CIVIL AVIONICS SYSTEMS. Second Edition. Ian Moir. Aerospace Consultant, UK. Allan Seabridge. Aerospace Consultant, Malcolm Jukes.

Transcription

1 CIVIL AVIONICS SYSTEMS Second Edition Ian Moir Aerospace Consultant, UK Allan Seabridge Aerospace Consultant, UK Malcolm Jukes Aerospace Consultant, UK Wiley

2 Contents About the Authors Series Preface xix xxi Preface to Second Edition xxii Preface to First Edition xxiii Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations xxv xxvi 1 Introduction Advances since Comparison of Boeing and Airbus Solutions Outline of Book Content Enabling Technologies and Techniques Functional Avionics Systems The Flight Deck The Appendices 4 2 Avionics Technology Introduction Avionics Technology Evolution Introduction Technology Evolution Avionics Computing The Nature of an Avionics Computer Resolution (Digitisation) The Sampling Frequency (Refresh Rate) Digital Systems Input and Output Introduction Analogue to Digital Process Sampling Rate Digital to Analogue Process Analogue Signal Conditioning Input Signal Protection and Filtering Analogue Signal Types 29

3 Contents 2.5 Binary Arithmetic Binary Notations Binary Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division The Arithmetic Logic Unit The Central Processing Unit (CPU) CPU Instruction Format Instruction Execution Sequence Extended OperandAddressing Modes Software Software Introduction Assemblers and Compilers J Software Engineering Software Design Process Assurance Languages ObjectOriented Design Autocode Generation RealTime Operating System (RTOS) Microprocessors J Moore's Law Significant Microprocessors used in Aerospace Applications CPU Cache Microcontrollers Rock's Law Memory Technologies Desired Avionics Memory Attributes Available Memory Technology Attributes Memory Device Summary Memory Hierarchy ApplicationSpecific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) Mam Types ofasics Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) Semicustom Standard Cell Design ASIC Design Tools RTCADO254/ED Integrated Circuits Logic Functions /.2 The MOS Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) C Fabrication Integrated Circuit Packaging Wafer Probe and Test Wafer Separation and Die Attachment Wire Bonding Packaging 75 References 77

4 Contents 3 Data Bus Networks Introduction Digital Data Bus Basics Data Bus Overview Bit Encoding Attributes Transmission Classes Topologies Transmission Rates Transmission Protocols Transmission Protocols Overview TimeSlot Allocation Protocol Command/Response Protocol Token Passing Protocol Contention Protocol ARINC ARINC 429 Overview ARINC 429 Architecture Realisation MILSTD1553B MILSTD 1553B Overview MILSTD1553B Word Formats Bus Controller to Remote Terminal (BCRT) Protocol Remote Terminal to Bus Controller (RTBC) Protocol Remote Terminal to Remote Terminal (RTRT) Protocol Broadcast Protocol Error Management ARINC ARINC 629 Overview ARINC 629 Protocol ARINC 629 Bus Coupler ARINC 629 Architecture Realisation ARINC 664 Part ARINC 664 Overview Ethernet Frame Format Network Topology Contention Avoidance Virtual Links Protocol Summary Cables CANbus CANbus Overview CANbus Message Formats CANbus Variants Time Triggered Protocol Fibreoptic Data Communications 113

5 Contents Attributes of Fibreoptic Data Transmission J 0.2 Physical Implementation Data Bus Summary Data Bus Overview Contrasting Traffic Management Techniques 117 References System Safety Introduction Flight Safety Introduction Flight Safety Overview Accident Causes System Safety Assessment Introduction Key Agencies, Documents and Guidelines Failure Classification InService Experience Safety Assessment Processes Reliability Introduction Failure Mechanisms The Relationship between Probability and Mean Time between Failures Assessment offailure Probability Reliability Management Availability Introduction Classic Probability Theory Simplex Architecture Triplex Architecture Triplex Architecture plus Backup Integrity BuiltinTest CrossMonitoring Redundancy Simplex Architecture Duplex Architecture Dual Command: Monitor Architecture Triplex Architecture Quadruplex Architecture Summary Analysis Methods &/ TopDown Methods &2 BottomUp Methods SJ Lighting System Example 149

6 X Contents 4.9 Other Considerations J Exposure Time (Time at Risk) Cascade and Common Mode Faults Dissimilarity Segregation and Partitioning Dispatch Availability 156 References Avionics Architectures Introduction Avionics Architecture Evolution Overview of Architecture Evolution Distributed Analogue Architecture Distributed Digital Architecture Federated Digital Architecture Integrated Modular Avionics Open System Standards Avionic Systems Domains The Aircraft as a System of Systems ATA Classification Avionics Architecture Examples The Manifestations ofima The Airbus A320 Avionics Architecture The Boeing 777 Avionics Architecture Honeywell EPIC Architecture The Airbus A380 and A The Boeing IMA Design Principles The Virtual System Introduction to Virtual Mapping Implementation Example: Airbus A3S Implementation Example: Boeing Partitioning IMA Fault Tolerance Fault Tolerance Principles Data Integrity Platform Health Management Network Definition Certification IMA Certification Philosophy Platform Acceptance Hosted Function Acceptance Cost of Change Configuration Management IMA Standards 201 References 203

7 SAE RTCA Contents 6 Systems Development Introduction Systems Design Development Processes System Design Guidelines Key Agencies and Documentation Design Guidelines and Certification Techniques Guidelines for Development of Civil Aircraft and Systems SAE ARP 4754A Guidelines and Methods for Conducting the Safety Assessment ARP Software Considerations RTCA DO178B Hardware Development DO Integrated Modular Avionics RTCA DO Equivalence of US and European Specifications Interrelationship of Design Processes Functional Hazard Assessment (FHA) Preliminary System Safety Assessment (PSSA) System Safety Assessment (SSA) Common Cause Analysis (CCA) Requirements Capture and Analysis TopDown Approach BottomUp Approach Requirements Capture Example Development Processes The Product LifeCycle Concept Phase Definition Phase Design Phase Build Phase Test Phase Operate Phase Disposal or Refurbish Phase Development Programme Typical Development Programme 'V Diagram Extended Operations Requirements ETOPS Requirements Equipment Requirements ARINC Specifications and Design Rigour ARINC 400 Series ARINC 500 Series S.5 ARINC 600 Series /1K//VC 700 Series ARINC 800 Series y4/?wc 900 Senes 230

8 xii Contents 6.9 Interface Control Introduction Interface Control Document AircraftLevel DataBus Data System Internal DataBus Data Internal System Input/Output Data Fuel Component Interfaces 233 References Electrical Systems Electrical Systems Overview Introduction Wider Development Trends Typical Civil Electrical System Electrical Power Generation Generator Control Function DC System Generation Control AC Power Generation Control Power Distribution and Protection Electrical Power System Layers Electrical System Configuration Electrical Load Protection Power Conversion Emei»ency Power Ram Air Turbine Permanent Magnet Generators Backup Systems Batteries Power System Architectures Airbus A320 Electrical System Boeing 777 Electrical System Airbus A380 Electrical System Boeing 787 Electrical System Aircraft Wiring Aircraft Breaks Wiring Bundle Definition Wiring Routing Wiring Sizing A ireraft Electrical Signal Types Electrical Segregation The Nature ofaircraft Wiring and Connectors Used of Twisted Pairs and Quads Electrical Installation Temperature and Power Dissipation Electromagnetic lnteiference Lightning Strikes 280

9 Contents xiii 7.8 Bonding and Earthing Signal Conditioning Signal Types Signal Conditioning Central Maintenance Systems Airbus A330/340 Central Maintenance System Boeing 777 Central Maintenance Computing System 288 References 290 Further Reading Sensors Introduction Air Data Sensors Air Data Parameters Pressure Sensing Temperature Sensing Use of Pressure Data Pressure Datum Settings Air Data Computers (ADCs) Airstream Direction Detectors Total Aircraft PitotStatic System Magnetic Sensors Introduction Magnetic Field Components Magnetic Variation Magnetic Heading Reference System Inertial Sensors Introduction Position Gyroscopes Rate Gyroscopes Accelerometers Inertial Reference Set Platform Alignment Gimballed Platform StrapDown System Combined Air Data and Inertial Introduction Evolution of Combined Systems Boeing 777 Example AD1RS DataSet Further System Integration Radar Sensors Radar Altimeter Weather Radar 324 References 327

10 xiv Contents 9 Communications and Navigation Aids Introduction J Introduction and RF Spectrum Equipment Antennae Communications Simple Modulation Techniques HF Communications VHF Communications SATCOM Air Traffic Control (ATC) Transponder Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) GroundBased Navigation Aids Introduction NonDirectional Beacon VHF OmniRange Distance Measuring Equipment TACAN VOR/TAC Instrument Landing Systems Overview Instrument Landing System Microwave Landing System GNSS Based Systems SpaceBased Navigation Systems Introduction Global Positioning System GLONASS Galileo COMPASS Differential GPS Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS/SBAS) Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS/LBAS) Communications Control Systems 362 References Flight Control Systems Principles of Flight Control Frame of Reference Typical Flight Control Surfaces Flight Control Elements Interrelationship of Flight Control Functions Flight Crew Interface Flight Control Actuation Conventional Linear Actuation Linear Actuation with Manual and Autopilot Inputs 372

11 Navigation Vertical Contents xv Screwjack Actuation Integrated Actuation Package FBW and Direct Electrical Link Electrohydrostatic Actuation (EHA) Electromechanical Actuation (EMA) Actuator Applications Principles of FlyByWire FlyByWire Overview Typical Operating Modes Boeing and Airbus Philosophies Boeing 777 Flight Control System Top Level Primary Flight Control System Actuator Control Unit Interface Pitch and Yaw Channel Overview Channel Control Logic Overall System Integration Airbus Flight Control Systems Airbus FBW Evolution A320 FBW System A330/340 FBW System A380 FBW System Autopilot Flight Director System Autopilot Principles Interrelationship with the Flight Deck Automatic Landing Flight Data Recorders &7 Principles of Flight Data Recording Data Recording Environments Future Requirements 403 References Navigation Systems Principles of Navigation Basic Navigation Navigation using GroundBased Navigation Aids Navigation using Air Data and Inertial Navigation Navigation using Global Navigation Satellite Systems Flight Technical Error Lateral Navigation Flight Technical Error Navigation Flight Management System Principles of Flight Management Systems (FMS) FMS Crew Interface FMS Crew Interface Control and Display Display 414 Unit FMS Functions FMS Procedures Standard Instrument Departure 423

12 Contents EnRoute Procedures Standard Terminal A rrival Routes LS Procedures All Typical FMS Architecture All 11.3 Electronic Flight Bag EFB Functions All EFB Implementation A Air Traffic Management Aims of Air Traffic Management Communications, Navigation, Surveillance NextGen Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) PerformanceBased Navigation PerformanceBased Navigation Definition Area Navigation (RNAV) Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Precision Approaches Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast Boeing and Airbus Implementations Boeing Implementation AA Airbus Implementation AAA 11.8 Terrain Avoidance Warning System (TAWS) 444 References 447 Historical References (in Chronological Order) Flight Deck Displays Introduction First Generation Flight Deck: the Electromagnetic Era Embryonic Primary Flight Instruments The Early Pioneers The 'Classic'Electromechanical Flight Deck Second Generation Flight Deck: the ElectroOptic Era The Advanced Civil Flight Deck The Boeing 757 and The Airbus A320, A330 and A The Boeing and The Airbus A The Boeing The Airbus A Third Generation: the Next Generation Flight Deck Loss of Situational Awareness in Adverse Operational Conditions Research Areas Concepts A6A 12.5 Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) System ECAM Scheduling ECAMModing 465

13 Contents ECAM Pages Qantas Flight QF The Boeing Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) Standby Instruments HeadUp Display Visual Guidance System (HVGS) Introduction to Visual Guidance Systems HVGS on Civil Transport Aircraft HVGS Installation HVGS Symbology Enhanced and Synthetic Vision Systems Overview EVS, EFVS and SVS Architecture Diagrams Minimum Aviation System Performance Standard (MASPS) Enhanced Vision Systems (EVS) Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) Synthetic Vision Systems (SVS) Combined Vision Systems Display System Architectures Airworthiness Regulations Display Availability and Integrity Display System Functional Elements Dumb Display Architecture SemiSmart Display Architecture Fully Smart (Integrated) Display Architecture Display Usability Regulatory Requirements Display Format and Symbology Guidelines Flight Deck Geometry Legibility: Resolution, Symbol Line Width and Sizing Colour Ambient Lighting Conditions Display Technologies Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays (AMLCD) Plasma Panels Organic LightEmitting Diodes (OLED) Electronic Paper (epaper) MicroProjection Display Technologies HeadUp Display Technologies Inceptors Flight Control Inceptors Handling Qualities Response Types Envelope Protection Inceptors 508 References 509

14 Electronic Electrical xviii Contents 13 Military Aircraft Adaptations Introduction Avionic and Mission System Interface Navigation and Flight Management Navigation Aids Flight Deck Displays Communications Aircraft Systems Applications Green Aircraft Conversion Personnel, Material and Vehicle Transport AirtoAir Refuelling Maritime Patrol Airborne Early Warning Ground Surveillance Electronic Warfare Flying Classroom Range Target/Safety 530 Reference 531 Further Reading 531 Appendices 533 Introduction to Appendices 533 Appendix A: Safety Analysis Flight Control System 534 A. 1 Flight Control System Architecture 534 A.2 Dependency Diagram 535 A. 3 Fault Tree Analysis 537 Appendix B: Safety Analysis Flight Instrument System 539 B. l Electronic Flight Instrument System Architecture 539 B. 2 Fault Tree Analysis 540 Appendix C: Safety Analysis System 543 C. 1 Electrical System Architecture 543 C. 2 Fault Tree Analysis 543 Appendix D: Safety Analysis Engine Control System 546 D. l Factors Resulting in an InFlight Shut Down 546 D.2 Engine Control System Architecture 546 D.3 Markov Analysis 548 Simplified Example (all failure rates per flight hour) 549 Index 551