examined during the 2010 excavations, was located west of Tomb 24A and its associated spoil pile. One highly sun-weathered long bone fragment was recovered from the ground surface and 25 non-diagnostic pottery sherds were recorded from the top 5 cm of fill from this square. Nearly the entire southwest quadrant of the square was exposed bedrock on the ground surface. After removal of the sand rubble fill mixture on the ground surface (13072), which was at most 10 cm thick in this square, three small mound-ish piles of sand and rubble (13078) were observed across the approximate middle of the square, likely the result of modern salt-digging activities. A small patch of powdery white sand (13079) was located just north of these piles and appears to be a patch of degraded limestone. Beneath (13072) were areas of coarse reddish rubble mixture ((13077) and (13081)), which appears to be a layer of loose rubble resulting from the degradation of the underlying limestone bedrock. Units within Square AZ135 (13072): sand and rubble fill (13077) and (13081): reddish rubble, degraded limestone bedrock (13078): sand and rubble fill piles (13079) and (13080): white sand, degraded limestone 15

16 Interments within AZ135 No interments were uncovered within square AZ135. Square AZ133 Square AZ133 is also located in the upper area of the wadi mouth site, and lies just southwest of Tomb 24A and its associated spoil heap. As with square AZ135, the sand and rubble fill mixture was only about 10 to 15 cm thick in this area and was lying immediately on top of bedrock and (13075)-a coarse reddish rubble mixture that appears to be a layer of loose rubble resulting from the degradation of the underlying limestone bedrock. Two small mound-ish piles of the sand rubble mix (13076) were observed along the eastern half of the square as well as a patch of powdery white sand (13074). These were lying directly on top of the then exposed bedrock. The piles were adjacent to small, oval-ish divots that had been cut out of the bedrock. It is likely these small mounds and associated divots are the result of modern activity to expose the salt-rich limestone bedrock in attempts to collect salt. Units within square AZ133 (13071)-sand and rubble fill (13074)-white sand, degraded limestone (13075)-reddish rubble, degraded limestone bedrock (13076)-sand and rubble piles Interments within AZ133 No interments were uncovered within square AZ135. Square AR125 Placement of the third square investigated was decided upon following the dismal outcome of investigations of the area near the immediate mouth of the wadi nearest the rock cut tombs. In order to test the theory that the black rock delineates the cemetery, as well as to investigate the possibility that wealthier individuals were interred closer to the rock cut tombs, square AR125 was chosen based upon two criteria: (1) no black rock was present on the ground surface in this area, though pottery was observed on the ground surface, and (2) it is located approximately midway between the initial squares investigated (AZ133 and AZ135) and the presence of black rock on the ground surface. The ground surface was planned, and then the top five cm of sand and rubble fill was removed (13082). Two diagnostic sherds and 16 non-diagnostic sherds were noted in the first 5 cm. The square was excavated by hand in 10 to 20 cm spits to a maximum depth of about 55 cm below existing ground surface with no further cultural material being recovered and no interments discovered. Units within square AR125 (13082), (13084), (13086), (13087), (13088), and (13089)-sand and rubble fill (13083)-wadi wash Interments within AR125 No interments were uncovered within square AR

17 Figure 9. Square AO 123 prior to excavation, facing site south. Square AO123 With no interments being uncovered in areas that lacked presence of black boulders on the ground surface, square AO123 was chosen for investigation due to it being on the northern-most edge of the boundary formed by the boulders (Figure 9). Surface features were planned and photographed, and then the boulders were removed to facilitate excavation of the square. Removal of the first 5 10 cm of sand and rubble fill (13090) and (13092) produced numerous pottery fragments and loose human bone. Once excavation of (13093) commenced, two distinct clusters of black boulders were uncovered ((13094) at m and (13095) at m) as well as oblong outlines of darker soil that appeared to be graves and a cluster of bone (13098) along the east wall of the square at m. It was necessary to remove (13094), (13095), and (13098) and clear the square of the sand fill (13093) at this point to more clearly identify the oblong features. The possible grave outlines were assigned unit numbers: (13100), (13101), (13102), (13103), and (13104). Because excavation of the square followed the natural contour of the slope in the area, these units appear at various depths and are described in more detail below. As grave outlines were clearly identifiable at this depth within the square, excavations of the square matrix was ceased while the interments were investigated. By the end of the 2010 season, all units identified at this depth had been investigated except for (13105). (13105) is a rectangular shaped area of what appears to be gravel fill located in the northeast corner of the square at a depth of m. The two clusters of black boulders ((13094) and (13095) each contained cultural material in addition to the boulders. (13094) contained three non-diagnostic pottery sherds and (13095) only one. Later excavations would show that (13094) as well as (13098) were likely the result of the robbing of pit (13303) just to the east. 17

18 Figure 10. Skulls 150 and 151 in (13100), facing site east. It is more obvious that (13095) has resulted from robbing of pit (13100), lying directly below, and possibly other interments as yet uncovered. Interments in AO123 There were five interments within this square. Two were contained entirely within the square, while three overlapped with adjacent squares. Two interments were intact, three were disturbed. One interment (13100) contained 3 displaced skulls and Ind Ind. 126, Skull 150, Skull 151, and Skull 153: (13100)-Burial and fill; <13043>-grave cut; Disturbed Following documentation and removal of the black rock cluster (13095), a portion of a skull was immediately observed lying directly beneath a large boulder from the cluster. This skull, Skull 150, was lying on its face, mandible still articulated, with the back of the head protruding up. The skull was in very good condition, though some post-mortem breakage was noted on the right zygomatic arch and several incisors are missing. A sternum and a manubrium were found at the forehead area of this skull, and a rib was found to the southeast of the skull between the skull and the southeastern edge of the grave pit. Almost immediately, Skull 151 was uncovered lying just to the south of Skull 150 and also just beneath the boulders of (13095) (Figure 10). Skull 151 was situated so that the occipital foramen was facing skyward. A faint darkish stain was observed curling out from the base of the skull. The stain was about 3 cm wide and extended, rope-like, from the back of the skull; indicative of possibly a 18

19 Figure 11. Skull 153 within (13100) and above Individual 126 (right humerus showing). lock of hair that has disintegrated. Though preservation was quite good, no mandible was recovered with Skull 151. After removal of the two skulls and excavation of about cm of the disturbed burial fill, a third skull, Skull 153, was uncovered. This skull was lying on its right side, facing west with the face pointing slightly down. It was covered by a large amount of hair, which appears to have been a style which started at the temples (bald on top) where it was pulled back and sections were braided into small (3 5 cm wide) and long (estimate of about 15 cm in length) braids (Figure 11). Numerous waxed tips were recovered, as well as some curled tips. The hyoid bone remained in situ with the skull, as well as the atlas and axis vertebrae. Preservation of the skull was good, though the right side upon which it was found lying was cracked post mortem. Despite this damage, pre- or perimortem fractures were evident caused by a blow to the occipital. Table 4 summarizes the information regarding the three skulls recovered from the upper fill of (13100). Table 4. Skeletal information of skulls from (13100) Skull Age Sex Notes S M May belong to Ind. 126 below S ? Cribra orbitalia-faint darkish stain possibly remnant of hair braid? S F? Blow to occipital causing multiple fractures Following removal of an additional 40 to 45 cm of the disturbed burial fill beneath Skull 153 as well as the burial fill along the length and width of the grave cut <13043>, a partially intact burial (Ind. 126) was uncovered within 19

20 Figure 12. Ind. 126 in square AO123. The photograph faces site northeast. 20

21 a plant stem mat coffin (Figure 12), the cluster of skulls being located at the upper left shoulder area of the individual interred below. The left hand and radius and ulna were missing, while the distal end of the left humerus was uncovered sticking up at an almost 45 degree angle, indicating that the robbers pulled the left hand out of the grave and effectively pulled the lower arm off the body and displacing the humerus. The skull, upper cervical vertebrae, left clavicle, and left scapula were also missing. This indicates the head was also pulled out of the grave, taking part of the spinal column and upper shoulder with it. It is possible Skull 150 found in the upper fill of (13100) belongs to this individual, though further skeletal analysis may be required. The remainder of the skeleton was in situ, fully articulated, within an intact plant stem mat coffin tied with rope covering the lower half of the individual. The remaining articulated skeleton was supine, feet to the northwest. The right arm was extended with the right hand pronated over the right proximal femur and fingers slightly curved around a small wad of textile cloth. The cloth was taken as a textile sample and no artifacts appeared to be within. Both legs were fully extended, knees slightly apart, ankles touching, with the left toes slightly tucked beneath those of the right. Two toenails and a fingernail were recovered, and skin samples were taken from the soles of the feet. Small, intermittent areas of residual textile wrapping remained on the right arm, the vertebral column, pelvis, and proximal femora. These remnants indicate the body was wrapped with linear strips of textile prior to interment. In summary of (13100), three skulls (Skulls 150, 151, and 153) were recovered from the disturbed upper fill in the southeast area of the grave, approximately 50 to 60 cm above Ind The disturbed grave cut <13043> measured 232 cm long (southeast northwest) and 83 cm wide at its widest point in the shoulder area (including the disturbance to the original grave cut by robbing), then tapering down to a narrower width at the foot area, being just wide enough there (25 cm) to contain the coffin and its contents. It appears the original cut was slightly oval shaped, possibly being wider at the head and shoulder area, then tapering down to a narrower width around the legs and feet of the interred. However, the disturbance to the southeastern end where robbers dug a pit to enter the grave has caused significant damage to the original grave cut. The grave cut appears to have been cut approximately 50 cm into the upper sand and rubble fill (13093) and between 5 and 10 cm into the limestone rubble layer (13307) below for a total depth of 60 cm at the head area of the interment (southeast end) and 54 cm at the foot area (northwest end). The pit was slightly deeper at the torso/hip area, resulting in a slightly bowed basin-shaped grave cut. Ind. 130: (13101)-Burial and fill; <13049>-Grave cut; Intact (13101) was identified as an oblong darkish stain running northwest to southeast near the north wall of square AO 123 at between m (se) and m (nw). The unit was removed as a single episode, and all grave contents (burial fill, rock, plant stem mat, rope, skeleton, etc.) were included within this unit as well. The grave contained approximately 46 cm of burial fill placed on top of a plant stem mat coffin containing Ind The grave pit <13049> appears to have been cut between 30 and 46 cm into the upper sand and rubble fill (13090/13092/19093) and between 6 and 30 cm into the limestone bedrock lying immediately below the fill. The pit may have been started in the southeast end, where bedrock was found at m, just 30 cm below the appearance of (13101) in this area. A shelf of sorts, measuring 44 cm southeast to northwest and between 42 and 28 cm wide (the width of the grave cut in this area) was present at the southeast end of the burial. No cultural material was found within this shelf area and a large (34 cm wide by 28 cm deep by 4 cm thick) rectangular black boulder was placed vertically at the northwestern end, effectively bordering the shelf area from the plant stem mat coffin and its contents to the northwest. As no cultural material (such as pottery or other grave offerings) were located on this shelf area, it s possible it serves no other function than to have eased efforts of the grave diggers. Possibly efforts were shifted to the northwest where excavation of the limestone bedrock may have been less taxing. The pit was dug an additional 176 cm lengthwise to the northwest, making the length of the pit a total of 226 cm. The top of the grave cut <13049> was cut 226 cm long by between 28 (at the southeastern end) and 60 cm wide (at the 21

22 Ind. 130 Bedrock 0 50 cm / / Figure 13. Ind. 130 in square AO123. The photograph faces site northeast. 22

23 northwestern end). The base of the cut that housed the 168 cm long by 28 cm wide coffin and contents (Ind. 130) was cut narrower (180 cm long by approximately 38 cm wide), barely large enough to fit the plant stem mat coffin. Ind. 130 (Skull 158), wrapped in a plant stem mat coffin, was then placed into the pit and covered with an assortment of limestone and black rock boulders (n=13). These rocks, ranging in size from 12 cm to 30 cm in diameter, were uncovered intermittently along the right (northeast) and left (southwest) sides of the coffin, indicating they were possibly placed atop the coffin and became displaced as the pit was filled with sand. The only stone that appears to have been intentionally placed is the upright black boulder at the head of the coffin. The rather intermittent location of the boulders, as well as the narrower dimensions at the base of the grave cut, appear to be indications that the boulders placed within the grave were likely lain on top of the coffin and became displaced rather than being intentionally placed alongside the coffin. Once the burial fill was removed, remains of an intact plant stem mat coffin was observed. The stem matting and rope were highly deteriorated, turning to powder upon touch and precluding large samples. The upper plant stem matting was recorded and removed to expose Ind. 130 (Skull 158), a fully articulated skeleton (Figure 13). Ind. 130 was interred supine with the head to the southeast, feet to the northwest. Arms were fully extended with palms partially pronated to the lateral edges of the proximal femora (radius and ulna beneath illia). The legs were also fully extended with knees touching, ankles slightly apart, and left toes slightly tucked beneath the arch of the bottom right foot. Some remnants of short, straight, dark hair remained on the skull (Skull 158), as well as a large amount of pubic hair; samples were collected of both. Other samples collected include skin (from the head and neck area), fingernails, plant stem matting, rope, and textile from between the torso and basal plant stem matting. The latter sample being the only remnants of textile discovered within the burial, giving no clues as to whether the body was completely wrapped prior to interment. Ind. 170: (13103)-Burial fill; (13318)-Limestone rock (possible grave marker); (13319)-disturbed coffin and contents; <13050>-grave cut; Disturbed (13103) was initially identified as a portion of what appeared to be an oblong darkish stain running northwest to southeast into the south wall of square AO123 at m. A fragment of a large, white limestone rock was protruding from the south wall of the square above (13103). Initially, a small portion of square AO122 was opened to further expose this possible burial, then it became apparent the entire square should be opened as additional possible burials were noted as well. Removal of the overburden above (13103) from within square AO122 will be discussed within the square summary below, while the grave and its features will be presented here. Removal of the overburden revealed a rather large cluster of white limestone rocks (13318) with possible mortar adhering to them lying on top of the southeast end of (13103) (Figure 14). Of the four visible stones at this depth (80.04 to m), the largest one and the most southeasterly located, has a roughly 90 degree cut edge. This piece was assigned object number and it is possible this rock, along with the others with no visible intentionally altered features, is the remnant of a grave marker that has fallen to the northwest over the grave and deteriorated due to exposure to the harsh desert elements. (13318) extends partially into (13103), with 3 to 5 medium sized stones surrounded by limestone rubble were present on a small shelf-like area of bedrock at approximately m (or 30 cm below the appearance of (13103) and (13318) at the southeast end of the grave). It is possible these smaller stones lying on this small shelf are remnants of a chinking system used to stabilize the upper grave marker. Once the limestone rocks were removed, removal of the burial fill (13319) (which includes the burial fill mixed with skeletal elements and remnants of coffin) from within the irregular shaped, oblong grave cut <13050> commenced. It was quickly apparent the interment was disturbed as fragments of disarticulated bone began to emerge from within the fill at approximately m in the approximate centre of the grave cut. The disturbed fill was cleaned away as carefully as possible to document the position and condition of the remaining skeletal elements (Figure 14). The bones were heavily scattered, with a disarticulated mandible lying upright along the 23

24 Ind. 170 (39973) Bedrock Heavily degraded plant stem matting Rock Superstructure Rock 0 50 cm (13319) <13050> <13050> Bedrock Figure 14. Ind. 170 in square AO123. The photographs show (13103) and (13318) (left) and (13319) (right), both facing site southeast. 24

25 southern edge of the grave cut, with the mental protuberance facing to the north. Alongside the mandible were a scapula, four rib fragments, and several vertebral fragments. Slightly to the northeast of this cluster was a cluster containing numerous vertebrae and rib fragments, two clavicles (a left and a right), an un-fused proximal humeral epiphysis and a humerus. To the northwest of the cluster containing the mandible was yet another cluster of bone containing an un-fused proximal humeral epiphysis near the proximal end of a humerus (but not articulated), a scapula, an ulna, numerous vertebral and rib fragments, a highly damaged and deteriorated pelvis and a right leg partially articulated lying pronated with the calcaneus facing upward and the metatarsals, tarsals, and phalanges pointing slightly downward. The right leg was lying extended with the toes being located in the southwestern area of the grave where one would expect to find a supine left leg if the legs were indeed originally placed at this end of the grave. Due to the high degree of disturbance to the interment, it is unknown what direction the head was initially placed within the grave but it is likely the southeastern end housed the head of the individual. Beneath the right leg was another cluster of bone containing carpals, phalanges, a radius, an ulna, four vertebrae, and the un-fused epiphyseal head of a femur. All the skeletal elements within (13319) belong to Ind Intermittently beneath the disturbed burial fill and bone and alongside the lower edges of the grave cut were remnants of a plant stem mat coffin, reduced to almost just stains of dark soil. Areas were noted where rope had tied the stems together, as well as had been tied around the coffin itself. No grave goods were recovered from within the grave, likely removed long ago by robbers. This leads to comment on a few possibilities regarding the disturbance to the grave. The position and articulation of the right leg suggests the burial was robbed shortly after interment; the body perhaps removed and tossed back in the grave pit to land in the prone position, or the body was flipped during the robbery. The highly disarticulated condition of the remainder of the skeleton suggests the possibility this interment may have been subjected to disturbance a second time. Possibly the initial disturbance left the grave marker intact, only to draw attention from subsequent robbers at a later time when the soft tissues of the body had more thoroughly decomposed to allow scattering of the bone in such a manner. The grave cut <13050> for interment of Ind. 170 measured 234 cm long (southeast to northwest) by between 44 and 60 cm wide at the top of the cut. The base of the cut measured 193 cm long by between approximately 34 and 54 cm wide. The grave cut was cut between 28 cm (at the northwest end) and 30 cm (at the southeast end) into the upper sand and rubble fill (13120) and between 10 cm (northwest end) and approximately 20 cm (at the southeastern end, just northwest of the small shelf ) into the limestone bedrock below for a total depth of 30 cm at the southeast end (to the small bedrock shelf ), 50 cm deep at what may have been the head area of the interment, and 40 cm deep at the northwestern end. Ind. 179: (13102)-Burial fill; (13098)-bone cluster; (13303)-disturbed coffin and contents; <13056>-grave cut; Disturbed A cluster of bone (13098) was identified between to m floating loose within (13093) along the eastern wall of square AO123. The bone cluster contained one molar fragment, 1 cervical vertebra, 4 rib fragments, 2 phalanges, a fragment of a right innomonate, a sacrum, and several miscellaneous bone fragments. The bone within the cluster was in fair condition, having been whitened by exposure. Following removal of the bone cluster and an additional 14 cm of (13093), an oblong shaped stain of orangey-tan soil was uncovered at m running into the east wall of AO123. It was necessary at this point to open a small section (approximately 1.2-m east to west and 1-m north to south) along the west wall of square AP123 in order to further expose (13102). The upper fill removed from square AP123 will be discussed in the corresponding square summary below. (13102) was 190 cm long and 60 cm wide, the length being oriented northwest to southeast, with the northwest end slightly overlapping the southeast end of (13101)-the burial of Ind Removal of (13102) revealed the fill is likely disturbed as a single radius was recovered at m. (13102) extended to approximately (11 cm deep), where displaced bone and damaged plant stem matting and rope began to emerge. The plant stem matting, rope, 25

26 Figure 15. Ind. 179 in square AO123. The photograph faces site southeast. 26

27 bone and fill amongst them was assigned (13303) to be identified as the disturbed interment of Ind. 179 (Figure 15). Bone was scattered about the southeast and middle areas of the grave and only a partial skeleton remained with no skull, though one molar was recovered. The right tibia and fibula, left fibula, and right and left feet remained in situ at the northwest end of the interment, lying atop heavily decayed plant stem matting tied with rope. No matting remained above the skeletal elements, though some remained along the sides of the grave pit. The right humerus was found lying pronated along the southern edge of the grave with the humeral head being oriented towards the in situ feet. Carpals, phalanges, vertebrae, the manubrium, ribs, an ulna and a clavicle were scattered about randomly in the southeast area of the grave, interspersed with small fragments of short, dark and straight hair. A patella was lying between the cluster of scattered torso elements and the partially in situ lower legs. Quite a large amount of thin, sheet-like textile remnants were noted between the lower legs, and in the northeastern edge of the grave. Small samples were taken, though preservation was extremely poor. The sheetlike nature of the textile suggests the individual was wrapped in a shroud-like wrapping prior to interment rather than the long, thin strips of material observed in adjacent burials. A thin strip of a textile rope was also recovered, measuring approximately 5 cm long. This may have been used to tie the shroud around the body. Two clumps of textile were located in what appears to have been the pelvic region of the interment. These may have been used as pillows or cushions for the body within the coffin. The highly disturbed grave cut <13056> measured 196 cm long and varied in width from 36 cm wide at the northwestern end, 60 cm wide around the middle of the length, and 52 cm wide at the southeastern end. It is uncertain how much damage the grave robbers have done to the original grave cut, though it appears to have been somewhat minimal, despite the disturbance to the Individual within. The grave was cut, basin-shaped, between 28 cm (southeastern end) and 15 cm (northwestern end) into the upper sand and rubble fill (13093) and between 8 cm (southeast) and 3 cm (northwest) into the limestone bedrock below for a total depth of 36 cm at the southeast end and 18 cm at the northwest end; following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall. Ind. 180 (Skull 195: (13104)-Burial fill; (13305)-black boulders in fill; (13306)-coffin and contents; <13247>grave cut; Intact An oval shaped area of orangey-tan sand (13104) was observed extending into the west wall of square AO123 in the southwest quadrant of the square. It was necessary to open a small (1 x 2 m) section of square AN123 to the east in order to fully expose the feature. The matrix removed from square AN123 will be discussed in the corresponding square summary. The western extent of (13104) within square AN123 appears at m, while the eastern extent in square AO123 appears at m; following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall. As the matrix was removed, two separate areas of black boulders (13305) were revealed (Figure 16); one boulder being located at the western end (appearing at m) and a cluster of three black boulders being located at the eastern end (appearing at m), again following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall. It appears the coffin was placed in the prepared grave, then the rocks placed at each end, then the grave was filled. Further matrix (13104) was removed between these areas of rock to reveal an intact, though highly deteriorated, plant stem mat coffin. The plant stem mat coffin and its contents were designated (13306). The coffin was exposed and planned with the rocks (13305) in situ, then the rocks were removed to reveal they were lying just beyond the eastern and western extents of the coffin. The upper layer of the plant stem mat coffin was removed, revealing the fully articulated remains of Ind. 180 (Skull 195), a child of between 4 and 5 years of age (Figure 16). The body was lying supine, with the head to the southeast, face tilted to the right side, facing north. The upper arms were lying parallel to the torso, with the elbows slightly bent to position the hands over their respective side s femora and illia with the palms pronated and placed side by side with thumbs next to each other. The legs were extended with the knees touching and slightly bent to the north and feet side by side with left toes slightly tucked beneath the right foot. Despite the poor preservation of the plant stem matting and rope, the bone was in good preservation, though skull was quite fragile. No evidence of textile wrappings were observed within the burial. Some unknown 27

28 13305 Ind. 180 Bedrock Degraded organic material Textile 0 50 cm AN123 AO burial very compact stone rubble; essentially bedrock Figure 16. Ind. 180 in square AO123. The photographs show (13305) in (13104) (left) and (13306) (right), both facing site southeast. 28

29 substance, possibly organic or human tissue, was collected from inside the left rib area, beneath the sternum and between the ribs and vertebra. The substance was a dark brownish-gray in colour. Following removal of the skeleton, the base stem matting was planned and removed. A thin layer of sand was present beneath the coffin and the underlying limestone bedrock, and it appears only the southeastern end of the grave may have been cut into the bedrock, if at all. It is more plausible that the cut <13247> was made into the soft sand and rubble fill ((13119) in AN123 and (13093) in AO123) and was terminated when bedrock was encountered and the coffin merely placed directly upon the exposed bedrock in the base of the pit. The grave outline and cut appeared initially at around 45 to 50 cm below the existing ground surface. From there, the grave cut was 54 cm deep in the southeastern end and 68 cm in the northwestern end, following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall. The outer dimensions of the grave cut were 150 cm long by 48 cm wide with the long sides of the grave being roughly parallel to form a quite regular, elongated oval shape. The base of the grave pit was slightly narrower in width than the top, forming a basin. Square AO122 Square AO122, located directly south of square AO123, was initially opened as a small section to expose an interment. However, it was quickly realized opening the entire square would prove to be more beneficial as two additional possible interments were noted during the preliminary excavations. Excavation and documentation proceeded as had been done with square AO123. Surface features were planned and photographed, followed by removal of the first 5 10 cm of sand and rubble overburden (13120). Again, as with square AO123, excavation of AO122 followed the natural contour of the slope in the area. As no distinct soil changes were noted while removing the upper fill from square AO123, the sand and rubble overburden removed from square AO122 was assigned a single unit number. Following removal of between 30 and 45 cm of (13120), outlines of three possible graves became apparent and excavation of the sand and rubble fill matrix was ceased while the interments were investigated. One narrow, oblong-shaped area of orangey sand (13331) uncovered at m along the southern wall of AO122, adjacent to and northeast of the wadi wash (13108) in the southwest corner. This was initially thought to be a large grave as it was oriented northwest-southeast as the four interments examined within this square as well as the possible interment (13332) left unexcavated. After clearing 33 cm of the culturally sterile matrix from within (13331), limestone bedrock was encountered. (13331) is a deposit of coarse sand and rubble running southeast to northwest adjacent to a wadi wash (13108) of the same orientation down the slope of the eastern wadi wall. It has formed as the result of water rushing down the eastern wadi wall, weathering away the limestone surface of the bedrock causing a linear shaped deposit of rubble. Interments in AO122 Eventually, four interments and one possible burial were identified within this square, one of which overlaps with square AO123 to the north (Ind. 170) and has been previously discussed. The one possible burial (13332) was identified at m along the east wall of AO122 and was left unexamined due to time constraints during the 2010 excavation season. Two of the four interments investigated were intact while two (including the interment for Ind. 170) were disturbed. 29

30 Ind. 172 (Skull 90): (13320)-Black boulders lining grave; (13322)-coffin and contents; <13218>grave cut; Intact Ind. 172 s interment was found lying directly to the south of, and parallel to, the disturbed burial of Ind. 170, the latter of which was described in the square summary of AO123. The proximity and alignment of this grave to that of Ind. 170 s may indicate a connection. This interment represents one of the four discovered at the wadi mouth site with intact superstructure, an exciting discovery for the South Tombs Cemetery. Initially, the rock lining the top of the grave was thought to be associated with the rock at the southeast end of Ind. 170 s interment, possibly having been displaced during the disturbance to that grave. It was quickly realized, however, that this small, linear cluster of six medium sized black boulders (13320) exposed at m (a mere 25 or so cm below the existing ground surface) was the superstructure of an infant s burial (Figure 17). The rocks were loosely placed, somewhat pyramidal shaped, along the length of the burial, directly on top of a plant stem mat coffin (Figure 17) containing the remains of Ind. 172 (13322) (Figure 17). Very little fill was present between the rock and the coffin and the basin-shaped grave cut <13218> was made very narrow and shallow, only deep and wide enough to house the coffin and its contents. This interment represents one of the few examined at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 season that had not been cut into the limestone bedrock below, rather having been cut into and surrounded by the sand and rubble fill (13120). The plant stem mat coffin was composed of very thin, almost leaf-like strips of plant stems, tied together with small weight twine to form a mat. The mat was then wrapped around the body and tied circumferentially with larger weight rope. Though very little textile remained preserved on the body, enough was present to indicate the body was wrapped with linear strips of fabric. Although no textile was preserved on the top of the exposed skull, remnants were observed beneath it, indicating it too was wrapped but it is unclear whether the wrapping consisted of thin strips or a larger piece of textile. The body was extended, fully articulated, lying supine with the head to the southeast. The arms were extended parallel to the torso with hands lying pronated over the pelvis. Legs were slightly curved at the knees to the south with knees, ankles and feet lying side by side. Unfortunately, no grave goods were found within the interment. Ind. 176 (Skull 194): (13327)-Limestone and black boulders lining grave; (13328)-burial fill; (13329)-coffin and contents; <13219>grave cut; Intact The interment of Ind. 176 represents another of the four burials discovered during the 2010 excavations at the wadi mouth site with fully intact above ground and below ground tomb architecture. This particular interment consisted of thirteen large (roughly 10 to 15 cm) uncut limestone (n=11) and black rock (n=2) (13327) stacked to form a hollow pyramidal shape along the top length of the grave (Figure 18). Below this was a layer of sand and rubble fill (13328) approximately 18 cm deep. This was overlying a well-preserved plant stem mat coffin tied with rope and twine (Figure 18) containing the remains of Ind. 176 (13329) (Figure 18). The burial was located along the eastern wall of square AO122, overlapping slightly into square AP122 at its most eastern end necessitating removal of a small section (approximately 1 x 2 m) of the latter square to fully expose the interment. The grave was oriented northwest to southeast, with the head at the northwest end, unlike all other intact burials excavated at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 season. Perhaps this was unintentional, the coffin merely placed in the opposite orientation by accident, or perhaps the shallowness of the sand and rubble fill in this area prompted interment in this direction. 30

31 Figure 17. Ind. 172 in square AO122. The photographs show (13320) (left) and (13322) (centre and right), all facing site east. 31

32 Figure 18. Ind. 176 in square AO122. The photographs show (13327) facing site southeast (left), plant stem mat coffin (13329) facing site southeast (centre), and Ind. 176 (13329) facing site northwest. 32

33 The plant stem mat coffin was in very good condition, with thick (approximately 1 cm in diameter) stems used along the length of the body. These were tied together with thin twine to form a matting, which was then wrapped around the prepared deceased. The completed coffin was then secured with rope of larger girth than the twine (approximately 0.5 cm in diameter), wrapped around the circumference of the coffin and enclosed body. The body inside the coffin was fully articulated, lying supine and extended, with arms parallel to the torso and hands pronated atop the pubic symphysis, fingers curled downward. Legs were extended, knees and ankles touching with the right toes slightly overlapping those of the left. A large amount of textile wrapping was preserved along the length of the skeleton, clearly showing the body was wrapped with linear strips of fabric that had been wound around the entire body from the toes to the neck. The head, however, was wrapped with what appears to have been a single piece of textile, wrapped around the face and head, then twisted at the top to form a slight tassle-like feature at the crown. This textile was in quite poor preservation, having been reduced to an almost sand-like state. Beneath the textile covering the head, the skull retained a full head of well-preserved, short, dark and wavy hair. It is possible the hair may have been covered with an oily substance in order for it to retain its shape and resiliency in the arid desert environment. As the burial was intact, special care was taken to examine the contents for burial goods. Unfortunately, none were found within the grave. The burial substructure consisted of the 207 cm long grave cut <13219> being made only 8 to 10 cm into the upper sand and rubble fill ((13120) and (13326)) and between 5 and 10 cm into the limestone bedrock below. The depth of the cut was relatively consistent along the length of the grave at 18 cm deep, forming a level base for placement of the interred. The northwestern end, where the head was located, was cut with slightly squared corners and measured 40 cm wide. The cut tapered to be 35 cm wide at the hip area, and 29 cm wide at the foot area, where the latter end was cut more rounded in shape. The width and length of the cut mirrors the width and length of the coffin, averaging around 5 cm wider. Ind. 184: (13308)-bone cluster; (13309)-burial fill; (13310)-coffin and contents; <13220>-grave cut; Disturbed The interment of Ind. 184 was initially discovered by a shallow cluster of bone ( m) (13308) found within (13120) in the northwest corner of square AO122. The cluster consisted of several rib and vertebrae fragments and two long bone fragments from a small child. After removal of the bone cluster (13308) and clearing approximately 8 cm of (13120) from the area, an irregular shaped oval outline (125 cm northwest to southeast by 62 southwest to northeast cm) of a possible grave (13309) was identified lying just below. A large limestone boulder was lying on top of the northwestern extent of the possible grave (Figure 19). Removal of the matrix produced numerous fragments of bone (phalanges, a femur fragment, vertebrae, and ribs) scattered randomly throughout. At m, fragments of organic plant stem matting began to appear and the unit number was changed to (13310), which includes the lower portion of the disturbed interment (plant stem mat remnants, rope, textile, bone, and fill amongst them). Bones were scattered within the grave cut, on top of highly deteriorated stem matting (Figure 19), and in the fill above (13309) and also within the bone cluster uncovered at m. A summary of the bone recovered from Ind. 184 is provided in Table 5 below. The original burial cut was difficult to identify, apparently having been highly disturbed during robbery, leaving an irregular-shaped pit much larger than necessary for interment of a small coffin housing a small child. The grave cut <13220> measured 124 cm long at its highest elevation and 102 cm long at the base of the pit by 63 cm wide at the top and 28 cm wide at the base. Overall, forming a basin-shaped pit with irregular edges along the northeast 33

34 Figure 19. Ind. 184 in square AO122. The photographs show (13309) with limestone boulder, facing site northwest (left), (13310), facing site southeast (centre) and the mud-brick cluster within (13110), facing site east (right). 34

35 and southwest edges. Remnants of what appears to be the lower portion of the coffin were found lying at an angle to what may be the southwestern end of the original grave cut, indicating the possibility that the coffin was completely removed from the grave, then tossed back into the highly disturbed grave pit (Figure 19). The plant stem matting and what little rope remained was in very poor preservation, precluding taking of large samples. The bone recovered was also in poor preservation and no skull was recovered. No grave goods were recovered from the interment. Table 5. Skeletal elements recovered for Ind. 184 (13308) bone cluster (plant stem matting, rope, bone) Femur fragment Numerous vertebrae fragments Tibia Several rib fragments (13309) disturbed upper fill Numerous phalanges Femur fragment Numerous vertebrae fragments Several rib fragments (13310) disturbed lower fill Left scapula Left tibia, fibula and ephiphses Left humerus and epiphyses Radius Ulna Left metatarsals Right distal epiphysis of tibia Right fibula Left and right clavicles Square AO120 As a quite wide (approximately 4 m north to south) and rather deep wadi wash was located directly south of square AO122, effectively encompassing what would be square AO121, square AO120 was chosen for examination rather than excavating a trench of squares running south from AO123. Limestone rubble and numerous black boulders were present on the ground surface in square AO120, as well as scatterings of pottery and bone. The sand and rubble fill ((13097)-top 5 cm) and (13099)-remainder of fill matrix), consistent with that observed in other squares at the wadi mouth site, covered the entire square except for a small, linear strip along the northwestern wall and a slight depression that ran finger-like from the approximate centre of the square to the northwest corner where water has rushed across the surface to the adjacent large wadi wash to the north of the square. An area in the northwest corner of the square appeared to have a high concentration of pottery sherds and rock, though no clear boundary was discernible on the existing ground surface. Surface features were photographed and planned, then removal of a 5 to 10 cm spit commenced. A highly fragmented skull (Skull 147) was uncovered at m along the east wall of AO120, 2 m north of the southeast corner. The fragments were floating loose within the sand and rubble fill matrix (13099) and consisted of two temporal fragments, an occipital and parietal fragment, a frontal fragment, maxillae and nasal fragments and a highly fragmented tooth. Most pieces were upside down, and several pieces of brain tissue were found both adhering to the inside surfaces of the skull fragments and loose within the fill around them. Another bone cluster (13111) consisting of a scapula fragment, two rib fragments and a vertebra fragment was uncovered at m in the northeast corner of the square, 2 m east and 1 m north of the northeast corner; in the area that appears to have a higher concentration of stone and pottery. After removal of another 3 cm of matrix in this area, the concentration of rock and pottery increased, and a child s mandible and numerous fragments of mud brick were uncovered as well. This clustering of stones, bones, pottery and mud brick was assigned unit number (13110), though a clear boundary was still not decipherable at this depth (80.73 m). 35

36 Figure 20. (13110) and (13127) in square AO120, facing site southeast. The sand and rubble fill matrix (13097) and (13099)) was excavated following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall to between 25 cm below the existing ground surface in the northeast corner and 42 cm below the existing ground surface in the southeast corner. At these depths, possible burial outlines became visible across the square and excavations of the square matrix ceased while the interments were investigated. Interments in AO120 Five graves and one possible burial (13311) were identified within this square, two overlapping with square AP 120 to the east and one (a grave cut (13116) with only remnants of a plant stem mat (13334) remaining within it) overlapping with square AN120 to the west. The one unexamined possible burial (13334) in this square was identified at m along the south wall of the square, only a small portion being visible indicating the bulk of the possible burial is located in square AO119. Four of the five interments investigated in this square were disturbed, one of which (grave cut (13116)) was left completely devoid of skeletal material. Ind. 140 (Skull 165) and Ind. 165: (13110)-robbers spoil pile; (13316)-disturbed burial fill, coffin, and contents; <13221>-grave cut; Disturbed A quite large cluster of mud bricks were found stuck together in the northeast area of (13110) at (Figure 20) and at this depth, the boundary around the north and east edges of (13110) began to define themselves, though 36

37 the south and west edges remained problematic. An area of very fine, grey sand (13127) was uncovered along the northwest edge of (13110) at m. It appears the grey sand extends fan-like from (13110) itself as it proceeds to the northwest (Figure 20), following the down-slope direction towards the large wadi wash between squares AO120 and AO122. Removal of another 42 cm of (13110) beneath the large mud brick cluster revealed more remnants of mud brick in the eastern end of the burial. To the west of these remnants were further highly degraded areas of what appears to have been mud brick, with nearly all the colour leached out, leaving only the limestone and gravel temper used to produce them. The mud brick around the eastern end of the burial appear to have been stacked in an almost crescent-like shape, though this shape may just be the result of deterioration of the bricks. It is unclear what function this mud brick may have served within the interment. It does not appear that the mud brick entirely enclosed the coffin as no evidence of its presence was noted around the southwestern portion of the grave. Lying just to the west of these mud brick remnants at about the same depth was found a highly deteriorated and fragmented skull (Skull 165), with only a few cranial fragments and a mandible recovered, surrounded by what appears to be remnants of a wooden coffin (Figure 21). Two fragments were taken as samples, though the remainder had been reduced to a dark brownish-orange powder. What remained of an outline suggests the coffin was wider at the shoulder/head area and tapered down to a narrower width at the foot area, though the high amount of disturbance and degree of deterioration of the wood makes this determination impossible to be definite. The coffin remnants, the mud brick, bone, and fill within was numbered (13316). Ind. 140, a child between 6 and 12 months old, was uncovered within the highly deteriorated wood fragments lying supine and extended, head to the southeast and feet to the northwest (Figure 21). The left arm and shoulder was completely absent, though the remainder of the skeleton remained in partial articulation. The left ribs appeared to be in situ alongside the articulated spinal column; however, the right ribs were disturbed and displaced with only a few remaining in articulation. The right arm was lying detached from the torso, approximately 15 cm to the north, but remained articulated and slightly bowed at the elbow. The lower arm was slightly turned so that the palms of the right hand were facing towards the right hip. The legs were laying side by side, knees side by side and slightly bent to the north. Ankles were slightly apart with feet lying side by side and toes pointing to the north. As matrix was being cleared to remove Ind. 140, remnants of what appeared to be skull fragments were noted between the right hip and right hand of Ind Further clearing of the disturbed burial matrix uncovered five vertebral bodies, a few very tiny rib fragments and more cranial fragments of another individual approximately 10 cm to the northwest of the right hand of Ind. 140 (Figure 21). A tiny scapula and a possible pelvic fragment were located between the right arm of Ind. 140 and its torso. These partial remains were identified as Ind. 165, a child between 0 and 6 months of age. From the orientation of the arm and torso of Ind. 140 and the location of the remains of Ind. 165, it appears possible that Ind. 140 was interred cradling Ind. 165 in his/her right arm. Further disturbance appears to have come in the form of water flowing northwest through the interment, displacing the tiny skeletal elements of Ind. 165, forcing them into the northwestern edge of the remains of the coffin. Other evidence of the water flow is the presence of the fine gray sand (13127) extending northwest from the northern edge of the burial. The bone remaining within (13316), like the remains of the possible wood coffin, was in very poor preservation. No remnants of textile were observed and no burial goods were found in association with the interment. The grave cut <13221> was highly disturbed during robbery of the interment, quite thoroughly blurring the upper and outer edges of the pit. The resultant pit measured 165 cm long (southeast to northwest) by 63 cm wide and was approximately 86 cm deep along its length. The base of the pit was cut between 10 and 16 cm into the limestone bedrock below, forming a quite level base upon which the interred were placed. 37

38 Inds 140 and 165 Degraded mud-brick? Wood Mud-brick Ind cm Ind Ind. 140 remnants of wood and mud-brick coffin? Figure 21. Inds 140 and 165 in square AO120. The photographs show (13316), facing site southeast (left), Ind. 140 in (13316), facing site north (top right) and Ind. 165 in (13316), facing site north (bottom right). 38

39 Ind. 135 Degraded matting Bedrock 0 50 cm small clump of hair, partly plaited Figure 22. Ind. 135 in squares AO/AP120. The photograph is taken facing site southeast. Ind. 135: (13114)-burial fill; (13124)-disturbed coffin and contents; <13125>-grave cut; Disturbed (13114), an oblong oval shaped stain of orangey-tan soil oriented southeast to northwest, was identified in the northeast corner of square AO120, overlapping with square AP120, at m within (13099)-sand and rubble fill matrix within square AO120 and (13106)-identical sand and rubble fill matrix within AP120. (13114) consisted of a shallow mix of sand and gravel mixed with small amounts of bone fragments and textile. The fill was only about 38 cm deep in the southeast end and 19 cm deep in the northwest, at which point patchy remains of a plant stem mat coffin and further bone was uncovered. The plant stem matting and bone was assigned number (13124) which includes the heavily disturbed burial containing the patchy remains of a plant stem mat coffin and the highly displaced, fragmented, and degraded bone of Ind. 135 (Figure 22). No skeletal elements appear to have remained in situ, precluding determination of the original orientation of the interred. Bone recovered included about 18 vertebrae, two incisors, a sacrum, a sternum, a few ribs and several displaced metatarsals, primarily concentrated within the southeast half of the grave. Though some textile was recovered, not enough remained to give indication of how, or if, the body was wrapped prior to burial. A small lock of partially plaited, mediumlength, curly, dark hair was found lying in the southwest corner of the grave on top the highly degraded plant stem matting. An unidentified bone, of possible faunal origin, was also found lying a top the plant stem mat coffin. <13125> was identified as the cut containing (13114) and (13124). The cut is clear for most of the burial though the southwest end is shallower and less defined. The grave outline (13114) appeared at m, lying beneath and within (13099) and (13106). The basin-shaped grave was cut approximately 26 cm into the sand and rubble fill, then approximately 14 cm into the limestone bedrock below, following the gradual southeast-to-northwest slope of the eastern wadi wall. The cut appears only a few centimetres wider than necessary to have held the plant stem mat coffin and its contents. No grave goods were found in association with this interment. 39

40 Ind. 137 (Skull 164): (13112)-burial fill; (13128)-coffin and contents; <13222>-grave cut; Intact? (13112) was an oblong shaped stain of orangey-tan sand oriented southeast to northwest along the eastern wall of square AO120, overlapping with square AP120 to the east. The stain was identified at m within the sand and rubble fill (13099) and (13106). One medium sized black boulder was located near the southeastern end of the stain at m, with a rectangular shaped fragment of possible mud brick lying adjacent to the north of the rock. The orangey-tan matrix was removed, revealing what appears to be a nearly intact, though quite deteriorated, plant stem mat coffin at between m (southeastern end) and m (northwestern end) below, following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall. The plant stem mat coffin and its contents were designated (13128). (13128) consists of a plant stem mat coffin, rope, and the remains of Ind. 137 (Skull 164); an adult male aged 35 to 39 years (Figure 23). As the coffin was exposed, the skull, neck, a portion of the torso, and the lower left arm were visible, with the plant stem mat coffin having either deteriorated over these elements or having been removed by possible disturbance to the grave. What remained of the plant stem mat coffin was in quite good preservation, indicating the possibility that the top of the coffin was torn away to gain access into the burial rather than having been naturally deteriorated over time. Further evidence that the grave was indeed disturbed, however minimally, was the presence of two long lengths of well-preserved rope floating loose near the right upper side of the coffin and also near the left hip area of the coffin. As stated prior, the lower portion of the left arm was found near the top of the coffin, with the hand lying pronated near the edge of the right-hand side of the coffin. It may be possible that the grave was intruded upon soon after interment, the top of the coffin torn away, the left hand lifted to remove a possible burial good and simply dropped back into the grave and the grave re-filled. Regardless, once the remainder of upper coffin was removed, the extended and fully articulated skeleton of Ind. 137 was exposed. The body was lying supine with the head to the southeast and feet to the northwest. The upper arms were parallel to and alongside the torso with the left arm bent at the elbow to lie across the torso, hand pronated over the right arm. The right arm was parallel to the right side of the body with the palm of the hand supine near the proximal right femur. Several metacarpals and phalanges were found displaced, with some lying in the pelvic cavity and also just outside the cavity between the femora. Legs were extended, side by side, with the knees almost touching. The ankles were also side by side, with the left toes tucked underneath the right toes. Overall, the bone was in good condition, though surprisingly the teeth were dry and brittle, especially the anterior. Reddish beard hair was found on the anterior chin and along the sides of lower mandible. Several fingernails and toenails were recovered as well. Remnants of textile were noted along the length of the body, in varying degrees of preservation. At the neck was the sand-like residue of twisted textile that appears to have been constructed by wrapping the circumference of the neck with long, thin strips of textile whilst leaving a length to be loose, then taking the loose ends of the textile from either side of the neck and twisting them together below the chin. The twist proceeded caudally for approximately 10 cm, where the two ends were then separated and spread apart across the chest, possibly to continue around to the back. Unfortunately, no grave goods were recovered in association with this interment. Once Ind. 137 was removed from the grave, the base of the plant stem matting was exposed and planned. The base of the coffin was also in quite good preservation with the rope and twine holding it together being quite flexible, further indication that the top of the coffin had been torn away rather than deteriorating. The grave cut <13222> appeared visible within (13099) at m, and was cut basin-shaped to a depth of m for a total depth of only 51 cm. The southeast to northwest oriented grave followed the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall, with the southeast end being slightly higher in elevation than that of the northwest. Neither the southeastern (head area) nor the extreme northwestern (foot area) ends were cut into the limestone bedrock below, though up to 10 cm of the underlying bedrock was removed to accommodate the torso and leg portions of the coffin and its contents. The width (50 cm) of the length of the grave cut (205 cm) appears to have been cut only a few centimetres wider than the coffin itself. 40

41 Figure 23. Ind. 137 in square AO120. The photograph is taken facing site southeast. 41

42 Ind. 167: (13115)-Upper burial fill (13315)-disturbed coffin and contents <13317>-Grave cut-disturbed An oblong shaped stain of orangey-tan sand (13115) was uncovered at m along the eastern wall of AO120, extending eastward into AP120. The orientation of the stain is parallel to that of (13114)/Ind. 135 to the north, extending southeast to northwest. The matrix of (13115) consisted of sand with finer sand and coarser gravel and was quite shallow, being only between 31 cm deep in the southeastern end and 7 cm deep in the northwestern end before displaced bone, fragmented rope and deteriorated plant stem matting (all of which was designated (13315)) was uncovered (Figure 24). The shallow burial for Ind. 167 was heavily disturbed, both apparently from robbing and possibly from burrowing animals as an animal burrow was found in the eastern end of the grave and a remnant of snake skin was recovered from on top the plant stem matting residue. The disturbance to the grave made definition of the grave cut <13317> difficult, particularly in the eastern end where the burrow was located. The cut became clearer once the matting was removed and appears to have been quite narrow, only wide enough to house the plant stem mat coffin and its previous contents. As found during the 2010 excavation season, all that remained of Ind. 167 were a radius, an ulna, a patella, and several carpals, metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges. No bones appeared to be in situ, though the radius and ulna in the northwestern end and the possible metatarsals in the southeastern end may have possibly been located near their original positions, though a clump of short, dark, curly hair was also found near the possible metatarsals. The bones were in fair condition, though some were highly fragmented and friable. Some fragments of darkened and hardened textile were found in the southwestern end of the burial, likely hardened from decomposition of the body. Following removal of the skeletal remains and documentation of the lower plant stem matting and rope (which was in relatively good condition and lying directly on top limestone bedrock), a carved wooden kohl applicator (obj a) and a length of kohl (39927b) lying at its end were found along the northern edge of the plant stem mat, parallel to the long sticks of the matting (Figure 24). The northern edge of the plant stem mat appears to have collapsed a bit, effectively covering the kohl applicator and kohl, and likely hiding it from the immediate view of grave robbers. This object would prove to be the only burial good found in association with an interment at the wadi mouth site during the 2010 excavations. As with the other interments within this square, the burial followed the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall from its highest point in the southeast to its lowest in the northwest. The shallow, basin shaped grave measured 160 cm long and 26 cm wide. The grave appeared visible by the orangey-tan stain at m, approximately 45 cm below the existing ground surface. The maximum depth was m, a mere 38 cm from the appearance of the grave outline, and the grave cut <13317> was made approximately 10 cm into the limestone bedrock below for its entire length, upon which the plant stem mat coffin was directly placed. Empty burial: (13333)-burial fill; (13334)-remnants of plant stem mat coffin; <13116>-grave cut; Disturbed An oblong shaped feature of orangey-tan sand was identified within (13099) at a depth of m (approximately 40 cm below the existing ground surface) along the western wall of AO120, extending also into square AN120. The upper fill was designated (13333) and contained a sandy, gravelly matrix with remnants of plant stem matting and textile. A large black boulder was found at the base of (13333), in the approximate centre of the burial, lying directly on top of a layer of plant stem matting. The plant stem matting, and what remained within it, was designated (13334). Once the matting was exposed, it became apparent that this represented the bottom of a coffin, the top having apparently been removed during robbery of the grave. All that remained a top this lower matting was a small rectangle of mud brick lying adjacent to a hardened fragment of textile with a circular 42

43 Ind. 167 possible snake burrow Heavily degraded plant stem matting Degraded Textile Rope Rock Snake skin 0 50 cm <13317> (13315) <13317> Figure 24. Individual 167 in squares AO/AP120. The photographes show (13315) and grave cut <13317> (left) and a kohl applicator and length of hardened kohl (obj a and b) in situ within (13315), facing site northeast (right). 43

44 depression, suggesting the head of the individual once rested upon it there in the southeastern end of the grave. Segments of plant stem matting were noted along the southern edge of the grave cut, suggesting the coffin was pulled up and out of the grave in this direction. No skeletal elements or grave goods were found within the grave. The burial cut (13116) measured approximately 30 cm wide by 105 cm long and was oriented southeast to northwest. From the depth the burial outline became apparent, it was cut approximately 17 cm into the upper sand and rubble fill (13099) and around 10 cm into the limestone bedrock below, the plant stem mat coffin resting directly on top the bedrock. Based on the size of the grave cut, it appears the burial may have housed a child. Square AP120 Square AP120 was opened almost simultaneously with square AO120 to the west. A small, triangular section (13108) of the large wadi wash to the north cut through the northeast corner of the square, and a shallow and narrow, finger-like branch of the channel also extended from the approximate middle of the square north to the north wall. The remainder of the ground surface in the square was littered with large black boulders, limestone boulders and fragments of pottery and bone with no apparent clustering. Once the surface features were photographed and planned, and the upper 5 to 10 cm of fill removed (13106), a bone cluster (13107) appeared at m, approximately 8 cm below the existing ground surface, in the southwestern corner of the square. The cluster consisted of a phalange, the glenoid fossa of a scapula, a sacrum fragment, a vertebra, and a pelvis fragment. The cluster was shallow, extending only the depth of the bone, and no indication of a nearby burial was observed at this depth. Also visible at this depth were more black boulders and limestone rubble scattered through the middle region of the square, again, in no apparent clustering at this depth Following clearing of another 5 to 20 cm of fill (13106) across the square, a linear cluster of black boulders (13109) resting a top an oblong shaped area of orangey-tan sand (13122) became apparent along the eastern wall (Figure 25). Upon review of the opening plan as well as the plan drawn following removal of the top 5 to 10 cm of sand and rubble fill (13106), it was noted that several large black boulders were present on the ground surface just above (13109). The cluster of rock and stain were aligned southeast to northwest, with the southeastern end appearing at a slightly higher elevation than that of the northwest; following the natural downward slope of the eastern wadi wall. Also appearing at this depth were (13114)-the burial for Ind. 135 discussed in the summary of square AO120, (13115)-the burial for Ind. 167 also discussed in the summary of square AO120, (13312)-an oblong shaped stain of orangey-tan sand, and (13330)-a linear cluster of limestone rock along the south wall of the square. Upon examination of (13330), (13302) was identified as well. (13302) is a burial adjacent to the interment of Ind. 181 (described below) along the south wall of AP120 and extending into square AP119. It was uncovered at a depth of m and was left unexcavated due to time constraints of the 2010 excavation season. At the close of the season, the interment was covered with cotton textile and sand to be examined at a later date. Interments in AP120 Five graves were identified and examined within square AP120, two of which extend into square AO120 and have previously been described within said square summary. One interment was identified (13302) but was left unexamined due to time constraints. Two of the five interments investigated in this square were intact. 44

45 Ind. 133 (Skull 161): (13109)-black boulders lining grave; (13122)-burial fill; (13123)-coffin and contents; <13223>-grave cut; Intact After carefully planning and removing the black boulders (13109) (Figure 25) from above (13122), it became obvious that very little fill (less than 3 cm) existed between the boulders and a small plant stem mat coffin. Nevertheless, the fill was designated (13122) and removed to expose a rather decayed, but intact, plant stem mat coffin (Figure 25) containing the remains of a child (Ind. 133 and Skull 161) between 7 and 10 years of age. The plant stem matting, rope and its contents were designated (13123). The plant stem matting was composed of thin, leaf-like stems that had collapsed on top of the skeleton, conforming to its shape. Also present was twine used to weave the stems together as well as larger gauge rope used to wrap around the circumference of the coffin. Despite the rope being quite dry and brittle, it was clearly evident how the rope was used to fashion a double-wide, looped carrying handle that was secured to four courses of rope wrapped circumferentially around the shoulder area as well as to three or four courses around the hip and thigh area. One course of rope also ran the length of the coffin from a circumferential course of double-wide rope at the head area to the shoulder area, where it looped around the four courses at the shoulders then extended down to the hip area where it looped around the four courses of rope located there, then on down to the knee area where it looped around the two courses of rope wrapped circumferentially there. Knots were located one at each the right and left hip, then one at each the right and left knee along the outer edge of the stick matting. Removal of the plant stem matting and rope exposed the fully articulated skeleton of Ind The bone was in quite poor preservation, being rather dry and brittle and many bones crumbled upon removal. However, the skull and dentition were in fair to good preservation, though the base was crushed, likely from the weight of the large black boulder that was resting directly on top the plant stem mat coffin above the head. The body was laying extended and supine, head to the southeast and feet to the northwest. The chin was resting slightly upon the chest and arms were extended parallel to the torso with the radius and ulnae resting below the illia and palms of the hands pronated on the proximal femora. The fingers of the right hand were slightly curved inward. The legs, knees and feet were lying extended, side by side, with knees and feet slightly touching. No grave goods were found in association with this interment and only powdery remnants of what may have been a textile wrapping were observed on the surface of the bone. The black boulders lying in situ a top the grave appeared at about m, only 2 cm below the existing ground surface in this area of square AP120. The grave cut <13223> itself was extremely shallow as well, appearing to have only been cut to about 8 centimetres into the sand and rubble fill matrix (13106) and about 4 to 10 centimetres into the limestone bedrock below, upon which the coffin was directly placed. It was also only wide enough to house the plant stem mat coffin and its contents. So, from the top of the intact superstructure, to base of the grave cut below the plant stem mat coffin, the entire burial measured only 50 cm deep, with over fifty percent of that depth consisting of the black boulders on top the grave. Ind. 169 in (13312)-burial fill; (13118)-coffin and contents; <13321>-grave cut; Disturbed A slightly rectangular shaped stain of orangey-tan soil (13312/13118) was revealed within and below the sand and rubble fill (13106) to the east of the interment of Ind The stain, exposed at 80.74, (approximately 30 cm below the existing ground surface) was oriented southeast to northwest and contained a single small black boulder within the matrix at the southeastern end. As the matrix was removed, it became apparent the grave was highly disturbed and also very shallow. Unit numbers 13312/13118 were used to include the shallow fill and the contents within the grave including bone, plant stem matting, rope, and hair. 45

46 Figure 25. Ind. 133 in squares AP120. The photographs are taken facing site southeast. 46

47 Ind. 169 Wood? hair 0 50 cm fingers Figure 26. Ind. 169 in squares AP120. The photographs are taken facing site southeast. 47

48 After removal of only around 20 cm of fill, remnants of the base of a plant stem mat coffin were uncovered (Figure 26). The remains of the base left an almost hexagonal shape, with a few stems oriented nearly perpendicular to the length of the grave at the southeastern end, diagonal shoulders, and long sides oriented at a slight angle to the shoulders of the coffin. No perpendicular stems were observed at the northwestern end of the coffin remnant. Several fragments of highly deteriorated rope were noted, showing that the stem mat coffin was woven together with rope and also possibly tied around its perimeter with the same, though heavier gauge. The coffin contained only a few remains of Ind. 169: the in situ right foot and partially in situ left foot at the northwestern end, and a few displaced phalanges along the eastern edge. A clump of short, dark, curly hair was lying near the southeastern end, indicating this was the position of the head. No evidence of textile was noted and no grave goods were recovered in association with this interment. The grave cut <13321> was quite shallow, only 20 cm at its maximum depth, and was cut between 10 and 15 cm into the limestone bedrock below, upon which the base plant stem mat rested. The outline of the grave cut was 22 cm wide at the northwest end and 74 cm wide at its widest point in the southeastern end of the grave, showing a slightly hexagonal shape following that of the coffin. However, it is more likely that the grave cut and coffin show this shape due to robbery, rather than having been a hexagonal-shaped plant stem mat coffin. As the feet were the only skeletal elements that remained in situ, it appears the shallow grave may have been intruded into at the southeastern end and the body and upper portion of the coffin pulled up and out to the southeast. This movement perhaps produced severing of the feet and removal of the upper portion of the coffin along with the remainder of the body, as well as disturbance to the cut and displacement of the plant stem matting in this area. Ind. 181: (13330)-Limestone rock covering grave; (13301)-broken pottery bowl covering head of grave; (13304)-coffin and contents; <13339>-grave cut; Intact Unit (13330) was uncovered along the southern wall of square AP120 while clearing the square of further sand and rubble (13106). The unit appeared initially at a depth of m (approximately 37 cm below the existing ground surface) as a cluster of limestone rock adjacent to, and southeast of, the grave cut <13317> for the interment of Ind It became clear that the cluster extended linearly to the southeast and consisted of 12 to 15 medium-sized rough limestone rocks, stacked to form a triangular, or pyramidal shape approximately 60 cm long (southeast to northwest) and 20 cm wide (northeast to southwest) (Figure 27). The northwest end of the unit is at a slightly lower depth (80.91 m) than that of the southeast (81.02 m), following the natural, gradual slope of the eastern wadi wall. Beneath (13330) was an oblong area of orangey-tan soil (13304) with good definition along all sides minus the southeastern edge. Further clearing to define the southeastern extent of (13304) revealed a cluster of broken pottery (13301) approximately 10 cm to the southeast of the limestone cluster, also lying on top (13304) (Figure 27). The cluster of pottery consisted of two broken halves of a large, shallow pottery bowl, stacked to form a pyramidal or triangular shape, as well as the base of a small storage vessel lying to the southeast of the pottery pyramid. It appears the large pottery bowl was broken in half, then placed intentionally over the southeastern end of (13304), as the broken edge of one half was propped against the rim of the other half to form the pyramidal shape. Eventually, it was determined that (13330) and (13301) formed the superstructure of an intact grave. The broken pottery sherds (13301), like the stacked limestone (13330), were placed in a triangular, or pyramidal shape above (13304). The addition of the stacked pottery to the stacked limestone created a feature approximately 95 cm long and 20 cm wide. Removal of the limestone rocks (13330) revealed decaying plant stem matting and very little, if any, fill beneath the stones. Upon attempting to remove (13301), it was found that the easternmost piece of the broken bowl was buried somewhat beneath the revealed plant stem mat coffin (13304) and was left in place to avoid further 48

49 13301 Ind. 181 Ceramic Degraded organic material 0 50 cm matting Figure 27. Ind. 181 in square AP120. The photographs are taken facing site west (left) and east (centre and right). 49

50 damage to the matting and its contents. Unit (13304) was used to designate the intact plant stem mat coffin and its contents. Exposure of the plant stem mat coffin showed the broken pottery bowl (13301) had been placed to cover the skull (Skull 196) of Ind. 181 (Figure 27), as the mandible was observed protruding through the decayed stems of the coffin. Removal of the upper coffin matting revealed the in situ, and fully articulated remains of a child determined to be between 1.5 and 2 years of age (Figure 27). The body was lying extended and supine with head to the southeast and feet to the northwest. The arms were extended parallel to the torso of the body with the right and left hands lying beside the proximal femora. Legs were extended, with knees and ankles side by side and right toes slightly tucked beneath those of the left. Faint remnants of textile indicate the body was wrapped prior to interment, though not enough remained to determine whether the wrapping consisted of a large shroud-like cover or linear strips of wrapping. No grave goods were recovered in association with this interment. Following removal of the coffin and its contents (13304), the grave cut <13339> was revealed to have been apparently cut directly into the limestone bedrock below to a depth of only around 10 cm. It measured approximately 20 cm wide by 76 cm long, barely large enough to hold the coffin and its contents. The overlying fill (13106) in this area gave no indication that the interment had been cut into it Square AN120 Square AN120 was also opened almost simultaneously with squares AO and AP120 to the west. A small, triangular section (13314) of a wadi wash ran through the southwest corner of the square, the main course of the wash ran northwesterly from the top of the east wall of the wadi. The remainder of the ground surface in the square was covered by the general sand and rubble fill matrix (13113) littered with a few large black boulders, limestone boulders and fragments of pottery with no apparent clustering and another small section of a wadi wash (13120) in the southwest corner of the square that contained three black boulders, this latter wadi wash continuing on to the west into square AM120. Once the surface features were photographed and planned, and the upper 5 to 10 cm of fill removed (13113), no features were present on the cleared surface. The square was excavated in 5 to 10 cm spits, removing the general sand and rubble fill matrix (13113) and roughly following the natural slope of the eastern wadi wall to a depth of between 5 and 28 cm below the existing ground surface. At a depth of m along the east wall of the square, a small, circular stain of orangey-tan sand was observed with two small black boulders resting upon it (13313). As it was assumed this feature represented at least a portion of an interment, it was examined as such. The results of the excavation indicate this likely represents the remnant of a plant root. Decayed, weedy-like organic matter was noted throughout the matrix that differed considerably from organic matter (plant stem matting, rope, wood) observed within nearby interments. The weedy-like substance was also very different in colour than organic matter found within the burials, being a more sand-like colour rather than a dark brown. The resulting feature measured 40 cm north to south by 38 cm east to west and extended to a depth of m (25 cm), where limestone bedrock was encountered. The matrix contained two black boulders as well as a small, red faience plant form bead (Object Number 39928). It is unclear how the faience bead came to settle within this strange feature, perhaps it had been washed into the area by flooding in the wadi, only to be trapped by the weedy organic material. Four faint, circular to oval stains of orangey-tan soil were noted (depths will be included in discussion below) scattered though the square. Excavations of the square matrix ceased while the possible interments were investigated. However, due to time constraints, two of the possible burials ((13336) and (13337)) remain unexcavated and were recorded and covered with cotton textile and sand to be examined at a later date. 50

51 Interments in AN120 Two graves were identified and examined within square AN120 as well as two possible interments as yet to be excavated. One of the examined interments extended into both squares AO120 and AN120 and has been previously discussed in the square summary of AO120. Ind. 177: (13129)-disturbed burial fill; (13323)-coffin and contents; (13324)-original burial fill; <13325>-grave cut; Disturbed The interment for Ind. 177 was initially defined by the appearance of an oval-shaped stain of orangey-tan sand (13129) at m, oriented east to west on the long axis, paralleling the north wall of square AN120. The upper 10 cm consisted of gravel, coarse sand, mudbrick fragments, and broken pottery sherds. Below approximately 10, the pottery and mudbrick concentration petered out, leaving only the gravel and coarse sand fill. At m, remnants of a degraded plant stem mat coffin and bits of disintegrated rope began to appear. The sticks of the plant stem mat coffin were oriented at an angle to what was expected by the outline of (13129) above, running northeast to southwest and extending southwest beyond the southern edge of (13129). The coffin remnants were followed south, with the fill above being designated as (13324), revealing a disturbed coffin and its contents (13323) where the northeastern end had been removed (beneath (13129)) and the southwestern end (beneath (13324)) remained intact. The upper fill (13324) of the original burial cut (13325) contained no finds and consisted of loose sand matrix mixed with gravelly sand. The fill and cut were difficult to distinguish from the surrounding fill matrix (13113). The cut (13325) and fill (13324) were oriented northeast to southwest, at an angle to the outline of the robber s spoil pile and cut (13129). A cluster of large limestone rocks was uncovered within (13324) in the southwest end, overlying what would eventually be determined as the foot end of the interment (Figure 28). The rocks appeared at m in the extreme southwest end and stepped downward to a base elevation of m at its northeastern extent (approximately overlying the middle of the underlying plant stem mat coffin (13323)). It is unclear what purpose these rocks may have served, being clustered solely at the southwestern extent of the interment and apparently undisturbed by the robbery of the northeastern portion of the grave. Beneath (13324) and the limestone rock cluster within it laid a disturbed plant stem mat coffin containing the remains of Ind. 177, a child of 3.5 to 4.0 years of age. The remains of the plant stem mat coffin tied with rope and its contents were designated (13323) (Figure 28). The skull was missing, but would have been located in the northeastern end of the burial. The left arm was missing as well. The remainder of the skeleton remained in situ and fully articulated, with right arm extended parallel to the torso and legs extended with knees and ankles side by side, and the right foot slightly tucked beneath the left. Small fragments of textile found covering the pelvis and upper legs indicate the body was wrapped with a large (or large pieces) of textile rather than long, thin strips. The sticks used to form the coffin were quite thick in comparison to other coffins containing children at the wadi mouth site. The base of the coffin remained intact despite the intrusion to the grave. The original burial cut <13325>, oriented northeast to southwest, was made into the soft, sand rubble fill matrix (13113), and approximately 15 cm into the limestone bedrock below. While the upper portion of the cut (into the soft sand matrix) appears to have been cut much larger than necessary to house a child s coffin, the lower portion of the cut that into limestone bedrock was quite narrow, barely wide and long enough to contain the coffin and its contents. The upper part of the northern end of the cut <13325> (and the upper fill of the original burial (13324)) were disturbed by (13129)-which appears to be the robber s spoil pile from intrusion into the grave. The grave appears to have been intruded upon at the northeastern end, where the upper portion of the coffin was removed to expose the head. The head and left arm were removed, while the remainder of the burial was left undisturbed. 51

52 Ind. 177 Plant stem matting Textile Rope 0 50 cm <13325> (13323) <13325> Figure 28. Ind. 177 in square AP120. The photographs show limestone rubble within (13324) (left) and the portion of intact matting (13323) (right), both facing site east. 52

53 Figure 29. Square AM120 at end of excavations, facing site south. Black boulders are resting directly on top of limestone bedrock. (13336)-possible burial, unexcavated Unit (13336) is a faint, small and slightly circular stain of orangey-tan sand identified at a depth of m in the southwest quadrant of square AN120. It is possible this feature represents an interment, though it is also possible this represents another plant root stain similar to (13313) that was examined just to the east. Time constraints during the 2010 excavation season prevented examination of (13336) and it was recorded and covered with cotton textile cloth and sand to be examined at a later date. (13337)-possible burial along north wall, unexcavated Unit (13337) was identified along the north wall of square AN120 in the northeast corner at a depth of between m (eastern extent) and m (western extent). It appears this possible burial is oriented southeast to northwest, like many of the other interments in this area, and that the northern wall of square AN120 has just captured the southern edge of the feature. As time did not permit full examination of (13337) during the 2010 excavation season, the unit was recorded and covered with cotton textile cloth and sand to be examined at a later date. Square AM120 Square AM120 was excavated much the same way as adjoining squares, in 5 to 10 cm spits removing the general sand and rubble fill matrix (13126) and wadi washes located in the southeast (13130) and southwest (13314) portions of the square. Only six black boulders were noted on the ground surface, two being within (13130), one 53