There is ample evidence of India s maritime

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1 References Adriani, A., 1936, La nècropole de Moustafa Pasha, Annuaire du Musée Greco-Romain, 1933/ /35, Audebeau, Ch., 1919, Note sur l affaissement du nord du delta egyptien depuis l empire romain, Bulletin de l Institut d Égypte, , Bernand, A., 1998, Alexandrie la Grande. Paris. Breccia, E., 1912, La necropolis di Sciatbi, Catalogue Général des Antiquitès Égyptiennes, Musèe d Alexandrie, Vol. 1. Cairo. Fanos, A. M. and Frihy, O. E., 2000, Coastal processes and proposed protection works along the Alexandrian Coastline, in Coastal Management Sourcebook 2, underwater archeology and coastal management, Focus on Alexandria, UNESCO, Paris. Gallo, P., 2001, The Peninsula and the Island of Canopus, a history of water and sand, in M. Casini (ed.), One Hundred Years in Egypt, Paths of Italian Archaeology. Milan. Goddio, F., 2006, Underwater Archaeology in the Canopic Region in Egypt, Monograph 1. The Topography and Excavation of Heracleion Thonis and East Canopus Oxford. Jondet, M. G., Les ports submerges de l ancienne île de Pharos, Mémoires de l Institut d Égypte IX, 13. Petrie, W. M. F., 1935, Changes in The Egyptian Coasts, Ancient Egypt, Prever, P. L., 1934, Di Alcune Vicende Geologiche del Litorale Alessandrina e della Regione Mareotica, Bulletin de la Société Archéologique d Alexandrie 29, , pl. VI, fig.1. Strabo, transl. H. L. Jones, 1982, The Geography of Strabo. London. Taher, M. A., 1998, Les séismes a Alexandrie et la destruction du Phare, Études Alexandrines 3, Yoyotte, J., Charvet, P., and Gompertz, S., 1997, Strabon, Le Voyage en Égypte un regard romain. Paris. A Possible Medieval Lighthouse at Mul Dwarka (Kodinar), Saurashtra Coast, India There is ample evidence of India s maritime trade with contemporary civilizations overseas. A large number of artefacts of Indus Valley origin have been found in Oman and the other Gulf countries (Cleuziou, 1992; Ratnagar, 2004), indicating contact in the 3rd millennium BC. Excavations of several Harappan sites in coastal Gujarat indicate that people of this region were actively involved in maritime practices (Gaur, 2000). The excavators of Lothal (Rao, 1979) and Kuntasi (Dhavalikar et al., 1996) identified a dockyard and jetty respectively. Later, when Roman traders landed on Indian shores, they noted a well-established maritime system. The Periplus of the Erythrenean Sea, for instance, mentions that navigators in India effectively used the tides, currents and winds (Panikkar and Srinivasan, 1971), and that the king of the region appointed pilots (Schoff, 1912: 40) to help foreign navigators to enter the Gulf of Barygaza (Bharuch). In the medieval period (8th-14th centuries) Indo-Arabian trade was at its zenith, as evidenced by the discovery of a number of maritime artefacts (Gaur et al., 2005). Archaeological explorations along the Saurashtra coast have revealed a large number of stone anchors at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Mul Dwarka, Hathab and Ghogha, indicating the existence of ancient ports and anchorages. Lighthouses are known to have existed a few centuries before the Christian era (Beaver, 1971). Vann (1991: 124) suggest that the first lights were probably fires on shore that directed fishermen home after a night s work, but that with the growth of trading networks a more permanent system of communication, perhaps in the form of free-standing towers or columns, developed. Though there is not much information on lighthouses of the Bronze Age in India, a structure at a Harappan site at Kuntasi has been identified as a watchtower, and the excavator does not rule out its being the oldest lighthouse in the world (Dhavalikar et al., 1996: 52). It was initially supposed to be a fortification, but was not part of a system, so could only have been a watch-tower for keeping an eye on boats coming to Kuntasi through the Gulf of Kachchh. A Tamil text of the 3rd-4th century AD, Silappatikaram, mentions the existence of a lighthouse (in Tamil Kalangrai Vilakku) at Poompuhar (Pillai, 1989: 20). There are remains of lamp-posts all along the Orissa coast, called batti, which it has been suggested were used as lights in the past (Patnaik, 2003: 206). A monolithic pillar on a hillock along the Chilika coast known as deepa dandi has been identified as a lighthouse (Sila Tripati and Patnaik, 2008), and may date back to the medieval period. There is a reference to a lighthouse at Mahabalipuram, on a temple known as Olakkaneswar or Olakkanath ( flame eye ), situated on a hilltop (Ramaswami, 1980). On its roof is a shallow depression which is believed to have held a pot of oil 1.5 ft hight which was lit every evening to guide mariners. This was eventually replaced by a light on the same temple roof (Sila Tripati, 2009). This paper discusses a possible medieval lighthouse on the coast of Mul Dwarka (Kodinar). This well Supreme Council of Antiquities. Journal Compilation 2010 The Nautical Archaeology Society

2 NOTES Figure 1. Location of sites around Mul Dwarka on the Saurashtra coast. (S. B. Chitari) preserved structure is the earliest evidence noted along the Gujarat coast. Archaeological explorations around Mul Dwarka have yielded a large number of stone anchors, and two coastal sites (Fig. 1). Possible lighthouse at Kodinar Mul Dwarka, one of the claimants to be the original Dwarka of the Mahabharata period, is situated on the Saurashtra coast, about 7 km from Kodinar town. Today most of the residents of Mul Dwarka are fishermen. On the western side of the harbour a disused temple dedicated to the lord Krishna is situated on an ancient mound. On the basis of constructional style and sculptural remains it can be dated to the 10th-11th century AD (Sompura, 1968). Close to the temple, at the highest part of the mound, stands an isolated circular structure c.4 m high. Like the temple, it is built of dressed limestone blocks (Fig. 2), though it has been partially eroded on the south-eastern side. It has 25 courses and tapers slightly. The diameter at the base is c.2 m, and at the top c.1.5 m. Locally, this structure is called Diva Dandi, a term used for a lighthouse. This is a solid structure, with a flat top, though a few stones have been displaced by the installation of a modern flagpole. Its top is c.10 m (33 ft) about the high-water mark. The external shape is very similar to the lighthouses introduced by Europeans along the Indian coast during the 18th and 19th centuries, and a few are of a similar height. Brown (1902: 22) mentions six lighthouses around Calcutta, two of which, at Diamond harbour and Fishermen Point, have lights 14 ft above high water. Similarly, an Indian government web-site ( mentions an early-20thcentury beacon at Antarvedi (Narsapur in Andhra Pradesh) with a height of just 2.5 m. Thus a 4-m-high structure is suitable as lighthouse. To climb up to the top of the structure for lighting a fire or lamp there were some projecting stones, and, despite damage, a few remains may be observed (Figs 3 and 4). There are other instances in surrounding areas where projecting steps were used to access the tops of low, isolated structures such as Kodinar. In 1982 a cyclone ( damaged a major part of the structure including the steps and the brazier. However, there are some circular marks on the top which may be the remains of the base of a brazier (Fig. 5). Beaver (1971: 10) mentions that lights were provided by wood fires that burned in iron braziers in the form of interlaced dolphins suspended from the towers with long poles. The brief description and history of each lighthouse along the Indian coast ( refers to the use of ordinary oil lamps, oil wick lamps and DA (Dissolved Acetylene) gas light for flashing the light, by the early- 19th century. However, at Kodinar a wood fire or mashaal (several layers of cloth soaked in oil and tied to a thick wooden pole, which burns for a few hours) might have been used. The two 19th-century lighthouses near Calcatta which stood 14 ft (4.25 m) above high-water line, were visible from 2 to 3 miles (3 4 km) in clear weather. A lighthouse at Gopalpur which was 54 ft (16.4 m) above high-water line could be seen from c.10 miles (15 km) in clear weather. The Kodinar structure is 9 10 m above high-water line and it may be safe to argue a light on it could be seen 4 5 km out to sea. This may be the distance from the coast at which ancient ships used to sail in this area. Offshore and onshore explorations 2010 Supreme Council of Antiquities. Journal Compilation 2010 The Nautical Archaeology Society 419

3 Figure 3. Arrow-marks indicating the damaged projecting steps to the top of structure. (Sundaresh) Figure 2. Lighthouse on Mul Dwarka (Kodinar) coast. (Sundaresh) around Mul Dwarka revealed the existence of ancient port at Kanjetar, Mul Dwarka and Chhara. However, due to the development of a new port at Mul Dwarka the remains of the ancient port have been destroyed, and very few remains in the form of stone anchors have been noted (Fig. 6). Possible date of the lighthouse Artefacts from the Saurashtra coast indicate maritime activity from the 3rd millennium BC (Rao, 1979), which continued into the historical period (Gaur et al., 2006), peaking during the medieval period (8th-14th century AD). Except for the possible interpretation of the structure at Kuntasi as a watch-tower for boats coming from the Gulf of Kachchh (Dhavalikar et al., 1996), no coastal structure has been identified as a lighthouse. Therefore the earliest lighthouse on the Indian coast may be the structure at Mul Dwarka Figure 4. A reconstruction of the lighthouse showing steps and brazier. (S. B. Chitari) Supreme Council of Antiquities. Journal Compilation 2010 The Nautical Archaeology Society

4 NOTES Table 1. The weight percent of elemental oxides in binding material collected from the lighthouse at Mul Dwarka Elements Weight % Na2O 2.46 MgO 1.29 Al2O SiO CaO FeO 1.23 Figure 5. Arrows indicate the remains of a brazier on the top of the structure, which was damaged during a cyclone in (A. S. Gaur) Figure 6. Stone anchor from the Mul Dwarka area. (Sundaresh) (Kodinar). Situated close to a 10th-11th century AD temple, it is apparently of the same construction pattern, but is better preserved, which may suggest that it is of a later date than the temple, perhaps between the 12th and the 15th centuries. There is not much information available on the construction of lighthouses in India prior to the 19th century, and lighthouses of that period come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on location and building materials. For instance many lighthouses are of brick and are square in shape, while others are circular and built of local stone, such as granite at Mahabalipuram, and limestone for most of the lighthouses along the Saurashtra coast. The binding material used at Mul Dwarka is lime mortar, which suggests a date of the 12th-15th century. Maritime activities during this period were at their peak along the Indian coast, which may explain the construction of such a structure, and elsewhere tall coastal monuments and temples on hilltops may also have served as navigation marks. Coastal monuments and navigation Archaeological investigations along the southern Saurashtra coast suggest a large number ports existed in the past, for instance, Bet Dwarka, Dwarka, Miyani (Harshad), Visawada (Mul Dwarka), Porbandar, Madhavpur, Veraval (Somnath), Mul Dwarka (Kodinar), Gopnath, Hathab and Ghogha during the historical and the medieval periods. Except for Ghogha, all the ports on the Saurashtra coast have important monuments on the coast, which date back to between the early (8th-11th century) and the late medieval period (12th-15th century). It seems logical to argue that these coastal monuments served as markers for navigators, and therefore may have included some kind of lighting on their tops to mark the coast at night. Dwarkadhish temple at Dwarka has a height of 78 m and can be seen from at least 20 km out to sea. Similarly, the hilltop temple at Harshad Mata served as a marker of the medieval port of Miyani (40 km east of Dwarka). There is a reference to a mosque ( Anda Masjid ) in Dabhol on the Maharashtra coast which was used as a navigation mark (Nairne, 1896). A 13thcentury Sun temple at Konark was used as a navigation mark by sailors coming from Bali, Java and Sumatra. Analysis of the mortar Primitive mortars include mud (used by the Egyptian and Indus civilizations), soft bituminous clay (Greece) and bitumen (Mesopotamia), and several forms were still used in medieval times. The first evidence of a form of lime mortar was at a ziggurat in ancient Mesopotamia (Woolley, 1939). Since then lime mortars have been used in masonry work worldwide until replaced by modern cements in the late-19th century. Chemical analyses were carried out to identify the percentages of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and other elemental oxides in the mortar (Table 1). A small sample was collected from the lighthouse structure for microscopic studies and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectrum (EDS) analysis. To understand the textural properties of binding material, a chunk of mortar is first observed under a microscope. Even though it looks cream or greyish-white to the 2010 Supreme Council of Antiquities. Journal Compilation 2010 The Nautical Archaeology Society 421

5 naked eye, a finer grain matrix with lots of black grains can be seen under a microscope. The black grains are spread throughout the mortar, can be up to 2 3 mm in size, and round to sub-round in shape. The matrix characteristics grain size, distribution and surface area, provide strength to the mortar. This kind of lime mortar is not very strong but is dense and resists water penetration to deeper levels, allowing moisture to escape by evaporation. SEM-EDS analysis of the sample suggests that the major component ( 3 / 4) of the binding material is calcium oxide (lime), followed by silica and alumina, with insignificant quantities of other elements such as iron, sodium, and magnesium. In comparison, modern Portland cement includes 2 / 3 calcium oxide and ~20% silica. However, while preparing cement mortar a certain proportion of sand is added, whereas lime mortar was used without added sand. This mortar was perhaps obtained by grinding and mixing limestone with assorted sands/clays and finally adding water to get a workable mortar paste. Limestone contains variable quantities of silica (chert or flint) and clay, silt and sands. Lime mortar with silica and alumina, known as semi-hydraulic, sets slowly and hardens by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. Conclusions Archaeological investigations along the Saurashtra coast have revealed much evidence for ancient maritime activities, including port installations, jetties and stone anchors. Explorations around Mul Dwarka (Kodinar) yielded a few stone anchors and a circular structure near the temple on the coast. This structure might once have served as a lighthouse, and may be contemporary with or slightly later than the adjacent temple, and probably dates to between the 12th and the 15th centuries AD. This may be the oldest surviving lighthouse along the Saurashtra coast. SEM analysis revealed that lime mortar was use for its construction, which fits the proposed medieval date. A. S. Gaur, Sundaresh, B. R. Rao, Sila Tripati and V. D. Khedekar National Institute of Oceanography (CSIR), Dona Paula, Goa , India, asgaur@nio.org Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Director for permission to publish this paper. We thank Shri K. H. Vora, project leader, for providing the facilities to undertake this study; Shri Bharat Bhai, lecturer in Kodinar College, for assistance during the field-trip to Kodinar; Shri. Manibhai, a local fisherman, for providing valuable information about the structure. Thanks are also due to Shri S. N. Bandodkar, and S.B. Chitari for help during the fieldwork. This is NIO s contribution number References Beaver, P., 1971, A History of Lighthouses. London. Brown, H. S., 1902, From Calcutta to Bombay coasting. The handbook to the ports on the coast of India, between Calcutta and Bombay including Ceylon and the Maldive and Laccadive Islands. London. Cleuziou, S., 1992, The Oman Peninsula and the Indus Civilization: A Reassessment, Man and Environment 17.2, Dhavalikar, M. K., Raval, M. R., and Chitalwala, Y. M., 1996, Kuntasi: A Harappan Emporium on West Coast. Pune. Gaur, A. S., 2000, Harappan Maritime Legacies of Gujarat. New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh and Vora, K. H., 2005, Archaeology of Bet Dwarka Island: An Excavation Report. New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh and Sila Tripati, 2006, Evidence for Indo-Roman trade from Bet Dwarka waters, West Coast of India, IJNA 35.1, Nairne, A. K., 1896 (repr. 1988), History of the Konkan. Delhi. Panikkar, N. K. and Srinivasan, T. M., 1971, The concept of tides in Ancient India, Indian Journal of History of Science 6.1, Patnaik, A. P., 2003, The Early Voyages of the East: the rise in Maritime Trade of the Kalingas in Ancient India. New Delhi. Pillai, R. S., 1989, Cilappatikaram. Tamil University, Thanjavur. Ramaswami, N. S., 1980, Mamallapuram: An annotated bibliography. Madras. Rao, S. R., 1979, Lothal A Harappan Port Town. Memoir of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Ratnagar, S., 2004, Trading Encounters: from the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age. New Delhi. Schoff, W. H., 1912, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century. New York, repr. 1974, New Delhi. Sila Tripati, 2009, Coastal Structural Remains on the East Coast of India: Evidence of Maritime Activities and their Significance, in P. C. Reddy (ed.), Saundaryashri: Studies of Indian History, Archaeology, Literature & Philosophy, New Delhi. Sila Tripati and Patnaik, A. P., 2008, Stone anchors along the coast of Chilika Lake: New light on the maritime activities of Orissa, India, Current Science 94.3, Sompura, K. F., 1968, The structural temples of Gujarat (up to 1600 AD). Ahmedabad. Vann, R. L., 1991, The Drusion a candidate for Herod s lighthouse at Caesarea Maritima, IJNA 20.2, Woolley, L., 1939, Ur Excavations Vol. V: the Ziggurat and its Surroundings. London Supreme Council of Antiquities. Journal Compilation 2010 The Nautical Archaeology Society