27 Tourism and Change in Nepal s

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1 27 Tourism and Change in Nepal s Mt Everest Region Dr Sanjay K. Nepal* University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Introduction Mountain regions around the world are one of the major hotspots for adventure tourism development. This is especially true in the Nepalese Himalaya; since the opening up of the country for the first time to the outside world in 1951 (the country had been closed to foreigners), international tourism has effectively positioned the Nepalese Himalaya as a premier mountain adventure destination (Nepal, 2003). Nepal has seen an unprecedented growth in mountaineering and trekking tourism over the last ten years (Nepal, 2010). A few classic Himalayan destinations, including the Annapurna and Everest regions in Nepal, continue to attract large numbers of adventure-seeking tourists. Even during the politically volatile period, international tourism in these two regions continued to thrive. As a result, remote mountain villages, such as Namche Bazaar in the Everest region, have transformed into cosmopolitan villages that cater primarily to international tourists (Nepal et al., 2002). This paper provides a brief account, and the implications of more recent developments in mountain tourism in the Everest region. This author first travelled to the Everest region in 1996, for preliminary fieldwork related to his PhD thesis, which was quickly followed by two seasons of main fieldwork in 1997 documenting tourism development and associated environmental changes, and returning to the region in 2012, then again in During the intervening period, 1997 to 2012, dramatic developments had taken place, resulting in much more commercialized and organized tourism services and facility development. This chapter summarizes some of those changes to the built environment, and social cultural changes associated with tourism. The Mt Everest Region The Mt Everest region, known locally as Upper Khumbu, is part of the Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) located in north-eastern Nepal in the Solu-Khumbu District (see Figure 27.1). The Park was designated a World Heritage Site in The world s highest mountain, Mt Everest (8850 m), also known to the Sherpa as Chomolangma and to the Nepalese as Sagarmatha, is no doubt the most well-known and ultimate destination for mountaineering and trekking. The Mt Everest region witnessed exponential growth in tourism since the early 1960s, * Corresponding author: snepal@uwaterloo.ca CAB International Mountain Tourism: Experiences, Communities, Environments and Sustainable Futures (eds H. Richins and J.S. Hull) INDD 285 9/22/ :42:54 AM

2 286 S.K. Nepal Fig Map of Mt Everest region showing main trekking trails and settlements (Map courtesy of Sanjay Nepal, 2003). from around 20 visitors in 1964, the year when the Nepal government first allowed foreign visitors to make multi-day hiking tours in the region, to 18,200 during the seasons. The escalating civil unrest throughout the country caused a major decline in tourism during (Nepal, 2010). After 2003, however, the number of visitors to SNP rebounded in full force and has kept growing at a steady pace. In 2013, around 37,000 foreign trekkers visited the region. Most of the trekkers head to Tengboche monastery (3857 m) and further up to the Everest Base Camp (EBC, 5364 m), staying in lodges and teahouses operated by local Sherpa residents along the routes. Climbing expedition teams follow a similar route before arriving at EBC to prepare for the ascent to the summit of Mt Everest. High-altitude climbing and trekking has been a significant component of the adventure tourism industry in the Mt Everest region, resulting in significant socio-economic and environmental implications. In general, tourists have greatly outnumbered the local Sherpa population since the late 1970s. More than four decades of intensive tourism development have had various positive influences, such as development of modern infrastructure, increases in household incomes and improved living conditions, international exposure and recognition of local culture, as well as cross- cultural exchanges (Stevens, 1993). However, negative influences, such as growing waste disposal problems, pressure on forests and biological systems, and deterioration of traditional values have also been witnessed in recent decades (Nepal et al., 2002; Byers, 2005). Tourism and Transformation in the Everest Region 2015 marks the 62nd anniversary of the successful British expedition to Mt Everest. Since 1966, when the first organized commercial trek to the Everest region commenced, tourism INDD 286 9/22/ :42:54 AM

3 Tourism and Change in Nepal s Mt Everest Region 287 has remained the bread and butter of the Sherpa. The transformation of Khumbu to Everest did not occur overnight, but Hillary s and Norgay s scaling of the summit of Mt Everest in 1953 slowly but decidedly paved the way for its turn as one of the most famous adventure destinations in the world. Going by recent reports, some 37,000 foreign trekkers hike the trail to Everest Base Camp (EBC) every year, and more than 4000 mountaineers have successfully climbed Mt Everest since 1953 (Prasain, 2013). There are innumerable accounts of deaths and despair in Everest s harsh mountain environment (Ortner, 1999). The Sherpa, a highland ethnic group, has become synonymous with mountain labourers, who with their charm, physical endurance and unflinching loyalty to their foreign guests, have epitomized the meaning of hospitality. Today, some 3000 Sherpa, during the two tourist seasons in spring and autumn, provide their services to trekkers and mountaineers from around the world. The Sherpa are aided by thousands of non-sherpa porters and trekking staff. It should be pointed out that porters on the Everest trek today are almost all non-sherpa, unlike before the early 1980s when most porters were Sherpa. This is testament to their successful transformation from porter to guide to entrepreneur to cultural icon. As of May 2012, there were more than 300 lodges run by Sherpa in the Everest region. Ncell, a Nepalese telecommunications company, successfully built a satellite station at the EBC, making possible instant global transmission of mountaineering news, and allowing trekkers and mountaineers to stay connected to the outside world. Restaurants along the trail serve lunch and snacks that are anything but local or traditional. Until the early 1990s, after dark, the streets of Namche Bazaar, the tourist hub of Everest, used to be dimly lit with the glow of kerosene lamps, solar lights and petromaxes emanating from the windows of tourist lodges. Today, Namche Bazaar and villages beyond it bask in a comfortable glow of electricity, the symbol of humankind s technological prowess. There are countless pubs and cafes of the internet variety too and the main streets of Namche and Lukla are lined with offerings as diverse as one could find in a cosmopolitan city, including a local outlet of Sherpa Adventure Gear, a high-end clothing company, owned by a Sherpa originally from Khumbu but now an American citizen based in Seattle. Economic changes Growth in Tourist Numbers The Mt Everest region has experienced more dramatic growth in tourist numbers since In 1997, fewer than 18,000 tourists had visited the area, but the number continued to rise until 2000 when it reached 25,251 (see Table 27.1). Due to government and political instability, the number of tourists declined by 15% in 2001 and a further 36% in 2002, before slowly rising in most of the following years. After peace was restored in 2006, tourist numbers increased significantly again and have been on a steady rise ever since. Between 2006 and 2012, tourist numbers increased by almost 82%. This has given a significant boost to guiding services; for example, it is estimated that there are more than 1800 trekking guides active in the region (Retzmann, 2013). That is a significant number compared to 1997 when there were fewer than 450 guides. It is evident from the above table that trekking and mountaineering are seasonal activities. During the off-seasons, June to September, and December to January, many local residents turn their attention away from tourism to local affairs. Growth in Mountain Lodges Mountain lodges represent one of the most important tourist infrastructures in the region. A survey conducted in 1997 showed a total of 225 lodges, of which 25% were concentrated in the two major settlements of Namche Bazaar and Lukla (Nepal, 2003). By 2014, the total number of lodges had grown to 314. The number of tourist lodges in Namche Bazaar had increased from 32 in 1997 to 54 in 2014, an increase of 46%. In Lukla, the number of lodges had increased from 23 in 1997 to 44 in 2014, an increase of 91%. One consequence of this increase in lodges is the development of INDD 287 9/22/ :42:54 AM

4 288 S.K. Nepal Table Growth in number of tourists to the Everest region between 1998 and 2012 (Source: Sagarmatha National Park, Visitor Entrance Post, 2014). Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Total INDD 288 9/22/ :42:55 AM

5 Tourism and Change in Nepal s Mt Everest Region 289 well-defined built-up areas. For example, Nepal et al. (2002) illustrates how the village of Namche Bazaar grew from its pre-tourism days, in 1955, to Research conducted subsequent to 1997 shows further expansion of Namche Bazaar (see Figs 27.2, 27.3, 27.4). In the past, most households simply converted their existing homes to tourist lodges, but since 1997 almost all lodges are new constructions. The vast majority of lodges are large in size, stone built, aesthetically pleasing in appearance, Sherpaowned, and are quite different from the traditionally smaller Sherpa houses. The building costs of these lodges are prohibitively high, but thanks to the income from tourism, many Sherpa entrepreneurs seem to be able to afford them. An interesting development is the emergence of lodge chains owned by companies like Yeti Mountain Home, Asia Trekking, and Intrek, most of which are locally owned, but have foreign partners too. Figs 27.2, 27.3 and 27.4 indicate a much more compact centre, and new dwellings extending towards the south-eastern part, or the lower-right section of the sketches. Apart from the lodges, other types of tourism services have also come into existence. Today there are numerous souvenir shops (see Fig. 27.5), several adventure sports equipment stores, coffee shops and even Irish pubs (Nepal, 2015). Tourism Employment Perhaps one of the most significant effects of mountain tourism in Everest is the number of tourism-related employment opportunities. Local residents can work as trekking and mountaineering guides, lodge entrepreneurs, shop owners, porters and kitchen staff. In addition to these direct employment opportunities, there is also other indirect employment; for example, carrying goods for merchants who sell their goods and wares to Sherpa entrepreneurs, working as household help, and in various other capacities. It could be argued that income from tourism has enabled the locals to live and work in the region, in stark contrast to the rest of rural Nepal, where there has been an exodus of young people in search of better Fig Sketch of Namche Bazaar between 1997 and 2001 (Source: Retzman, 2013, 24) INDD 289 9/22/ :42:55 AM

6 290 S.K. Nepal Fig Expansion of Namche Bazaar between 2001 and 2008 (Source: Retzman, 2013, 25). Fig Expansion of Namche Bazaar between 2008 and 2012 (Source: Retzman, 2013, 27) INDD 290 9/22/ :42:56 AM

7 Tourism and Change in Nepal s Mt Everest Region 291 Fig Downtown Namche Bazaar, with its colourful shops, Irish pub and lodges (Photograph courtesy of Sanjay Nepal, 2012). prospects either in major cities in Nepal (mostly Kathmandu) or overseas (Middle East, Malaysia, South Korea, etc.). Earlier, it was noted that Everest tourism had a regional employment effect as it attracted people from many adjoining districts who came to the region looking for work (Nepal et al., 2002). The wealth accumulated by the Sherpa inhabitants has allowed them to look for more lucrative investment opportunities in tourism; for example, in luxury accommodation, airlines, trekking and mountaineering guide and outfitting businesses, while Sherpas from poorer households work as high-altitude porters. Today, it is difficult to find a local Sherpa resident working as a trekking porter; these jobs are now held by other highland ethnic groups such as Rai, Magar and Tamang. It is not uncommon to find many Rai men and women working as domestic helpers in Sherpa households. Tourism has thus reversed the fortunes of highland ethnic groups: prior to the 1970s more prosperous households in the north-eastern highlands of Nepal belonged to the Rai and Magar ethnicities who occupied more favourable agricultural niches; today, it is the Sherpas who are much more prosperous than other ethnic highlanders. In 1997, a total of 777 people were employed in the lodging sector; today the number has risen to 1526 (Gehrig et al., unpublished draft). While only 37 non- family female lodge employees were counted in 1997, today that number has risen to 367. Similarly, the number of non-family male employees increased from 173 in 1997 to 473 in Social Changes Perhaps the most noticeable social change in the Everest region is the increasing mobility of the resident Sherpa population. Many Sherpa entrepreneurs have multiple dwellings, in the Everest region, and in Kathmandu. Many have also friends and family overseas; for example, in the US. It is common to find well-travelled INDD 291 9/22/ :42:57 AM

8 292 S.K. Nepal local residents. Because of the increasing mobility of the Sherpas, particularly from villages like Namche Bazaar and Lukla, local food habits and tourist services are changing rapidly. The presence of fake Starbucks coffee shops in Lukla and additional hamburger joints offers the casual trekkers the familiarity of home, whether that is desirable or not. Similarly, Irish pubs and upmarket coffee houses are the latest trends made possible only because of international tourism. The global hybrid culture as represented by tourists has influenced how local residents think about the outside world and their place within it. For example, Pasang from Phakding states: At first I did not understand why all these tourists wanted to walk on foot for many days. I understood it much better when I visited my son and his family in New York. My son lives a very hectic life the people in the subway, the hustle and bustle of life, the stress, the desire to succeed... when I saw this on the faces of people riding the subway I realized that the tourists who came to Khumbu were looking for something simpler, a slow pace in life. Here (in Phakding) life is less stressful... I stay here during tourist seasons and help in village affairs when I can. I live in Kathmandu when the tourist season is over. (Quoted in Nepal, 2015). While it may be tempting to conclude that international tourism has negatively impacted the social fabric and cultural values of host communities in the Everest region, recent research has indicated that the drivers of social and cultural changes are not just related to tourism but must be considered broadly in the context of globalization, of which tourism is a part (Nepal, 2015). Omnipresent electronic media and ease of access to information in remote locations have increased local residents familiarity with the Western world, and have prepared them to respond to tourism accordingly. Sharp distinctions between traditional and modern, and local and cosmopolitan, are gradually disappearing. A local Sherpa may be tending to his yak herds in the morning, entertaining and interacting with tourists at his lodge during the day, communicating with his overseas friends and relatives in between household chores, and at night watching news on television of world events at distant locations. The lived experiences of a Sherpa are thus rich and complex; as such, it is difficult to provide a deterministic account of the effects of tourism on Sherpa society. The Sherpa view themselves, just like anyone else, as steadily progressing and modernizing, while retaining essential elements of their community identity and cultural values. In a more recent study, this author has concluded that the Sherpa are very successful in negotiating between tradition and modernity, and that successful negotiation is largely due to a higher level of cultural competence gained through involvement in tourism (Nepal, 2015). Environmental Changes The rise in tourist numbers, construction of tourism-related facilities, and a higher level of commercialization of tourism services has resulted in several negative environmental changes. One of the most challenging is the accumulation of tourist-generated waste. The following statistics on waste collection demonstrate the severity of the problem. A report published by the Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC), a local NGO based in Namche Bazaar, indicates that between 2008 and 2011, SPCC disposed 483 tons of burnable and 75 tons of non-burnable waste from the region (SPCC, 2011). During the same three-year period, 53.7 tons of burnable waste, 32 tons of human waste and 9 tons of kitchen waste were handed over by various mountaineering expedition teams to SPCC for proper disposal. In addition, 5561 empty EPI gas containers, 4297 empty oxygen cylinders, more than 15,000 batteries, 3.7 tons of cans, and 1.8 tons of empty glass bottles were sent to Kathmandu for recycling. The environmental stewardship shown by the SPCC is commendable, but it does not have the capacity to address what seems like an insurmountable problem. There are two small incinerators in Namche and Lukla, but their capacity to handle the locally generated waste is far too limited. A more recent development in environmental clean-up and waste control has been the establishment of a waste management group in several villages. There are nine such INDD 292 9/22/ :42:57 AM

9 Tourism and Change in Nepal s Mt Everest Region 293 groups in the villages, including Gokyo, Lobuche, Gorakshep, Somare, Dole, Thame, Thamo, Namche and Monjo. The groups are fully responsible for keeping their villages clean while SPPC concentrates its efforts on mountaineering related waste removal. Another interesting development is the 2011 declaration of the Everest region as a plastic-free zone. This was achieved with grassroots activism shown by the Sherwi Yondhen Tshokpa, a local network of Sherpa students. Local awareness of environmental issues is rising in the region. A positive development in many lodges is the decreasing reliance on firewood as the principal source of fuel energy. Nepal (2003) had estimated that tourism was responsible for 21% of fuelwood consumption in the region in There are no new estimates of fuelwood consumption. A recent study has suggested that kerosene is the dominant source of energy today (Gehrig et al., unpublished draft). This is mainly due to the limited availability of fuelwood in the region rather than the desire to adopt kerosene, which is quite expensive, as it has to be carried all the way from Lukla after it is transported from Kathmandu by air. In villages between Lukla and Namche, fuelwood is still the dominant source of energy. The main trekking trails within the Everest region today are maintained well, which was not the case in 1997, when this author completed an extensive trail damage assessment (Nepal, 2003). It was estimated that 10% of the almost 80 km of trail system in the region had been severely degraded in Today, the main trails from Lukla to Namche, and from Namche to Tengboche, have been widened, repaired and maintained well. Trails beyond Tengboche, especially those above 4000 m, are more degraded, due not only to increased human traffic, but also to the increasing practice of using horses to transport supplies to villages at upper elevation. The use of horses as packstock is also new, rarely observed before Tourism and the Dynamics of Change Globally, the Mt Everest region has evolved as a premier tourism destination, attracting both high-end as well as budget-conscious travellers. Following the footsteps of early explorers and travellers, the primary goal of many trekkers is to reach the Everest Base Camp and experience first-hand the grandeur and majesty of high mountains. Responding to global demand for adventure tourism, local Sherpas have built an impressive tourism infrastructure, supported by wide-ranging services and facilities. One of the major influences of this build-up of tourism infrastructure is the gradual urbanization of remote villages. If not for tourism, these villages would most likely have remained rural. Physical transformation of the villages has lead to social transformation (e.g. it is rare to find a household in some of the major establishments that is not dependent on tourism). In other words, today an average Sherpa household spends more time engaging and interacting with tourists than in traditional village or community affairs; this is true at least during the two tourist seasons, spring and autumn. This engagement with tourism has afforded opportunities and mobilities which transcend geographical scales globally, regionally and locally. Change is inevitable in any society, but the process of change has been greatly accelerated due to tourism. The primary influence of globalization and tourism is the emergence of a unique Sherpa identity as highly skilled mountain guides with global recognition. Whether this over-dependence on tourism is sustainable and healthy for households who rely on tourism for their material well-being is open to question. Several related issues remain unexplored in the Everest region. For example, how trends in global warming and receding Himalayan glaciers will impact on future tourism remains to be seen. The economic and social adjustments necessary to cope with a warmer climate requires a critical assessment of other alternative opportunities besides tourism. Currently, such opportunities do not seem to exist. Sustainable mountain development requires a rethinking of opportunities beyond tourism. Similarly, the effects of modernization on tourists expectations from Everest experience is uncertain. The vast majority of international tourists expect an authentic mountain adventure experience in the region and many imagine it to be rugged, primitive and somewhat unspoiled INDD 293 9/22/ :42:58 AM

10 294 S.K. Nepal by outside influence. Are these expectations real? What are the local Sherpas doing to ensure that these expectations are managed? Indeed, the Everest experience today is vastly different from the early days of tourism in the region, when ruggedness and primitivism were promoted as its main charms. While a trek to Everest Base Camp is still physically dangerous, psychologically challenging and emotionally draining, the Everest experience is a much more diluted affair than it used to be, thanks to the modern comforts and conveniences put together by the Sherpas, who seem to know more about the foreigners than the foreigners know about the Sherpas. Overall, from the perspective of local Sherpas, tourism in the Mt Everest region has been a great economic success. The social and environmental challenges of tourism will not go away, but the Sherpa community is committed to addressing those problems, and in finding solutions that are culturally sensitive and locally appropriate. The five decades of tourism development have been a positive learning experience for the Sherpa community, and in finding their place in a modern and globalized world. The Sherpas have shown remarkable ability to adapt to changing local and global realities and will continue to do so in the decades to come. References Byers, A. (2005) Contemporary human impacts on alpine ecosystems in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Khumbu, Nepal. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95(1), Gehrig, R., Nepal, S.K., Garrard, R., Sherpa, S.F. and Kohler, T. (unpublished draft) Community Based Tourism and Lodge Development in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. 11 pp. Nepal, S.K. (2003) Tourism and the Environment Perspectives from the Nepalese Himalaya. Studien Verlag and Himal Books, Innsbruck and Kathmandu. Nepal, S.K. (2010) Tourism and political change in Nepal. In: Butler, R. and Suntikul, W. (eds), Tourism and Political Change. Goodfellow Publishers, Oxford, UK, pp Nepal, S.K. (2015) Irish pubs and dream cafes: tourism, tradition, and modernity in Nepal s Khumbu (Everest) region. Tourism Recreation Research 40(2), Nepal, S.K., Kohler, T. and Banzhaf, B.R. (2002) Great Himalaya Tourism and the Dynamics of Change in Nepal. Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Berne, Switzerland. Ortner, S. (1999) Life and Death on Mt. Everest Sherpas and Himalayan Mountaineering. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India. Prasain, P. (2013) Making records, breaking records. Available at: (accessed 16 January 2015). Retzmann, A. (2013) Together for tourism. Analysis of the trekking tourism development in Nepal. Bachelorarbeit im Studiengang Lehramt an Gymnasien, Eingereicht im Fach Geographie, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany, 37 pp. Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC) (2011) Annual Progress Report. SPCC, Namche Bazzar, Nepal. Stevens, S.F. (1993) Tourism, change, and continuity in the Mt. Everest Region, Nepal. The Geographical Review 83(4), INDD 294 9/22/ :42:58 AM