5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL BASELINE 5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE RSDSC AREA

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1 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL BASELINE 5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE RSDSC AREA Archaeological sites in the area of the RSDSC can be broadly categorised as sites of major or of minor interest. The former usually have substantial structural remains and also, therefore, constitute major tourist attractions. Jerash, Petra and Umm Qais are obvious examples in Jordan of such sites and this class of site is, in the future, likely to be the subject of increased interest, from the scholarly point of view as well as for the development of Jordan s cultural heritage, regardless of the presence or absence of the RSDSC. In the Palestinian Authority area, the site of Qumran is of international, as well as national, interest (it is designated by Israel as a National Park) and in Israel the sites of En Gedi and Masada, (the former is a National Park and the latter has UNESCO World Heritage status) are of international importance. Increased interest in such major sites and cultural heritage in general in the future is likely to lead to increased interest and awareness of all archaeological sites and the wish to study and preserve them where possible. In the absence of the RSDSC, sites of minor or limited interest, which constitute the vast majority of recorded archaeological sites are, nevertheless, generally not likely to change in the foreseeable future. There will be exceptions, of course, because some sites will be excavated as part of specific archaeological research projects, others as part of rescue projects prior to destruction through development, and others still will be destroyed either deliberately or otherwise, with no record being made of them. Regarding the sites and areas in the vicinity of the RSDSC in Jordan, there are no major archaeological research projects currently foreseen for the long-term future. However, as of 2010, there are several large projects involving seasonal excavations and surveys. Three are in the major complex of archaeological sites in the Wadi Finan area, and these are likely continue for a few more years (Khirbet Nahass and WF16 excavations, Barka survey). Further south, in the area of Bir Mathkour, there is a seasonal field survey project and some excavations and the likelihood of further work in this area is reasonably high. And there are also some limited excavations at the small Roman site of Gharandal, and the possibility of further work at the Nabataean site of Rujm Taba. In the recent past, interest has been expressed to undertake more excavations of some of the major sites in the Wadi Finan area. In Israel, the Archaeological Survey of Israel is a systematic survey project 34

2 covering the whole country in 10x10 km squares, which started in 1964 and which is still ongoing. Most of the anticipated freshwater pipeline corridor still needs to be surveyed, and this project will be ongoing for the foreseeable future (A map of surveyed areas can be found at: Given this general status of archaeological sites, those sites that occur within the whole region of the RSDSC will not be affected one way or the other by the presence or absence of the RSDSC, with the exception of the direct impact on any sites that lie within the actual path of the RSDSC. Thus, if the RSDSC goes ahead, these sites will need to be dealt with according to the mitigation measures outlined below, and if the RSDSC does not go ahead, these same sites will be left as they are today. Note that for the purposes of this study, the complete data for all the archaeological sites can be found in the Archaeology Field Survey Database Report. Sites are shown on the overview maps referred to in each section and, in addition, for each area in which many known archaeological remains occur, a detailed map set has been provided. The detailed maps show the sites, published and found during the recent survey, with their ID number (which corresponds with the ID number in the accompanying tables). On the detailed maps only sites that need further work if/when impacted are shown (i.e. assessment categories 2 4 as detailed in Section 3.5). The tables give detailed information of each site: the number assigned by the excavator/surveyor of the site, name where applicable, its location in UTM coordinates, size and elevation where known, the source of information, a short description of the site, its historical dating(s), topographical location in the landscape, and the assessment code (see below). The assessment code also corresponds to the colour coding on the maps. Following is an overview of the archaeology of the geographical divisions that lie within the area of the RSDSC, sub-divided by component for ease of reference. 5.2 WESTERN FRESHWATER PIPELINE CORRIDOR Historical Overview During the period since 1967, numerous survey and excavation projects have been carried out in the area. These have been collected recently by R. Greenberg and A. Keinan in a database, which is used here as the basis for the study pending any further detailed information from the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Palestinian Department of Antiquities. Several areas have been surveyed intensely, but not all surveys have been published. 35

3 The Jericho plain, north of the Dead Sea has been surveyed by Sion (1997), but so far only a small map of his sites has been published, with little detail. Further south, survey work has generally focused on the many caves that border the Dead Sea shoreline. These have revealed human presence from every period from Neolithic onwards, until modern times. Archaeological sites south of the boundary between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (Green Line) are stored in a Master database maintained by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) and made available to the project. While this database is up to date, the information about individual sites is limited (for many sites there is no dating information available, for example). At some time between 27,000 and 18,000 BCE, the level of the Dead Sea (known as Lake Lissan) reached up to a maximum level of a little higher than 200 metre below sea level and filled the whole of what is now the Jordan Valley from the area about 40km south of the southern end of the Dead Sea today northwards up to and including Lake Tiberias (Lake Kinneret). From about 13,000 BCE onwards, the lake has been gradually receding (a phenomenon that has been greatly increased in modern times by the forced evaporation of the chemical industries in both Jordan and Israel and by the many water diversion systems put in place). In terms of archaeology, this means that there will be no sites earlier than about 18,000 BCE found below an altitude of around 200 m. However, subsequent to the declining level of the lake, the well-watered areas (wadis with springs or flowing water, both permanent and seasonal) surrounding it have proved ideal for human habitation and use, and there are many sites on the flat areas along the old lake margins, particularly near to fresh water springs. Sites in Jordan, such as the Bronze Age cemeteries at Fifa and Bab adh-dhra, lie to the north of the proposed RSDSC area, along the old lake margins. Along the eastern Dead Sea shores there is, for example, the Roman harbour and habitation beside the spring at Ain Zara, and on the western side there is the complex of sites at Ein Gedi. From the Palaeolithic to Neolithic era (see Table 2.1 showing archaeological periods), Lake Lissan covered the area in which the western freshwater pipeline is projected, with the exception of parts of the plain south of Jericho. A narrow plain now stretches all along the western Dead Sea coastline, bordered by a steep limestone mountain ridge that is rich in natural caves. Both the plain and the caves have been the focus of habitation since early prehistoric times. 36

4 The earliest evidence of human activity in the area dates from the middle Kebaran (Lower Epi-Palaeolithic), and consists of worked flint, mostly microliths of a specific type. Around 12,000 BCE the Kebaran culture was replaced by the Natufian culture (Upper Epi-Palaeolithic), characterised by round houses as well as extensive use of caves for habitation, stone sickle blades, worked and decorated bone and stone tools, and a rich funerary culture. No Kebaran or Natufian sites have been found in the Jericho Plain, but several were found east and north of it and it is possible that further fieldwork in the area will reveal sites from these periods. The Neolithic (ca. 10,000 5,000 BCE) saw the beginnings of agriculture and pastoralism in all of the Near East, and consequently led to a significant increase in settlement. It is subdivided into two main periods: the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and the Pottery Neolithic. The Neolithic period is most prominently represented in the region by Tell es-sultan, ancient Jericho. Tell es-sultan is in fact just outside the area of study, north of the modern town of Jericho. However, four caves in the Qumran area have revealed Neolithic remains, and prehistoric flints have been found on two sites in the region of En Gedi. During the Chalcolithic (5,000 3,600 BCE) people began to master the art of working copper, albeit still on a small scale, and generally for cultic purposes. The Chalcolithic is represented at a number of sites along all of the Dead Sea shore, mostly caves and rock shelters. Remains of a Chalcolithic village and catchment area were found in the area of En Gedi. At the south end of the Dead Sea some tumuli or tombs, dated to the Chalcolithic have been found. The Bronze Age is the first period for which written sources exist, and consequently more is known about this and the following periods than about the previous ones. The Bronze Age is subdivided into three main periods: the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Bronze Age and the Late Bronze Age. During the first half of the Early Bronze Age settlement continued to increase in most of the region, as witnessed by various finds. In Nahal Hemar, at the southern end of the Dead Sea an ancient road has been found as well as a complex of structures nearby, both dated to Early Bronze II. However, during the latter half of the Early Bronze Age settlement in the area declined. Only one Middle Bronze I building has been found. So far no Late Bronze remains have been found in the area. In the Late Bronze Age the region was part of the Egyptian empire, during which settlement was concentrated mostly in the west and north of the study area. 37

5 After the decline of the Egyptian empire the region became fragmented politically, and new, small kingdoms arose, notably Israel, Ammon, Moab and Edom. This period is known as the Iron Age, subdivided into IA 1 and 2. A large number of new settlements was established, but most of these were beyond the northernmost boundaries of the study area (many of the sites designated as IA in the table are undetermined Iron Age and may belong to either of the two major periods). During the latter half of the Iron Age the region again fell under the supremacy of external empires, the Assyrian, and later the Babylonian empire. The number of settlements expanded further in this period, and many sites are found in the region south of Jericho and along the Dead Sea shores. In the southern Dead Sea area an Iron Age fortress or tower was found (Mezad Gozal) which is cut by the modern road. So far remains from the Persian period have only been identified in Ein Gedi, but recent research has shown that in the mountainous part of the region (eastern Israel/Palestine and Jordan) the material culture remained virtually unchanged from the Babylonian to the Hellenistic period, so that Persian sites may have remained unrecognized. Hellenistic period finds again come mostly from caves, but there are some multi-period fortresses along the shore that had Hellenistic objects. Near Wadi Qumran, a religious settlement has been excavated, remains of which stretched along the north-western shore of the Dead Sea for a length of about 6 km. It dates to the Hellenistic Roman period. The site consists of a main building complex with secondary buildings on the coast, an irrigation system and a complex of caves, in which the famous Dead Sea scrolls were found. Two sites to the south of it, Ein Feshka and Ein Ghuweir, formed part of the original community. The site is presently under the auspices of the Israeli National Park Authority. As it is a site of international importance it will have to be avoided (assessment category 4). The Roman period was a time of prosperity and extensive building activity in Palestine. Habitation continued on most Hellenistic sites and expanded considerably. All three major sites on the Dead Sea shores, Qumran, Ein Gedi and Masada saw their greatest expansion during the Roman occupancy, and particularly in the Herodian era. Qumran was destroyed in 68 CE (AD) during the Jewish revolt. The site of Ein Gedi is part of a major oasis and was a Jewish community from the 7 th century BCE until the 5 th century CE. During the Herodian period it was a centre of balsam production. 38

6 The World Heritage site of Masada was the bulwark of Jewish resistance against the Romans after the Jewish revolt, until it was finally destroyed in 74 CE by the Romans. It has become a national symbol of Jewish resistance. The site consists of the fortress of Masada itself and the surrounding area of the Roman camps. The economic prosperity that started under the Romans continued during the Byzantine period. Scholars generally agree that there was a peak in population in this period. Many of the sites from this period are religious: either churches or synagogues. Most of these are found in the Jericho plain, north of the Dead Sea. Ein Gedi national park houses the restored remains of a Byzantine synagogue with extensive mosaics. Other, smaller dwelling sites are found all along the Dead Sea shores, many in caves Results of the Present Study (See: Annex C Maps Y to ZH and Archaeology Field Survey Database Report Tables 1E and 1F for details.) The route of the western freshwater pipeline is politically divided by the Green Line, the border between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. This has consequences for the accessibility of the survey data. The area north of the Green Line sits in the Palestinian Authority. Extensive surveys have been executed in parts of this area, mostly by Israeli archaeologists between Publication of these results, however, is limited, and many are inaccessible, which limits the quality and detail of the data in the table. The present project did not carry out a field survey in this area, because, as mentioned above no alignment had yet been decided. Three sites bordering the Dead Sea on the west are of national and international importance. These are the World Heritage site of Masada, the Israel National park of En Gedi, and the National Park and internationally important site complex of Qumran, the place where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. In addition, in the plain south of Jericho, a number of early synagogues and churches have been found with remains of mosaic floors. One site (675) has been identified as an Essene cemetery. South of the Green Line a number of sites have been identified as possible cemeteries. 39

7 A large number of sites have been classified by previous surveys merely as site. Based on the known results of the current survey these sites have been assumed to be sherd scatters, and consequently classified as no further work necessary (assessment category 1). However, once the route of the freshwater line has been defined, this assumption needs to be checked for affected sites. 5.3 DEAD SEA BASIN AND SURROUNDINGS Historical Overview For an overview of the general prehistory and history of the area, refer to the previous section. Also, for details of sites (location, size, dating etc.) please refer to the Archaeology Field Survey Database Report. The area of the proposed low level hydropower plant near Fifa lies at the southern end of the Dead Sea basin, at more than -310 m, on the flat, sandy expanse at the southern end of the Dead Sea basin. These are very deep alluvial and aeolian sands, dissected by occasional, relatively shallow wadi channels and the area supports a scattered, and sometimes dense, cover of trees and bushes. To the south of this area, the land rises up to bottom of the Wadi Araba/Arava Valley. The eastern side is bordered by steeply rising, craggy mountains, with a few undulating plateaux, on which the proposed sites of the conveyance tunnel s high level desalination plant are located Results of the Present Study Low Level Hydropower Plant (near Fifa) (See Archaeology Field Survey Database Report: Map T and Table 1C for details.) The area of this proposed plant had not been previously surveyed and there were no recorded sites in it. The present field survey walked the area and found two sites (category 3) which appear to be a relatively recent, interconnected water channelling system (sites 16 and 17). There are also a number of modern agricultural (tomato) fields, covering about one third of the western side of the area surveyed, some of which were planted in

8 Figure 5.1 Flat, deep sand of Zone A, with channel site 17 Brine Discharge from low level desalination and hydropower plant to the Dead Sea No archaeological surveys have previously covered this area and there are no known sites in the area of impact. This area is very close to the present border and access is restricted for security reasons. This proposed line was, therefore, not included in the current survey. It will need to be closely monitored during construction. High Level Desalination Plant, (Tunnel Conveyance) (See Archaeology Field Survey Database Report: Map S and Table 1C for details.) This area consists of steep hills and wadis, some with narrow terraces, and a broad, flatter central area, dissected by shallower wadis. It had not been previously surveyed and there were no recorded sites in it. The area was surveyed by the current field project, which located 4 sites two of category 1 and two of category 3 (sites 33 36), namely a cemetery, an enclosure, some stone circles and a pottery scatter. There is no background scatter of either flints or pottery sherds (meaning, for example, that the chance of finding a settlement site in the vicinity is minimal). Low Level Desalination Plant, (near Fifa) (See Archaeology Field Survey Database Report: Map -M and Table 1C for details.) 41

9 This area consists of fairly steep, barren hills with some sharp, steep ridges, and wadis, some with narrow terraces, and some generally flatter, though undulating, land dissected by shallower wadis. It had not been previously surveyed and there were no recorded sites in it. The area was surveyed by the current field project, which located 8 archaeological sites two belonging to category 1, and six belonging to category 3 (sites 28 32, 37 39), consisting mostly of cemeteries and pottery scatters, probably representing temporary camp sites much like those of the modern Bedouin, who still use the area today. There are a number of isolated burials scattered on the wadi terraces and on some hilltops, though these do not constitute cemeteries and are often in poor condition; these were not recorded. There was no background scatter of flints and there were very few pottery sherds. Figure 5.2 Wadi Telah, leading down to Qasr Telah. Looking west along the north side of Zone C The Qasr Telah (site 377) stands just to the south of the Dead Sea basin, at the foot of the eastern mountain chain, at the mouth of Wadi Telah. The proposed site of the high level desalination plant for the tunnel conveyance lies in the mountains just above it to the east. The Qasr Telah area is regionally significant because it comprises a major ancient field system, one of the better preserved Roman forts in the area and a large reservoir and channel system. There have been no excavations in the area apart from a small probe of the channel directly adjacent to the reservoir. The whole complex is generally thought to date to the Nabataean and Roman periods and there is 42

10 documentary evidence suggesting that it was the place of a Late Roman garrison. Penstock Line between high level desalination plant and low level hydropower plant The penstock line joining the high level desalination plant to the low level hydropower plant passes right beside the Roman fort and reservoir of Qasr Telah, then skirts the western edge of the associated field system. The projected line to the north of the modern highway passes through deeply dissected ancient lake bed deposits, in which there are no previously recorded sites. The present survey walked a sample area of this difficult landscape and also found no sites here, with the exception of a small sherd scatter (site 110) belonging to category 1, on the very edge of the plateau, before it drops down into the present-day Dead Sea basin. At the foot of the scarp, at the very southern edge of the present-day Dead Sea basin, another scatter of pottery (category 1) was found (site 111). Further north is the active channel of Wadi Khanzerah, and then the deep white sands that characterise Area A. Western End of the Eastern Freshwater Pipeline Route The western section of the freshwater pipeline alternative 3 starts at the Desalination Plant above Wadi Telah, and runs northwards through the lowest foothills of the eastern margins of the Rift Valley. This is broken country of bare rocks, consisting mostly of sandstones. This stretch of the pipeline runs through the area that has been surveyed by the Southern Ghors and Northeast Arabah Survey (SGNAS). There were two previously recorded sites and four newly located sites (sites 24 27) on this stretch of the proposed line, a stone circle assessed as belonging to category 1, one enclosure to category 2 and an enclosure and cemetery to category 3. The present survey did not walk the whole length of this section, since some parts are sheer cliffs and are generally inaccessible to walkers or land vehicles. Construction in these areas may require helicopters. 5.4 WADI ARABA/ARAVA VALLEY Historical Overview Studies have shown that the southern part of the Wadi Araba/Arava Valley floor is covered with a variety of deposits which can be summarised as: Holocene to Pleistocene alluvial fans at the mouths of wadis composed of 43

11 sediments that have washed down from the mountains; mudflats (in which the water from any seasonal flow in the wadis accumulates); and sand dunes (from eroded mountains). It seems that the arid and difficult climate of today has been less severe at various times in the past, which is illustrated by the presence of sites from certain periods and not others (see below). There are very few sites from the Palaeolithic to Neolithic times so far recorded. This may in part be because there are, indeed very few sites, and/or because sites from these periods have been buried under more recent deposits. Indeed some sites have been found under up to 6 metres of deposits. Studies in the southeastern Valley (by Niemi and Smith) have shown that Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age sites are relatively frequent, as are sites from the Nabataean/Roman period, suggesting that in these periods the climate was more humid and cooler than at other times. A few of the sites from these periods suggest permanent settlement, perhaps associated with agricultural exploitation, which could have been possible with the use of water-harvesting techniques, in a slightly wetter environment than today s. Some sites also seem to have been settled for quite long periods. Although direct evidence for Neolithic sites in the northern part of the valley is not forthcoming, it is clear that the valley was used by trade routes, since green beads from Sinai have been found at a number of sites in the hills to the east of the rift (Basta [east of Petra], Beidha [near Petra], Ain Ghazal [in Amman]). Copper mining and smelting was very important in two main locations in the valley Finan (in present-day Jordan and within the proposed RSDSC area) and Timna (in present-day Israel and not within the proposed RSDSC area) and so there is a concentration of sites in these two areas. In Finan there are ample remains of, amongst others, copper exploitation and associated settlements and cemeteries, from the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman and Byzantine and Islamic times. In modern times the area has been, and still is, extensively used by Bedouin. Permanent springs in several of the wadis have provided water for an extensive system of agricultural fields the origins of which seems to date back to the Neolithic. This field system was the subject of a major archaeological survey in the 1990s and 2000s. Near the mouth of Wadi Ghuweir (which joins Wadi Dana to become Wadi Finan) there two important excavated sites: one (known as WF 16) that dates to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, and the other (known as Wadi Ghuweir 1) that dates to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B. It seems, therefore, that the Finan area, thanks to its springs and copper ore, has been more or less 44

12 continuously inhabited, to a greater or lesser extent, from at least the early Neolithic onwards. These early sites are of regional and international significance since they document human activities at the very beginnings of settled and agricultural societies along with the beginnings of use of metals in the region. All the sites in the area together form an integrated landscape, and even if one individual site is not of great importance, it nonetheless forms an integral part of the whole. The Finan/Fidan area is of particular value not only because of its specific historical interest, but precisely because it forms a complete picture of landscape use and development over thousands of years. Additionally, this landscape is exceptional in the region for having remained virtually unaffected by development in modern times, and therefore provides a unique opportunity for scholars from various disciplines to study and preserve the traces of these formative periods in human history. Currently there are discussions about putting the Finan area on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list. As currently configured, one of the RSDSC s alternative elements, the high level tunnel, northern canal section, and/or a portal for the low level tunnel, lies within this sensitive area. At Timna, (which is unaffected by the RSDSC) the mines were exploited by the Egyptians in the Late Bronze Age. There is some archaeological evidence of contacts with the Midianites of Saudi Arabia (in the form of Midianite pottery at Timna) and thus there must have been trade routes passing through the Valley linking the two regions. There are several areas that have, from ancient times until the recent past, (before the political situation made access impossible) been used as east west crossings across the Valley (see Annex C Maps A,B,C). These passes are often marked by the presence of fortresses, caravanserais and burial sites, as well as smaller remains, such as tent camps, enclosures and sherd scatters. The main passes are (from north to south): The crossing through Wadi Dahal: previous surveys have located a number of sites along this wadi and around its mouth, as well as further west on its extensive alluvial fan. The crossing from Finan to Ein Hatzeva through Wadi Finan: extensive previous surveys have located many sites in this and adjacent wadi systems. Its broad alluvial fan to the west, in the Valley bottom has not been surveyed, but there may well be more sites there. The crossing from Petra past Bir Mathkour going north-west, to Oboda and eventually to Gaza: parts of this route have been surveyed but not the western reaches in the bottom of the Valley. During Nabataean times, there was a route linking Petra, in the eastern highlands, with the coastal 45

13 port of Gaza, crossing the Valley past Bir Mathkour. There are a number of caravanserais and way stations along this route and it is clear that it was in use from about the 3 rd century BCE at least until Byzantine times. The crossing past the fort of Gharandal through Wadi Gharandal: the area around the wadi mouth has been surveyed, but here again, the western reaches have not been surveyed previously. This survey found several fireplaces and pottery or flint scatters in the dunes to the west, and therefore more evidence of ancient temporary campsites can be expected in the vicinity Results of the Present Study (See: Annex C Maps A-H and O-S and Archaeology Field Survey Database Report Table 1B for details.) Southern canal section (high level tunnel) (Maps F and G) The southern canal section of the high level tunnel conveyance crosses mostly flat land in the bottom of the Wadi Araba/Arava Valley. The northern end crosses many small, moving sand dunes interspersed with stretches of ancient wadi bottom with a thin covering of boulders; the southern end crosses a wide stretch of active, braided wadi channels. The proposed canal lies within the broad area surveyed by the SAARS project, but that project did not survey the whole area in detail. There were no previous sites recorded along the proposed line of the canal, except at the very northern end where the SAAS survey project recorded a cluster of sites around the mouth of Wadi Abu Barqa. This present survey walked the entire length of the proposed canal and, in the areas where the dunes do not cover the ancient wadi floor and which are not active wadi beds, five sites were found (sites 78 81, 95), three belonging to category 2, and two to category 3. They consisted of sherd and flint scatters, a temporary camp site, an enclosure and one cemetery. Two individual graves were also recorded. One of these pottery scatters (site 81) is of particular interest because it contained some of the rare painted Edomite fineware sherds (from the Iron Age). At the very southern end, at the beginning of the channel, one large multi-function site, with stone circles, graves and flints was found (site 109) ), belonging to category 3. There is no general background scatter of flints or pottery along the line. 46

14 Figure 5.3 Site 81, some sherds of the Edomite (Iron Age) painted pottery Northern canal section (Maps O - R) The northern canal section of the high level tunnel conveyance crosses old alluvial fans and areas of large boulder fields at the foot of the mountains. The southern end of the canal begins just to the north of the many antiquities of Bir Mathkour, and the northern end lies within the area of the antiquities of Wadi Finan (described in Section 5.4.1). This area has been the subject of several archaeological surveys and excavation projects, some of which are still ongoing, and there are plans for future projects. Figure 5.4 Site 57, a typical cemetery consisting of graves made of piles of local stones. This one is in the stony bottom of the WAAV, to the south of Finan 47

15 The very northern end of the canal was not surveyed by the present field survey, since it lies right in the ancient field system and associated sites that have been well-studied and published (see for example Barker et al.). Directly south of this well-studied zone, the northern part of the canal section passes through an area that falls within a current survey project (by R. Adams). The rest (i.e. to the south of here) of the proposed canal line has not been previously surveyed and there are no previously recorded sites along its route. This survey walked all but 1.5km of proposed line of this canal and found 29 sites, four in category 1, four in category 2 and 21 in category 3 (sites 42 68, 98 99) 12 of which were cemeteries, and the remainder consisted of enclosures with cemeteries and occasional flint or pottery scatters. 21 individual graves were also recorded. In the northern half, the route crosses mainly boulderstrewn slopes at the foot of the mountains, and in the southern half it crosses slightly more open land with fewer boulders. Two of these enclosure sites (sites 44 and 51, both category 3) are particularly interesting in so far as they are sets of adjoining, terraced enclosures located in the middle of a vast area of boulder-strewn alluvial fan, and are very difficult of access. The flint concentrations were found on the limestone hills, the surfaces of which are covered with natural flint. Sites 63 and 65 are very large spreads of prehistoric flakes, probably reflecting the use of this natural flint as a quarry source. The southern end of this canal section lies just to the north of the area of Bir Mathkour, which has a Roman fort and associated structures and which is in an area currently being studied and surveyed by an American team (led by A. Smith). Tunnel Portals The proposed location of the portals for the low level and high level seawater conveyance tunnels are mostly sited on old alluvial fans, at the mouths of wadis flowing down from the eastern mountains that border the Valley. There were no previously recorded sites at portals 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6. Portal 4 had one previously recorded flint site (WAS 98 G.J. 601, site 322) and there are other prehistoric sites nearby, as well as the small Roman fort of Gharandal. This survey walked the flatter areas and more gentle hill slopes in the vicinity of the portals and found some sites in all of them, as follows: Portal 1 (Map B) : This portal is located on the north side of the main Amman- Aqaba highway in the Wadi Yutum. There is a broad terrace edged by very steep, barren granite slopes of the mountain rising on its north side. The highway borders the area on the south side. The broad wadi bottom contains 48

16 no sites and there is no background scatter of flints or pottery sherds. However, two sites were found (sites 73 and 77, both category 3), both of which are an extended series of enclosures, in good condition, on flatter areas on the steep hillsides above the floor of the main wadi. Figure 5.5 Site 77, viewed from the east. It is a series of enclosures near Portal 1 Portal 2 (Map C) : The low level tunnel portal is at the foot of the granite mountains on a stony alluvial fan dissected by shallow wadis, and the high level tunnel portal is in the bottom of the nearby steep-sided wadi. This area does not appear to have been previously surveyed. Two sites were found (sites 71 and 72, category 1 and 2, respectively) by this study, at the very foot of the mountains, at the top of the alluvial fan, consisting of walls and small structures. One individual grave was also recorded. Portal 3 (Map D) : This portal is south of the village of Risheh, on the stony, gently sloping, upper alluvial fan of a wadi, at the foot of the mountains that rise steeply to the east. This area does not appear to have been previously surveyed. The granite mountains come steeply down, and at their very base, at the top of the alluvial fan, this survey found two cemeteries consisting of graves of round stone piles (sites 82 and 83, both category 3). Also 2 single graves in the mountains to the east. There was no other background scatter of flints or pottery sherds. On both sides of the main road, to the west side, is the site of Rujm Taba (site 288), a small Nabataean fort and associated structures that is now in poor condition, and some of the structures may be damaged by the current widening of the highway. This site has been previously mapped and partly excavated by and American team (led by B. Dolinka). Portal 4 (Map F) : Lying just to the north-west of the modern military camp at Gharandal, this portal is just east of the mouth of Wadi Gharandal in low, deeply dissected hills that are the remains of ancient lacustrine deposits (see 49

17 D. Henry et al. 2001). There is much natural flint across the land surface. Given all the supply of flints in this area, it is not surprising that the present survey found 3 concentrations of worked flints from different periods of the prehistoric era (sites 74 76, all belonging to category 2). There are also 3 previously recorded sites in the immediate vicinity, also all prehistoric flint sites. In fact, the entire area that is covered by natural flints has a background scatter of flint flakes and tools, and therefore the sites recorded represent areas of higher concentrations. Because of the extensive supply of natural flint in the area, the likelihood of further prehistoric sites in the area is very high. Even though any one individual flint site may not be of great importance, the whole area together, with its prehistoric sites of different periods around a water source, form an interesting complex of exploitation through time. Two individual graves were also recorded. Just to the west of the area is the Wadi Gharandal, where the seep spring allows a grove of palm trees to survive. Presumably there have been various periods when sufficient water was available in the wadi to allow for the existence of these prehistoric sites, as well as of the small Roman fort and bath complex of Gharandal that lies one kilometre to the west, at the mouth of the wadi. This Roman site is currently under investigation by a team of American archaeologists (led by R. Darby). Portal 5 (Map H) : Located just north of the road leading from the Valley up to Delagha, this portal is in an area of sandstone and limestone hills with a large, flat basin area to the west of the portal point itself, on which there are no sites. This area has not been previously surveyed. On the ridge of hills to the north is one cemetery (site 69, category 3), and at the foot of the sandstone hill is a flint and pottery sherd scatter from an ancient campsite (site 70, category 2). Two individual graves were also recorded on the surrounding hills. Portal 6 (Map P) : Beside the Namala road up to Petra, this portal is in the lowest hills at the bottom of the mountains, dissected by small, steep-sided wadis and to the west there is flatter land which is covered by an alluvial fan of massive boulders. This area has not been previously surveyed. There is one limestone outcrop, on which is a sherd and flint scatter (site 40, category 2) and nearby is a cemetery (site 41, category 3). There is no background scatter of flints and pottery in the area. Seawater Conveyance (Pipeline Option) (See: Annex C Maps A-M and Archaeology Field Survey Database Report Table 1A for details.) 50

18 The pipeline option of the seawater conveyance will run down the centre of the Valley, crossing areas of deep sand, mudflats, sand dunes and some low hills covered with desert pavement. A large part of the proposed route runs to the west of the present highway, and very close to the border between Jordan and Israel; because of this archaeological research in this bottom, central wadi area has been extremely limited and thus there are virtually no previously recorded sites. Much of these borderlands were mined in the past, although most mines have now been cleared on the Jordanian side. This project was given access to the border zones, with military permission and, given the current and presumed past inhospitable character of the landscape, found a surprising number (48 in total, including individual graves) of small sites. (Some surveys have been conducted in parts of the Valley along its eastern margins, as mentioned above, which show that archaeological sites are most likely found at wadi mouths and on the alluvial wadi fans on the east edge of the valley. This is the area that would be affected by the tunnel and canal components of the RSDSC [see above]). Another problem concerning the visibility of sites in the wadi bottom is that for much of its southern half it is covered in layers of wind-blown sand, active sand dune fields and mud flats, and therefore the majority of archaeological sites that do exist are very likely to have been covered. The only way to find covered archaeological remains in this area is through monitoring during construction. In some dune fields, the original stony desert floor is exposed between dunes, and in these areas it is possible to find archaeological remains. Having been granted access to this sensitive area by the military, and working with a military escort, the present survey walked and drove along large parts of the proposed line. In the area between 10 and 15 km north of the Aqaba airport two Roman towers were found (Map C); these are of particular interest insofar as they provide additional links to the known system of Roman towers in the region. Four other sites were found in this general area, two of which (91 and 93 both category 3) are cemeteries, and two are enclosures with graves (89 and 90 both category 3), plus two individual graves. 51

19 Figure 5.6 Site 94, ruin of a small Roman tower in the bottom of the WAAV A sample stretch of sand dunes was walked north of the Taba mudflat (northwest of Rahma village). In this area there is no exposed wadi floor, and therefore no sites. Another sample stretch of active dunes, some more than 5 metres high, was walked a little further north (to the west and south of Gharandal - Map F) and in this area there is exposed wadi floor between the dunes. Five sites were found here (sites , all belonging to category 3), 3 of which include evidence of ancient fireplaces/cooking hearths and associated flint or pottery scatters. This evidence for temporary campsites suggests, along with similar sites elsewhere found in the bottom of the Valley, that the wadi was being used as a north-south communication route (as well as being crossed by east-west routes) in the past as well as in modern times. Only one individual grave was recorded in this stretch. It is clear that there must be more sites on the ancient alluvial surface buried under these dunes. Figure 5.7 Site 107, ancient fireplaces of burnt stones between the active dunes along the bottom of the Wadi Araba/Arava Valley 52

20 In the northern part of the Valley, the dune fields give way to desert pavement, dissected by shallow (and occasional deep) wadis, that is flat in the south and becomes hillier as one moves northwards. Sites are quite visible in this landscape. Thus in the area from south-west of Risheh village as far north as the village of Ghweibeh, this stretch of line was mostly driven along (very slowly) and certain sample areas were inspected on foot. Eleven sites were found, one in category 1, four in category 2 and six in category 3 (sites 84 88, 96 97, ), mostly enclosures, flint scatters and cemeteries, and 23 individual graves were also recorded. There is a very thin background scatter of flint flakes across the landscape. Near the village of Ghweibeh, the line passes through some ploughed fields, and through the village itself. North of this village, the landscape reverts to continuous low sand dunes. 5.5 AQABA/EILAT URBAN/INDUSTRIAL AREA Historical Overview The history of this area stretches at least as far back as the days of early settlements. There are some major sites belonging to the Chalcolithic and Iron Ages, followed by the Nabataean, Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic towns of Aila/Ayla and finally the Mamluk-Ottoman fort on the coast, in what is now the modern town of Aqaba. In ancient times, as today, the ports of Aqaba and Eilat connected this area with the world, offering a route for trade, particularly with Africa and the Far East. Tell el-khalifah (site 208, category 4), on the western outskirts of Aqaba is thought to be ancient Ezion Geber. Its structural and artefactual remains certainly prove that it played an important role in the regional and international sea trade, even though at present no remains have been found older than the 8 th century BCE. In Jordan, the earliest evidence of sedentary settlement in the area published thus far comes from excavations at Tell Magass, which lies ca. 4 km north-east of Aqaba airport. This Chalcolithic site consists of a single period of habitation, dating to the mid 4 th millennium BCE. Hujayrat al-ghuzlan is another excavated Chalcolithic site located just 1.5 km to the east of Tell Magass. These sites lie on low alluvial terraces along small tributary wadis that flow down across the Wadi Araba/Arava Valley. Following the Chalcolithic period it seems that there is a gap in settlement in Aqaba that lasted from the 4 th millennium until the 8 th century BCE (Iron Age), at which time Tell al-khalifeh was founded. This Tell is virtually on the 53

21 modern borderline and situated much nearer to the present coastline than the Chalcolithic sites. Excavations at the site showed that it was a copper producing and commercial centre. Strategically situated on ancient trade routes, Aqaba saw much activity in the Nabataean/Roman and Byzantine period. The sites of this era are situated on the valley floor, close to the sea. Various parts of ancient Aqaba have been excavated and many structures from the Nabataean/Early Roman and Byzantine period towns have been found. During the 2 th century CE the via nova Traiana was built, connecting Damascus with Aqaba, and later a Roman legion was based in Ayla/Aqaba. During the 4 th century a structure was built that is believed to be the earliest purpose-built church. Aqaba continued to be inhabited during the Islamic period and there are two important sites of this period. The first is the Early Islamic Ayla, dating from the 7th 12th centuries CE, located just south of the present-day site of the Mövenpick Hotel, and the second is the Late Islamic castle dated to the 13th 19th centuries. Both these sites have been excavated and preserved in recent years and are one of the attractions for visitors to Aqaba. From the recent past there is the house of Sherif Hussein bin Ali, which stands beside the castle and has been turned into the Aqaba Museum. The modern town of Aqaba has developed around the ancient fort and has now expanded far beyond the limits of any of its more ancient predecessors Results of the Present Study Eastern Intake and Associated Pumping Station The site of the proposed eastern intake is in a small bay of flat land in the mouth of a wadi amongst the steep granite hills that come down to the sea. No archaeological sites were previously known and none were found by the present field project in the area of the eastern intake. Most of the area is currently covered by a disused electricity plant and therefore the surface here is completely disturbed The area directly adjoining the east side of this plant consists of the continuation of a deep, steep sided wadi, the bottom of which is already heavily disturbed by bulldozer trenching. The proposed site of a possible pumping station and/or tunnel/pipeline transition, north of the Aqaba airport, stands on flat ground on deep sands in the central Wadi Araba/Arava Valley and contains no published sites. Having gained access to this area, from the airport authorities, the present project found no archaeological sites. 54

22 5.6 EASTERN TAFILA UPLANDS Historical Overview The eastern highlands have been used since Paleolithic times, particularly the areas bordering ancient upland lakes. When these lakes dried up, use of the area gradually became less dense. No sites have been recorded from the Middle or Late Bronze Age. During the course of the Iron Age settlements increased again, in line with the creation of small kingdoms in the area, Moab to the north, and Edom to the south. The uplands south of the Wadi Hasa formed part of the northern border area of the kingdom of Edom. The area was also part of the Nabatean kingdom, and in the Roman period the Via Nova Traiana ran through it. Several sites and milestones define the route of this Roman Road. The road ran past the important Roman town of Tuwana, which lies immediately south of the project area. Human presence in the area has been continuous since the Roman period, with a number of Byzantine and Islamic villages, burial sites and farmsteads. The proposed route of this eastern freshwater pipeline crosses very varied terrain, from the hills at the edge of the Wadi Araba, up the steep slopes to the highlands and then the gently sloping desert plateau to the east. The surveys that have been conducted previously (MacDonald, Clark, Fiema) in the areas crossed by the proposed pipeline route, as well as the present field survey, found many sites, with a significant proportion of Palaeolithic sites in the highlands and plateaux, that become more dense as one moves eastwards into the desert areas. Sites were found from most subsequent periods, with the notable exception that there is virtually no Middle or Late Bronze, or Persian material (perhaps because it remains unrecognised). These sites vary from settlements to temporary campsites, from caves to towers, reflecting the long history and multiple uses of this landscape Results of the Present Study (See: Annex C Maps T-X and Archaeology Field Survey Database Report Table 1D for details.) A total of 48 new sites were found along the freshwater line survey, five of which were category 1, 13 category 2, 30 category 3, and 0 category 4, as well as 33 individual graves. 55

23 The Western Section The western section of the freshwater pipeline alternative 3 starts at the Desalination Plant above Wadi Telah, and runs northwards through the lowest foothills of the eastern margins of the Rift Valley (see Dead Sea Basin and Surroundings - Section 5.3 -for this part of the line). The line then turns east rising steeply up through very rugged landscape of sandstone cliffs and deeply dissected wadis and up into the limestones towards the plateau. (See central section, below.) This proposed stretch of the pipeline runs through the area that has been surveyed by the Southern Ghors and Northeast Arabah Survey (SGNAS), and where the pipeline joins the Fifa Tafila road, it enters into an area that has been surveyed by the Ghor Fifa-Tafila Survey (GFTS). A total of 25 sites from a variety of periods were recorded by these surveys. The present survey did not walk the whole length of this section, since some parts have been thoroughly surveyed previously, others are sheer cliffs and some parts would have been very difficult and dangerous to access. A good representative sample was covered however, and an additional nine new sites were found, four in category 1, one in category 2 and four in category 3 (sites 18 23, ). These consisted of structures, enclosures, cemeteries, a cave, an ancient road, a stone circle and a pottery scatter. In this rocky, barren landscape there are very few background flints, but there are occasional pottery sherds. The Central Section The underlying geology of this area consists of the Ajlun and Balqa Groups, Cretaceous formations, composed predominantly of limestones and marls. This forms a high plateau area. The proposed pipeline crosses the survey area of the Tafileh-Buseira archaeological survey (TBAS), and where it crosses the Tuwana road, it enters an area that has been previously surveyed (Tuwana survey), following the Via Nova Traiana. These surveys recorded 16 sites. This survey found many sites, with a significant proportion of Palaeolithic sites, increasing in density as one moves eastwards. Research suggests that these early sites were concentrated around ancient lakes, that have now completely disappeared. Sites were found from all subsequent periods, with the notable exceptions being a total lack of Middle and Late Bronze Age material, and virtually no Persian or Hellenistic material. 56

24 The proposed line passes through the ever-expanding edges of the modern village of Ain al Beidha. 21 new sites were found by this survey (sites , ) and ten individual graves. The sites are very varied, comprising structures, enclosures, agricultural installations, rock shelters, cemeteries and a perfect stone circle. There are many modern agricultural fields along the line. Across most of the landscape in these well-used highlands, there is also quite a high background scatter of pottery sherds, mostly pre-classical, and occasional flints. Figure 5.8 Site 124, A long, curving wall, part of an agricultural complex in the Tafileh highlands The Eastern Section Wadi Hasa Wadi Hasa is the only perennial stream that flows down from the central Jordanian plateau down to the Rift Valley. Because of the availability of water, human presence and settlement along the Hasa spans the whole of human history, from the Palaeolithic through to today. In its upper reaches (where the eastern end of the freshwater pipe will cross), the Wadi Hasa crosses the remnant plain of a former lake bed that was formed by the damming of the wadi, probably in the Upper Palaeolithic era (c. 26,000 years ago). This lake may have been in existence, during wet periods, until about 20,000 years ago. However, by about 7000 BCE, the plain consisting of the former lake bed was dissected by many small, incised tributary wadis that extend up onto the deflated upland plateau and are still the major feature in today s landscape. 57