1: The Nile River Valley

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Arline Owen
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Below the cataracts, the Nile flows through a narrow valley lined with cliffs. This region is known as Upper Egypt because it is upstream from the Mediterranean Sea.

1 1: The Nile River Valley In Nubia and Egypt, the Nile flows through the Sahara, a vast desert that stretches across most of northern Africa. Before reaching Egypt, the river in ancient times roared through six cataracts, or groups of rocky rapids. The rocky cataracts made it impossible for people to travel by ship upstream from Egypt. Below the cataracts, the Nile flows through a narrow valley lined with cliffs. This region is known as Upper Egypt because it is upstream from the Mediterranean Sea. Near the end of its journey, the Nile slows down and fans out into many streams and marshy areas. This area is called a delta. The Nile delta forms the region known as Lower Egypt. Source: and

2 2: Floods and the Black Land A narrow strip of fertile soil lines both banks of the Nile and covers its delta. This rich, dark soil was so important to the Egyptians Kemet that they called their country, which means the Black Land. The yearly flooding of the Nile created the Black Land. Each summer, heavy rainfall in East Africa poured into the Nile s sources. Flood waters surged through Egypt. When the flood waters drained away, they left behind a layer of fresh soil and silt. However, the Nile floods were unpredictable. If too much water came, the floods could be a natural disaster that swept away soil. If too little water came, Egypt could suffer a drought, or shortage of water, that could cause farming to fail. Source:

3 3: The Red Land On either side of the Black Land (the Egyptian name of the fertile soil near the Nile River) lay vast deserts. Egyptians called these deserts the Red Land. Unlike the Black Land, the Red Land was a deadly place of hot, burning sands. 4: Growing a Surplus More than 7,000 years ago, people began growing grains in the fertile soil left behind by the Nile floods. Egyptian farmers learned to build earthen walls around fields to trap the Nile s flood waters. The water soaked into the soil and allowed grains such as wheat to grow. This simple form of crop irrigation allowed farmers to produce a food surplus, or an amount of food greater than their own family s needs. Meanwhile, powerful people and families gained control over regions within Egypt. They were able to collect some of the farmers surplus crop as taxes.

4 5: The Birth of Cities Local rulers used food surplus to buy rich cloth, jewelry, and luxury goods. These were supplied by merchants and artisans, or skilled workers who practice a handicraft. Farmers production of a surplus supported these artisans. Some became full-time artisans, such as weavers or potters. Skilled artisans products were much more advanced than similar products made by farmers. Artisans and merchants began to settle around the homes of local rulers. In time, these settlements grew into cities. Egypt s cities brought together wealthy and skilled people. They became centers of culture and power. Skilled architects built impressive buildings. Artists created great works of art to decorate them. 6: Uniting Egypt During the 3000s BCE, two kingdoms developed in Egypt. The kings of Upper Egypt wore white crowns. The kings of Lower Egypt wore red crowns. Legends say that Narmer united the two kingdoms in about 3000 BCE. This made him the first pharaoh, or king, of a united Egypt. He wore a double crown of red and white and founded Egypt s earliest dynasty. A dynasty is a ruling family. Normally, control passed between members of a dynasty. Sometimes, however, a new dynasty gained power. Historians divide Egypt s history into periods based on kingdoms and dynasties.

5 7: The Old and Middle Kingdoms Historians call the period from about 2686 BCE to 2125 BCE the Old Kingdom. Like later kingdoms, the Old Kingdom was a period of prosperity, political strength, and cultural achievement. After a period of civil wars, the Middle Kingdom began. It lasted from about 2055 BCE to 1650 BCE. Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom dealt with one of Egypt s major environmental challenges: the Nile floods. They built a system of canals that could drain dangerous flood waters and irrigate new farmland. 8: High Point and Decline After a period of civil wars, the New Kingdom began. It lasted from about 1550 BCE to 1070 BCE. New Kingdom pharaohs conquered lands in Asia and Africa. This was the high point of ancient Egyptian power and prosperity. However, the New Kingdom eventually weakened and broke apart. Egypt faced foreign invasions. One late dynasty gained power only with the help of the Assyrians. Still later, Egypt was conquered by the Persian empire. In 332 BCE, the Greek army of Alexander the Great conquered Egypt.

6 9: Egyptian Government The pharaoh relied on a bureaucracy, or a system of offices and officials that handle the business of government. The head of Egypt s bureaucracy was an official called the vizier. The bureaucracy collected taxes from farmers. Farmers paid these taxes mainly in the form of surplus crops. The bureaucracy took some of this surplus for itself. It distributed the rest to priests, to the pharaoh, and to artisans and merchants who worked for the pharaoh. Egypt s bureaucracy and system of taxation were a model for later governments, including those of today. 10: Hatshepsut Hatshepsut was one of the few women to rule Egypt. She was the daughter of one pharaoh, and the wife of another. When her husband died, he left a son who was too young to rule. So Hatshepsut decided to make herself Egypt s new pharaoh. Some Egyptians did not want to bow to a woman. To gain their support, Hatshepsut carried out all of the rituals expected of a king. Her statues showed her dressed as a king. She even wore a false beard that was a symbol of the pharaoh s power. Although she was a woman, most Egyptians came to accept her rule. Hatshepsut s rule was peaceful. Hatshepsut built Egypt s wealth and power through trade. She sent traders by sea to East Africa. They returned with precious wood, ivory, gold, and perfumes. Hatshepsut recorded the story of their journey on the stone walls of an enormous temple that she built.

7 11: Ramses II Ramses II, who ruled about 200 years after Hatshepsut, was a different kind of pharaoh. What Hatshepsut had tried to do through trade, Ramses chose to do through war. He spent the first half of his time as pharaoh fighting in Canaan and Syria, in the Fertile Crescent. Ramses II was a great builder. During his reign he built more monuments than any other pharaoh.

8 12: Egyptian Society To control Egypt, pharaohs needed the loyalty and labor of the people. Egypt s social order provided both. Egyptian society was shaped like a pyramid. The pharaoh was at the top of that pyramid. Egyptians believed that gods controlled everything. The pharaoh controlled Egypt, so people saw him as a god-king who deserved loyalty. Just below the pharaoh were nobles, priests, and officials. They helped the pharaoh govern Egypt. So did scribes, who kept records for its bureaucracy. Merchants and artisans made up a middle level. In Egypt, painters, stonecutters, and builders spent their entire lives working on temples and tombs. Farmers were lower on the social pyramid. By far, most people of ancient Egypt were farmers. During the growing season, farmers raised Egypt s food. For the rest of the year, many worked as laborers on the pharaoh s building projects. Most did so willingly out of religious devotion. They believed that if they helped the god-king, they would be rewarded after death. Slaves were at the bottom of the social pyramid. Many were prisoners of war or debtors who were freed from slavery after serving for a period of time. Slaves were the property of their owners and had to do forced labor.

9 13: Many Gods Like the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians were polytheists. They worshiped hundreds of gods, many of whom were associated with animals. One of the most important gods was Amon-Re, the sun god. Egyptians believed that Amon-Re made a daily journey across the sky. Each night, he died in the west as the land grew dark. Each morning, he was reborn in the east as the sun rose. Osiris was the god of the underworld, or the world of the dead. According to Egyptian legend, Osiris was killed and chopped into pieces by a rival god named Seth. Isis, the wife of Osiris, found the pieces of Osiris s body and brought her husband back to life. Isis represented love, caring, and protection. Egyptians looked to Isis for protection in both life and death. Horus was the son of Isis and Osiris. Egyptian legend tells of great battles between Horus and Seth. When Horus defeated Seth, he united the two lands of Egypt. As a result, every pharaoh was thought to be Horus in human form.

10 14: Religion and Society The belief that the pharaoh was a god on Earth contributed to the power of the pharaoh. People obeyed the pharaoh and his officials for fear of angering a god. Priests were also powerful, because Egyptians thought priests could help a person gain favor with the gods. The priests of the Temple of Amon-Re in the city of Thebes were especially powerful.

11 15: Preparing for the Afterlife Egyptians believed that they, like Osiris, could overcome death. Life on Earth could lead to an afterlife, or life after death. However, this required preparation. The first way to prepare for the afterlife was to live a good life. Egyptians believed that Osiris decided who would have an afterlife. Those who had lived good lives would be allowed to live forever, but the sinful would be destroyed. 16: Preserving the Dead The Egyptians prepared for the afterlife by having their bodies preserved after death. They believed that, after death, their spirit would need to recognize their preserved body and use it as a home. Egyptians went to great efforts to preserve the bodies of their dead. Poor people were buried in the desert, where the hot, dry sand quickly dried out their bodies. Wealthy Egyptians had their bodies made into mummies. A mummy is a body preserved by a special process. The knowledge of this process was one of ancient Egypt s great achievements. From mummies, scientists have learned much about life and death in ancient Egypt.

Chapter 4 : Ancient Egypt and Kush

Chapter 4 : Ancient Egypt and Kush Chapter 4 Section 1 Geography and Ancient Egypt The Nile River is the most important thing in Egypt. The Nile is the longest river in the world. It stretches about 4000