Synesius of Cyrene (Philosopher and Bishop)

Transcription

1 Synesius of Cyrene (Philosopher and Bishop) Intisar Hazawi ملخص كتب سينيسيوس A.D.) c) أكثر من 051 رسالة والتي تحتوي على بعض من الخطب التي ألقاها في مدن وريف برقة. يبين من خاللها دوره كأسقف لطلميثه في معالجته لألحداث التي وقعت في اإلقليم في فترة حكم اإلمبراطورية الرومانية ويصف أيضا هجمات قبائل البربر ودوره في مكافحتهم. وباإلضافة إلى ذلك فقد الف سينيسيوس بعض القصائد واألعمال الفلسفية منبينها De Providentia )عن العناية اإللهية( )عن الملوكيىة( De insomniis Deregno )عن االحالم ) و )الفيلسوف الروماني.Dion )DioCocceianus تعتمد هذه الدراسة على دراسة وتحليل رسائل سينيسيوس لتقديم صورة واضحة عن المجتمع الليبي في القرنين الرابع والخامس ميالدي وما آل اليه اإلقليم من انحطاط اخالقي وتدهور في األوضاع السياسية والعسكرية والفوضى اإلدارية وتأثيرها على شخصية سينيسيوس. Abstract Synesius (c A.D.),wrote more than 150 letters in total, some of which record the addresses he gave across urban and rural Cyrenaica. From these lettershis role as Bishop of Ptolemais in the treatment of events in Cyrenaica during Roman imperial rule was evident. He also describes the attacks made by Berber tribes and his part in combatting them. 1 In addition, Synesius authored a number of poems and philosophical works, including De Providentia (On Providence), De Regno (On Kingship), Dion (on Dio Cocceianus, a Roman philosopher) and De insomniis (On Dreams). This paper analysessynesius Letters, more generally, offer a broader understanding of thelibyan community in Cyrenaica during the fourth century,includingmoral corruption,political and militarydeterioration, the administrative chaos, and its impact on the personal life of Synesius. 1 1 Synesius of Cyrene (1926) The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene, trans. Fitzgerald, A, Oxford University Press, London, pp. 5-7.

2 Introduction We are well informed about the social and religious aspects of Christian Cyrenaica during the late 4 th and early 5 th centuries. The intellectual works of Synesius of Cyrene provide such an important contemporary source during a pivotal phase in the history of Cyrenaica, it seems necessary to pay special attention to them in order to assess the late 4 th century A.D. and early 5 th century A.D. Christian community. The character of Synesius has yet to receive appropriate academic consideration. Extensive research has been undertaken into histheological and philosophical Perspective. No researcher, however, has examined him with reference to the Libyan community. The aim of the present paper is to give anattention tosynesius letters, which clearly reflect the impact of Greek philosophy on the population of Cyrenaica. Also paying particular consideration to theattitudeofthe Berber towards Christianity. The discussion will proceed in three stages: first, I shall briefly start with the life of Synesius, his birth, education and marriage. Second, I shall further elaborate hisconversionto Christianity Third, I shall explain that the impact of the sociopolitical condition of the native people on the relationship between Berber, Greek and Roman settlers and government authority and explores the relationship between the Church and the local people. Paper's Aims to organize the arguments of this paper in response to the following questions: What was the structure of the Libyan community and the inherent nature of the population? Was Synesius intellectually converted to Christianity? What was the Berber attitude towards the new religion? Did they resist or acceptchristianity? To conduct the research topic, the researcher will use the methods, which suits history topics. The researcher will examine different resources, analyses them in order to provide credible knowledge and information of this topic. There will be comparisons of events, sources to reconsider the issue. Although the exact date of Synesius birth remains a matter of contention, it seems most likely that he was born between 365 and 370 A.D. 2 There is, no doubt that he was born in Libya, a descendant of a rich pagan family, and that he lived in Cyrene. In Letter 124 he states: I am encompassed by the sufferings of my city [ ] I love the country. Why then do I suffer? Because I am a Libyan, because I was born here, and it is here that I see the honored tombs of my ancestors. 3 It also seems clear that Synesius had experience of the military from earliest childhood, writing that even 3 2 Bregman, Jay (1982) Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-Bishop, CA: California University, Berkeley, p Synesius, The Letters of Synesius, p.214.

3 as a child, I was charged with a mania for arms and horses. 4 Synesius also records, in a letter to his friend Auxentius, that he received his early education in Cyrene. 5 In393 A.D., Synesius and his brother travelled to Alexandria, where they were educated in the Neoplatonic School under the philosopher Hypatia (c A.D). Synesius remained in contact with Hypatia until immediately before his death in413 A.D., when he sent her a farewell letter which reads: I am dictating this letter to you from my bed, but may you receive it in good health, mother, sister, teacher, and withal benefactress, and whatsoever is honoured in name and deed 6 In 396 A.D., Synesius left Alexandria for his native Cyrene, considering it an honour to have been a student of Hypatia. 7 Soon after this, Synesius left Cyrene for Athens, the birthplace of Greek philosophy, where he appears to have been disappointed by the School of Athens, describing its condition to his brother in Letter 136: Athens has no longer anything sublime except the country's famous names! Just as in the case of a victim burnt in the sacrificial fire, there remains nothing but the skin to help us to reconstruct a creature that was once alive [ ] Athens was aforetime dwelling place of the wise: to-daythe beekeepers alone bring it honour. 8 Synesius was not satisfied with what he found and he decided to go back to his native town. During the reign of Emperor Arcadius (c A.D.) the Pentapolis suffered heavy taxation and continued Berber attack. It was against this backdrop that Synesius returned to Cyrene, becoming a member of the municipal Council of Cyrene having won the confidence of the people. 9 He was subsequently chosen as an envoy to the imperial court in Constantinople. 10 In. 399 A.D., we are told that Synesius met the Emperor Arcadius in Constantinople and presented him a crown of gold as a gift from Cyrene. It was on this occasion that he delivered his speech De Regno,in which he explained to the emperor the situation in Cyrenaica: Cyrene a Greek town, an old and noble name, was erstwhile sung in a thousand odes by the wise men of the past; today she is poor and desolate, a heap of ruins, and needs the help of a king if she is to recover a tithe of her ancient glory. 11 At the same time, Synesius petitioned for the lowering of taxes in Cyrene and, in all likelihood, for the whole of Cyrenaica, though it is not recorded in his speech. It is probable he notes only Cyrene as it was the city which was most in need of assistance following the earthquake of. 365A.D. and which faced continued Berber 2 4 Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., pp Ibid., p Bregman,Op.cit, pp Synesius,Op.cit, p Ibid., pp

4 attack. Indeed, he states that among the Emperor s main priorities toward his state should be the prevention of Berber infiltration into the Byzantine army. 12 Synesius had married a Christian woman during a previous visit to Alexandria, a union blessed by his friend the Patriarch Theophilus (c A.D.). Oden suggests that Synesius entered into a Christian marriage only when he saw that it was not inconsistent with his philosophical beliefs. However, he also assumes that Synesius became Christian under his wife s influence, 13 and that Theophilus performed the marriage as a way of preparing him to fulfil the role of bishop in the Pentapolis. 14 Bregman considers the marriage evidence that Synesius was, or would soon become, Christian. 15 It is not necessary for Synesius to have been Christian since, to judge from the mixed Christian-Pagan parentage of Augustine of Hippo (c A.D.) this kind of mixed marriage was widely accepted. 16 There is no reference to the principles of Christianity among those letters written by Synesius prior to his becoming bishop, so we must assume that, at this point, he was not yet acquainted with the faith. Synesius conversion from paganism to Christianity has become a topic of scholarly controversy. As summarised by Bregman, considers Synesius to have remained fundamentally pagan, arguing against a wholehearted conversion, while Geffcken also considers Synesius a pagan, arguing that the shift toward Christianity was only a gradual one, and not something embraced entirely either by himself or by Marius Victorinus (a RomanNeoplatonic philosopher of the 4 th century A.D.). 17 Alternatively, Gardner suggests that following the closure of the temples, Synesius, as a pagan philosopher, saw the Church as an alternative, looking to the angels as objects of worship and identifying Christ and the Christian logos with the Neoplatonic Nous. 18 It seems unlikely that Gardner is correct in thinking that Synesius became Christian after the temples closed, as this would mean a conversion earlier than. 410 A.D., when Theodosius outlawed paganism. Bregman reaches the conclusion that: Synesius believed not in the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob [but] in the God of the philosophers. 19 Oden states that: [Synesius] was moving slowly toward Christianity, but largely on behalf of cultural values, peace, historic continuity and preservation of what is possible to recover. 20 Synesius was not intellectually converted to 12 Ibid., p Oden, T. C. (2011) Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering a North African Tradition, IL: Inter Varsity Press, Westmont, pp.168, Ibid., p Bregman, Op.cit,p Shaw, Brent D. (2011) Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Bregman, Op.cit,p Ibid., Ibid., p Oden,Op.cit, p

5 Christianity, a view supported by his discussion of Greek philosophy in his long Letter 105: When I examine myself, I fail to find the capacity necessary to raise me to the sanctity of such priesthood as this [...] Now, if I frivolously accept the dignity of the position which has been offered to me I fear I may fail both causes, slighting the one, without at the same time raising myself to the high level of the other [...] Now you know that philosophy rejects many of those convictions which are cherished by the common people [...] If the laws of the priesthood that obtain with us permit these views to me, I can take over the holy office on condition that I may prosecute philosophy at home and spread legends abroad, and allow men to remain in their already acquired convictions. But if anybody says to me that he must be under this influence, that is the bishop must belong to the people in his opinions, I will betray myself very quickly [...] No, if I am called to the priesthood, I declare before God and man that I refuse to preach dogmas in which I do not believe. Truth is an attribute of God, and I wish in all things to be blameless before Him [...] Nevertheless I shall resign myself to this, if it is the will of God. Again, I hate all care; nevertheless, whatever it costs, I will endure lawsuits and quarrels, so long as I can fulfil this mission, heavy though it be, according to God's will; but never will I consent to conceal my beliefs, nor shall my opinions be at war with my tongue. 21 A tension between faith and reason is clearly expressed in the preceding extract. The two appear to be distinct, although Synesius expresses a wish that they be reconciled. In. 413 A.D., Synesius wrote a letter to his friend Asclepiodotus in which he laments the death of his last son and makes reference to his philosophical belief that good and evil cannot be predicated of that which is not in our power. Or rather, this lesson which I learned long ago has now become a belief of a soul schooled inexperience. 22 It is clear from the above that Synesius was a representative of Hellenism in the sense of embracing Greek culture.this did not prevent him, however, from holding Christian views. His appointment as Bishop of Ptolemais (c a.d.), and perhaps also Bishop of the Pentapolis in its entirety, by Patriarch Theophilus, was a defining moment of Synesius life. However, the conditions imposed upon him by the acceptance of this position, not least the call to abandon his wife, saw Synesius hesitate to do so: God himself, the law of the land, and the blessed hand of Theophilus himself have given me a wife. I, therefore, proclaim to all and call them to witness once for all that I will not be separated from her, nor shall I associate with her surreptitiously like an 5 21 Synesius, Op.cit, pp Ibid., p.215.

6 adulterer; for of these two acts, the one is impious, and the other is unlawful. I shall desire and pray to have many virtuous children. 23 It is most likely that he was forced to become bishop, and did not embark on the task until six months after he was appointed. In his letter to his friend Olympius, he says: I send to you the recital of my griefs, in order that you may suffer with me, and that after scrutinizing the matter in question with reference to my character, you may, if possible express an opinion as to what I ought to do. As it is, I am trying to tackle the matter at a distance. I have been for over six months in this dreadful position, far from the men amongst whom I shall be a priest. I am waiting to learn exactly what the nature of this office is. If it is possible, I will perform the duties with philosophy, but if it cannot be reconciled with my school of thought and sect, what better could I do than sail straight for illustrious Greece 24 It seems likely that Synesius became a Christian bishop in order to reform his own city, rather than as a result of any religious motivation. Now we must consider why Theophilus accepted all of those conditions stipulated by Synesius prior to his acceptance of the post, conditions which were largely inconsistent with contemporary doctrine, particularly the continuation of his marriage and the public retention of his philosophical beliefs. To address this question we must, again, refer to Synesius letters. Bribery and corruption were widespread among the people of the Pentapolis. Synesius tells us about a greedy governor, Andronicus of Berenice, who reached his position through bribery, as he had used devious methods to collect money. Synesius informs us that Andronicus was excommunicated by the Church, stating that [as Andronicus] sinned against God and insulted man [ ] we closed the church here against him 25 Synesius complains of some local governors who spread corruption, bribery and plunder and collected the people's money by levying heavy taxes. 26 discusses other local governors who favoured corruption, bribery and plunder and levied heavy taxes on the local population: [The] Cyrenean Pentapolis was doomed to perish utterly. War and famine have not yet annihilated it completely, as was foredoomed; but they are wearing it away and destroying it little by little [...] we have heard from our fathers and our grandfathers that Libya shall perish by the wickedness of its leaders. 27 Moral corruption is also attested by Synesius, who records in one of his letters the story of Athanasius, a man, he writes, who [...] has found the shortest road to fortune. He has recognized the necessity of going right to the beds of the dying, and attaining 6 23 Ibid., p Ibid.,p Ibid., p Ibid.,p Ibid.,p.164.

7 all his own ends with them either by persuasion or by force. The moment a notary iscalled in to draw up a will, he romps in with him. 28 The corruption may have been rife in the Church of the Pentapolis as well. In letter 67, he describes an argument between bishops and a decline in the spirituality of some priests and their interest in material matters. The conflict was between Paul, Bishop of Erythrum and Dioscurus, Bishop of Darnis and concerned the ownership of a fortress, each of which claimed the site as the property of their own church. It emerged from the letters of Synesius that the fortress was within the church of Darnis. However Paul seems to have rejected the decision of the church and tried to restore it. As a result, Synesius announced that the fort should only be used in the event of war, and so sorted the problem out. 29. In the same letter he mentioned to the Patriarch of Alexandria, another argument conducted between two priests over land: You also gave me instructions to listen to the complaint of the presbyter Jason, the man who accused one of his colleagues of treating him with much unfairness. The case is somewhat as follows: Jason convicted Lamponian of wrong-doing, but the latter, though he anticipated the sentence by a confession, has his punishment in being debarred from attendance at ecclesiastical synods[ ] After all, Jason himself is not above reproach. He has a quick tongue, and he came up against a man whose hand is quicker[ ] now as to the sum of money which I discussed, Lamponian admits that he has it, nor does he desire to be relieved on account of the shipwreck which caused the contract to disappear. He only seeks a favorable moment to sell his crops. 30 This text indicates that priests were permitted to own agricultural land and to carry on a trade alongside their religious commitments. Synesius also tells Theophilus the Patriarch of Alexandria about the declining spirituality of some priests of the Pentapolis: Now I must report on an abuse that is spreading amongst us, that it may perforce stop its course. Priests are prosecuting priests for lawless acts, I do not yet say by perjury, but at all events by malice prepense; for their object is not to punish those who are guilty, but to gain some illicit profit from themilitary chiefs. 31. The clergy, he writes, do not wish to have an appointed See, and have left each their own, not so much by necessity as by caprice. They enjoy honours, travelling whereverthey find most profit. 32 We are relatively well informed about the Christian community of Cyrenaica during Synesius time. Synesius letter 54 tells us that the people of Cyrenaica received further education at Athens despite having already been educated in Alexandria. Synesius explains why he went to Athens: A great number of people, 7 28 Ibid., p Ibid,,pp Ibid., pp Ibid.,p Ibid., pp

8 either private individuals or priests, by moulding dreams, which they call revelations, seem likely to do me harm when I am awake, if I do not happen with all speed to visit sacred Athens 33 Here, it is noteworthy that the people of the Pentapolis were influenced by their Greek cultural heritage and literature. In a letter to his brother, Synesius tells how the people of the Pentapolis were affected by a mixture of superstitious pessimism and optimism: Custom, you know, does not permit a girl to attend funerals once they are engaged to be married. However, even then she was dressed in purple, with a transparent veil over her hair, and she had decked herself with gold and precious stones that she might not be a sign of evil omen to her betrothed. 34 Synesius continues to describe the funeral procession: [ ] she mounted her mule car, in company with that talkative old nurse of hers, and, when the forum was thronged, set out on her stately course for Taucheira with all her adornments. Next week she is preparing to display herself crowned with fillets, and with a towering head-dress like Cybele. 35 From the above it seems likely that Greek rituals were still present in the region and that people of the Pentapolis were under the influence of their Greek heritage even during the Roman period. An indication of the weakness of the faith of the Christians of Ptolemais can be found in Synesius letter 67 where he writes that it was necessary to warm and kindle up the tiny spark of the orthodox faith that still remained in Ptolemais. 36 It comes as no surprise then, that a man who had expressed love for his country on numerous occasions became the spiritual and political leader of the region in order to begin reform. Cyrenaica suffered Berber attacks at the end of the 4 th century A.D. The Berber raids increased in the country exciting panic among the population because Synesius describes this in letter 125 that the Berbers burned farms, took women and men captive, and kidnapped children. In the face of the incompetence of the Byzantine soldiers. 37 The Berbers burned farms, took men, women and children as captives, attacked churches and murdered Christians. 38 Information concerning the spread of Christianity among the population of Cyrenaica is meagre. Our knowledge, again, is largely drawn from the letters of Synesius. In this context it is important not to lose sight of the people of the Pentapolis and their relationship with the Church. Synesius letters present the resolutely pagan Berbers as attacking and destroying ecclesiastical buildings and the defence of the Church as led by Synesius. The priests of the Church of the Pentapolis actively resisted the Berbers and Synesius describes their courage in battle: 8 33 Ibid.,p Ibid., p Ibid.,p Ibid.,p Ibid., pp Ibid., p.214.

9 May all good things befall the priests of Axomis! While the soldiers were hiding themselves in the gorges of the mountains to take care of their precious lives, these priests called the peasants about them, and led them straight from the very church door against the enemy [ ] The barbarians, when they found no resistance in their way, rashly entered this dangerous defile, but they had to meet the valiant Faustus, the deacon of the church. 39 These Berber attacks may well have contributed to a reduction in Christian numbers within the Pentapolis during the 5 th century.a.d. From Synesius letter 133 we understand that Byzantine military support was weak which encouraged the Berbers to attack, telling his friend Olympius that: the cowardice of our generals has delivered up our country to the enemy without a single battle; there are no survivors except those of us who have seized.,ortified places. Those who have been captured in the plains have been butchered like victims for sacrifice. 40 Synesius may well be overstating the weakness of the military leadership, though it appears that the Byzantine military were unable to resist in the face of increased Berber attacks on Cyrenaica. Indeed, Synesius informs us that the military leader Cerialis did not face the enemy, rather loading his gold onto double-sailed merchant ships and while at sea sending orders to the people to keep within the walls and not attempt any sortie 41 Synesius also expresses his anger at the weakness of the rank and file military. 42 During one Berber attack, Synesius sent an envoy to the Byzantine commander, but the city was destroyed before it was relieved: For he was sent to solicit military co-operation from thence, but the enemy did not wait even for his departure, and they have already spread en masse over the country. All is lost, all is destroyed. At the moment of writing, there is nothing left but the cities, nothing 43 Synesius himself appears to have played a significant role in organising the army against these attacks by enlisting the ordinary people of the Pentapolis. He explains to his brother, Evoptius, that the Berbers were crossing the country, plundering and slaughtering in the absence of any Byzantine military resistance, 44 and suggesting that they: collect [ ] peasants, the tillers of the soil, to advance upon the enemy, to assure the safety of our wives, of our children, of our country, and also, I may add, of our soldiers 45 It seems apparent from Synesius letters that the Pentapolis suffered a period of moral corruption, governmental incompetence and Berber attack, which prompted the choice of Synesius as spiritual and political leader for the province. Toward the end of his life, in. 412 A.D., Synesius wrote a letter to his brother in which he stated: I live, 9 39 Ibid., pp Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid., p.215.

10 not as a private citizen, in a country which is a prey to war, and I am bound continually to condole [with] every one s misfortunes. Often in a month I have to rush to the ramparts, as if I received a stipend to take part in military service rather than to pray. 46 Conclusion Synesius own conversion from paganism to Christianity perfectly exemplifies this, and has long mystified historians. Historians approaching this subject from the angle of Synesius.Personality fail to take into account the Libyan society in which he lived. There is a lack of evidence indicating that Synesius was compelled to convert. His motivation is apparently not only the result of pressure from the Church of Alexandria, but rather in the circumstances of the Christian community in Cyrenaica. Synesius certainly knew that his society was in decline.in his letters he paints a picture of widespread moral degradation among the people of Cyrenaica and bribery and corruption among its governors and, indeed, within the Church of the Pentapolis itself, Synesius also tells us that the general feeling among the people of the Pentapolis varied between optimism and superstitious pessimism. Despite his conversion, Synesius retained his philosophical beliefs and only became a Christian bishop in order to improve his own city rather than for religious reasons. He considered bribery and corruption to be widespread among the people of the Pentapolis and cites. In support of this view, he cited the example of Andronicus of Berenice, a governor who had reached his position through bribery. Synesius complains of some local governors who spread corruption, bribery and plunder and collected the people's money by levying heavy taxes. Corruption may have been equally rife within the Church of the Pentapolis. Letter 67 (see above), describes an argument between bishops and a perceived decline in the spirituality of some members of the priesthood. In. 390 A.D., the Berbers began to mount attacks on the cities of the Pentapolis. These attacks increased and excited panic among the urban population., Synesius describes the incompetence of the Byzantine military, and later makes it clear that this must have been a major contributing factor in the Berber decision to attack. In conclusion, the moral corruption, governmental incompetence and the Berber attack, may have prompted the choice of Synesius as spiritual and political leader for the province. Berber attacks on the Church of the Pentapolis, and particularly the Church of Ptolemais, can be explained by the relationship between the two sides. The Church itself was embroiled in fighting the Berbers andthere is no evidence supporting any attempts to convert the Berbers to Christianity, so they were destined to remain outside of the Church Ibid.,p.177.

11 Synesius letters, presentedabove, provide much detail about this conflict. The cultural gap between the Berbers and Byzantines widened. At this point, the Cyrenaicans were anxious to isolate Berber groups from the rest of the community and refused interaction with them. Evidence for this view can be found in Synesius De Regno, as delivered to Arcadius in Constantinople. Synesius requests the Emperor to exclude the (probably urban) Berber populations from both the government and the Byzantine army. However, the negative attitude toward the Berbers which Synesius expressed was not exceptional, but was shared by the Roman cultural environment of his time. References Bregman, Jay (1982) Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-Bishop, CA: California University, Berkeley. Oden, T. C. (2011) Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering a North African Tradition, IL: Inter Varsity Press: Westmont. Shaw, Brent D. (2011) Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Synesius of Cyrene (1926) The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene, trans. Fitzgerald, A, Oxford University Press, London. 11