Chapter 2 Literature Review

Transcription

1 Chapter 2 Literature Review 9

2 Chapter 2. Literature Review 2.1 Introduction The Bronze Age, (hereafter BA) in the common archaeological literature, set in the middle of Stone and Iron Age. Three age system of prehistoric era was suggested by Jurgensen Thomsen 1 for ordering ancient objects. During this time, human being could access to metalwork and used more ways for smelting copper and tin which led to metal alloying and bronze molding. The BA commenced around the end of fourth millennia and the beginning of third millennia B.C. in most parts of Iran. In the Iranian archaeological cultural sequence, it followed the Chalcolithic Age and the subsequent period is Iron Age. During this time, the important events such as metalworking, the emergence of protowriting and beginning of urbanism happened especially in the southwestern Iran. A cultural disruption was reported following the Late Chalcolithic Age (hereafter LCA) and Early Bronze Age (hereafter EBA). The heterogeneous cultures dominated in the northwestern Iran. Informally, the BA subdivided into three phases namely; Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age. As a scope of my work, I focus on the EBA in the southern parts of Lake Urmia basin, North-West of Iran based on the stratigraphic excavation at prehistoric site of Ali Abad Tape 2. North-West of Iran includes the three modern provinces; West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan and Ardabil. This region is a mountainous terrain between the Caucasus mountain ranges and the Taurus Mountains of Anatolia and also the Elburz and Zagros 3 Mountains ranges of Iran. The most characteristic of this region is the Lake Urmia 4 with its basin about 51,876 square kilometers. The archaeological studies started by western archaeologist in this area in the 19 th subsequently by Iranian archaeologists in the recent decades. century and The distinctive and new culture dominated in the northwestern Iran and also the Caucasus, eastern Anatolia and northern Levant. It is believed that, people having with this new culture have migrated to these regions. This culture is called different 1 Christian Jürgensen Thomsen was a Danish antiquarian who suggested Three-Age System for classifying the ancient antiquities in Tape means mound in Persian language. 3 Elburz and Zagros are the name of two mountains ranges. 4 Urmia is modern city and capital of West Azerbaijan Province in northwestern Iran. 10

3 terms by scholars in the various regions such as the Kura-Araxes 1, Early Trans- Caucasian 2 (ETC), Karaz 3 and Khirabet Kerak 4. The major features of this culture are circular and rectilinear buildings, black, grey and red-burnished and also hand-made ceramics, portable and fixed hearths which were often anthropomorphic or zoomorphic in style, horned animal figurines and metal objects made of arsenical copper/bronzes. The number of settlements increased during the Bronze Age in northwestern Iran. Around 40 sites belong to this period identified in the study area which few of them have been excavated. Among these excavated sites, those exposed the EBA deposits are Yanik Tape 5, Haftavan Tape 6, Hasanlu Tape 7, Geoy Tape 8, Gijlar Tape 9 and Kohne Pasgah Tepesi 10. In this chapter, researcher describes the brief evidences about the EBA deposits at these sites. This description is based on published reports about the geographical indications of Iran, North-West of Iran and Lake Urmia basin. In addition, the history of archaeological investigation is reported in this chapter along with a summary of Kura-Araxes studies. 2.2 Geography of Iran and North West of Iran Iran According to Lorentz (2007), Iran was also known as Persia and its name originated from the ancient term Aryan in the Indo-European family of languages. Iran is located in the center of the Middle East and in southwestern Asia between 25 40' N. latitude and 44 63' E. longitude. It is covering an area of approximately 628,000 square miles (1,648,000 sq. km) and bordered by political boundaries 1 Kura-Araxes is corresponded to a valley between Kura and Araxes in the South Caucasus and a term is used for Early Bronze Age (about 3200 B.C. to 2600 B.C.) at the same area. 2 Early Trans-Caucasian is a term used for Early Bronze Age mostly by western archaeologists. 3 Karaz is a term used for Early Bronze Age of Anatolian. 4 Khirabet Kerak is a term used for Early Bronze Age of northern Levant. 5 Yanik Tape is the name of a site in the East Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 6 Haftavan Tape is the name of a site in the West Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 7 Hasanlu Tape is the name of a site in the West Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 8 Geoy Tape is the name of a site in the West Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 9 Gijlar Tape is the name of a site in the West Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 10 Kohne Pasgah Tepesi is the name of a site in the East Azerbaijan province, North-West of Iran. 11

4 consisting of the Caspian Sea and countries such as Armenia, the Republic of Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan on the north; Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east; Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman on the south; Iraq and Turkey on the west (Map 2-1). The total length of Iranian borders has been estimated at 2,750 miles of which, above half of this is sea coast (Fisher, 1968; Kenney, 2011; shahmirzadi, 1999, pp ; Wallenfels & Sasson, 2000). Map 2-1: Map of Iran and its location on the world (maphill, 2011a). The central of Iran is the Iranian Plateau which is surrounded by the two mountain ranges; the Elburz and the Zagros Mountains (Kenney, 2011; Wallenfels & Sasson, 2000). The Zagros Mountains ranges with its length about 1,800 km and width of 250 km stretch from northwestern Iran and end to southeast. The highest points in the Zagros ranges are Zard-kuh 1 with its 4500 meters and Dena 2 with its 4200 meters above sea level. The Zagros Mountains ranges are covered whole of 1 Zard-kuh is the name of a mountain and sub-range in the Zagros Mountain Range is situated in the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Western Iran. Zard-kuh means Yellow Mountain in the Persian language. 2 Dena is the name of a mountain in sub-ranges of Zagros Mountain which located between Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad and Isfahan provinces, Western Iran. 12

5 western Iran and discrete the central Plateau from the Assyrian highlands in the north of Mesopotamian and also it played as a barrier against invasions throughout ancient time. The Elburz Mountains ranges with its length of about 1,200 km and its width of 100 km lie along the northwestern to the northeastern Iran. The Elburz Mountains, as a border separate the Caspian Sea boundaries from the central plateau. These mountains play the major role in modification of the Caspian Sea boundaries (shahmirzadi, 1999, pp ). The two vast deserts situated among the central plateau are mostly unoccupied. The Dasht 1 -e Kavir 2 is approximately 240 miles (390 km) wide. It is a salty desert. The Dasht-e Lut 3 has high temperature and its measure is approximately 100 miles (161 km) wide (Kenney, 2011; Wallenfels & Sasson, 2000). According to shahmirzadi (1999, pp ), the fertile plains are placed at the slope of these mountains which became the centers for settlements since the ancient time. The cultural deposits were found by archaeologists at these plains. At these mountains and deserts of Iran, the precipitation is variable and the country is classified as arid or semi-arid. The annual precipitation at some regions like northwest and the area between the Elburz Mountains and Caspian Sea is about 250 mm while at the southern and eastern parts of the country it is 50 mm (Delju, Ceylan, Piguet, & Rebetez, 2013; Ghasemi & Khalili, 2008). All Iranian rivers can be classified into permanent rivers and seasonal rivers. Some of the rivers flow into the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman and other rivers flow into the interior basins. The rivers that flow into the Caspian Sea are Aras River, Atrek River, Sefid-Rud 4, Chaloos River, Hezar River, Se Hezar River, Tajan River and Gorgan River. The rivers that flow into the Persian Gulf are the Arwand River, Gamasab River, Karun River, Dez River and Jarahi River (shahmirzadi, 1999, pp ) Northwestern Iran Northwestern Iran mostly includes three present provinces of West and East Azerbaijan and Ardabil. The major modern cities of these three provinces are Urmia, 1 Dasht means desert in the Persian language. 2 Dasht-e Kavir or Kavir-e Namak (desert of salt marsh) located in the central Iranian Plateau. 3 Dasht-e Lut or Lut Desert (Emptiness Desert) located southeastern of Kerman, Iran. 4 Rud means river in the Persian language. 13

6 Tabriz 1 and Ardabil 2. This area is located in the vicinity of four neighboring countries and due to this location the area has got particular importance (Map 2-2). The northwest of Iran extends to about 100,000 sq. km and the area is both high and mountainous. The most characteristic of this area is the Lake Urmia which all rivers of this region flow into that. Kuh-e Sahand 3, with its altitude of almost 3700 meters above sea level and Kuh-e Sabalan 4 at an elevation of about 4800 MASL 5, are located in the eastern side of Lake Urmia. The weather of northwestern Iran is hot during summers and cold during winters. There is enough rainfall for doing rain-based agriculture in this area (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Swiny, 1975). The most of income sources for people of this area are from agriculture, animal husbandry, gardening, hunting and handicraft (Delju et al., 2013). Map 2-2: Map of North-West of Iran (Earth, 2015) Lake Urmia Lake Urmia, the largest saline lake in the Middle East, is located amid 37 4 to latitude, to 46 longitude and between the West and East Azerbaijan 1 Tabriz is the capital city of East Azerbaijan Province, Northwestern Iran. 2 Ardabil is the capital city of Ardabil Province, Northwestern Iran. 3 Kuh-e Sahand is the name of a mountain in the East Azerbaijan Province near Tabriz, Northwestern Iran. Kuh means mountain in the Persian language. 4 Kuh-e Sabalan is the name of a mountain in the Ardabil Province, Northwestern Iran 5 MASL is the abbreviation of Meters Above Sea Level. 14

7 Provinces in the northwestern Iran. It is the 20th largest lake and the second most saline lake in the world (Delju et al., 2013). The Lake Urmia is placed at a height of 1250 MASL. The length of this lake is approximately between 128 to 140 km and its width is almost 50km. The average depth of Lake Urmia is from 6 m to 16 m (Eimanifar & Mohebbi, 2007). But recently owing to the low precipitation and dry climate in this area, the water level reduced than previous years. Water of this lake is clear, but its view appears as blue and its taste is somewhat bitter and very salty. Temperature of the area around this lake is between 0 C and 20 C during winter and 30 C during the summer (Alipour, 2006; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013) Lake Urmia Basin Lake Urmia in the northwestern Iran is located between of the East and West Azerbaijan provinces. The lake is fed by thirteen main rivers from its catchment areas and these rivers deliver fresh water except the water that flow from the salt domes of Kohy 1 area (Alipour, 2006). The basin of Lake Urmia is about 51,876 Km 2 (Eimanifar & Mohebbi, 2007; Ghasemi & Khalili, 2008). The most important rivers that flow into Lake Urmia are: Zarrine-Rud, Simineh River, Aji Chay River, Barandouz River, Mahabad River, Nazlou River and Gadar River (shahmirzadi, 1999, pp ; Swiny, 1975). 2.3 History of Archaeological Investigations in the North-West of Iran Archaeological investigations and studies were initiated by western archaeologists in the Northwest and simultaneously the other regions of Iran. These archaeologists tried to explore the ancient sites and monuments in this area and then they conducted numerous archaeological excavations. It is true that the aerial photographs of Schmidt (Schmidt, 1940) played the vital role in this field. Many ancient sites were identified through these photos and those were excavated later. The role of Iranian archaeologist in turn caused the efflorescence in the archaeological investigations. In the following pages, this researcher classified historical investigations of northwestern Iran. Such classifications were based on division of decades into four periods. 1 Khoy is a city in the northern Urmia, North-Wet of Iran. 15

8 The first survey in the Northwestern Iran could be named as the Jacques Jean Marie de Morgan s investigation done during He was the supervisor of French expedition in Iran at that time. This survey led to the discovery of several prehistoric sites (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012) Erich F. Schmidt was an initiator for aerial photography of archaeological sites. He provided many aerial photos of most of ancient mounds in different regions in the ancient Near East. After his pioneering aerial survey, many archaeologists seem to be attracted to begin archaeological investigations along the excavations in the declared sites by him. Schmidt reached North-West of Iran with the aim of taking aerial photos in The western archaeologists began excavations in the major ancient sites in the Lake Urmia Basin (hereafter LUB) recognized by Schmidt (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Young, 1966). In 1940, Sir Aurel Stein, the British archaeological explorer, documented ancient sites and monuments and sounded at Hasanlu Tape in the Lake Urmia basin, Northwestern of Iran. He also conducted small-scale soundings at Dinkhah Tape and Hasanlu Tape in the Solduz-Ushnu valley in (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Muscarella, 1968). Geoy Tape, about 7 Km south of Urmia, excavated by Burton Brown, director of the Manchester Museum in England, in He exposed the deposits from the Chalcolithic to Iron Age during this excavation (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Young, 1966). Excavations under the supervising Iranian Archaeological Service carried out at Hasanlu in 1947 and 1949 (Muscarella, 1968) Following the Iranian archaeological excavations, the Chalcolithic and the EBA objects have been discovered during the investigation by Kambakhshfard in the northwest of Iran during (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). In 1957, The Hasanlu Project was consisted of the University of Pennsylvania, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Archaeological Center of Iran. This Project conducted the excavations at Hasanlu Tape and also some other sites in the northwestern of Iran such as Pisdeli Tepe and Hajji Firuz belong to the Neolithic Age, Dinkha Tepe, a Bronze Age site, 16

9 Qalatgah and Agrab Tepe, the two Urartian sites and Ziwiye the Iron Age site during 1956 to 1977 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Muscarella, 1968). Therefore, their works recognized a cultural sequence from the chalcolithic Pisdeli period about 3500 B.C. backwards to the Late Neolithic Haji Firuz period about B.C. in this region (Dyson, Muscarella, & Voigt, 1969, pp ). Regarding this, the other sites from the Ushnu and Solduz 1 regions towards the south of Lake Urmia were excavated by Robert H. Dyson (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Charles Burney investigated the LUB in 1958 and reported several prehistoric sites in this region (C. Burney, 1979, p. 150; Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). At the same time, Iranian archaeologists, Ali Hatami and Mahmood Rad conducted excavation at Hasanlu Tape in 1959 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). The investigations and excavations during in the North-West of Iran were important for the history of archaeological studies in this region. Kearton investigated northwest of Iran in (Kearton, 1969, pp ). In 1968 Swiny, director of the Italian Anthropology Expedition discovered the EBA ceramics in the same area (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Swiny, 1975). Equally, Kleiss, W. and Kroll, S. surveyed the northwest of Iran in that it led to the finding of EBA wares (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). Soleki investigated the western parts of Lake Urmia and he has conducted a sondage at Seavan Tape in 1968 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Solecki, 1969). Simultaneously, a survey in West Azerbaijan province was carried out by the University Museum of Philadelphia under the Hasanlu Project from 1966 up to Over 250 archaeological sites included from Paleolithic to recent era have been investigated (Kearton, 1969). In 1968, in the same region, a survey of prehistoric sites was made under the supervision of Solecki from the Department of Anthropology, Columbia University Expedition in the west side of Lake Urmia Basin. The investigation of caves and open-air sites with small-scale sounding had been done (Solecki, 1969). The excavations were carried out at Hajji Firuz, Dinkha Tape, Se Girdan, Qalatgah under the Hasanlu Porjects in 1968 (Dyson et al., 1969). Charles Burney visited the Yanik Tape southwest of Tabriz, East Azerbaijan Province, in the Northwestern of Iran in He distinguished the ceramics separated on the Yanik Tape similar to Anatolia and Caucasus potteries. Burney 1 Ushnu and Solduz are the name of two valleys in southern Lake Urmia, North-West of Iran. 17

10 excavated the Yanik Tape during and he provided best stratigraphic sequence of ETC 1 II-III in the northwestern Iran and northeastern of Turkey (C. A Burney, 1961, 1962, 1964; Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Haftavan Tape is located at the northwest corner of Lake Urmia, West Azerbaijan Province. It was excavated under the direction of Charles Burney and supporting of the University of Manchester in 1968, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1975, and 1978 (C. Burney, 1970, 1972a, 1972b, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1979; C. A Burney, 1969; C. A. Burney, 1970; Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). The six of eleven tumuli were excavated by Oscar White Muscarella at Se Girdan, in the northeast of Dinkha Tape and about 25 km southwest of Lake Urmia in 1968 and 1970 (Muscarella, 1971, 2003). During the seventies years, archaeological investigations and excavations; the Hasanlu Tape was excavated by Dyson with the aim of getting more data about period IV in 1970 and other excavation seasons extended by him in 1971 and 1974 (Dyson, 1971, 1973; Dyson & Pigott, 1975). An archaeological survey had been undertaken by Swiny accompanied by his wife in the east Kurdistan and south-east of Azerbaijan, northwestern of Iran with the aim of recording the Iron III period sites in 1971 (Swiny, 1975). In 1974, a palaeobotanical survey was carried out under the Hasanlu Project at Hasanlu Tape, Pisdeli Tape and Haji Firuz. Archaeobotanical data pertaining to 5000 years were collected during this survey (Tosi, 1975). Around the same time, a survey with palaeontological excavation with the aim of human evolution and relationship between past man and environment was conducted by the University of Southern California and the department of Environment of Iran in East Azerbaijan province (Sadex-Kooros, 1976). Sadek-Kooros, H. has investigated the open-air settlements and several caves in the regions between Tabriz, Mianeh 2 and Maragheh 3 northwest of Iran in 1975 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012). An Italian expedition under the supervision of Paolo Pecorella and Mirjo Salvini investigated the western parts of Lake Urmia in the northwest of Iran and they conducted a sondage at Gijlar Tape in 1976 and They distinguished the 13 meters of ETC cultural sequence occupation in this EBA site (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Kordlar Tape, about 13 km northeastern of Urmia in the North-West of Iran was excavated by Austrian team under the supervision of Leapert in 1972, 1 ETC is the abbreviation of Early Trans-Caucasian. 2 Mianeh is a city in the East Azerbaijan Province, North-West of Iran. 3 Maragheh is a city in the East Azerbaijan Province, North-West of Iran. 18

11 1974 and 1975 (Talai, 2009, p. 74). To this end, the fortified settlement of Ravaz in the Maku 1, northwestern of Iran surveyed in 1977 and the excavation was carried out by Kleiss and Krol in 1979 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; KROLL, 2005). Moreover, Hassan Talai investigated the eastern parts of LUB, northwestern of Iran in the 1980s (Maziar, 2010; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Bahman Karegar carried out a sounding at Ahranjan Tape in Salmas, West Azerbaijan Province that deposits from the Neolithic Age to 1 st millennia B.C. were revealed in 1995 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Maziar, 2010) Bastam is an Urartian site located north of Khoy in the West Azerbaijan Province, northwestern of Iran. The excavations at Bastam were conducted by Wolfram Kleiss between 1969 and 1978 and it continued from 1998 to 2001 by Hamid Khatib Shahidi (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012) Onwards From 2000 onwards, the Iranian archaeologists viz: Sarafaraz, Sajjadi, Khazalaae, Tavhidi, Khalatbari, Kahila, Talai, Kardavani, Harirchian, Kambakhshfard, Karegar, Heidari, Biglari, Ghafari, Faizkhah, Khatibshahidi, Ajorlo, and Binandeh investigated the northwestern of Iran (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012) Recently Raffaele Biscione and Hamid Khatib-Shahidi investigated East and West Azerbaijan provinces in the Northwest of Iran (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Furthermore, the excavations conducted by Iranian archaeologists in the North-West of Iran consisted of rescue excavation by Ghandgar Javad at Toopragholi, Mianeh, East Azerbaijan province in 2005; the EBA to Islamic era site, Kul Tape in Hashtrud, East Azerbaijan province in 2005 by Faizkha Mohammad; at Geoy Tape by Heidari Reza and Afifi in 2005; excavations by Karegar Bahman at Qalaichi, Bukan, West Azerbaijan province in ; during excavations by Karegar Bahman and Heidari Reza at Rabat Tape, Sardasht, West Azerbaijan province; stratigraphic excavation by Binandeh Ali at Lavin Tape, south of Lake Urmia, West Azerbaijan province in 2009; a sounding by Kharazi at Qra Gozlo, Miandoab West Azerbaijan province in 2009; excavation by Khatib Shahidi, Hamid and Abedi Akbar at Kul Tape in Hadishahr East Azerbaijan province in 2010; Deerman Tape in East Azerbaijan province was excavated by Chaichi Amirkhiz and Omrani in 2010 and 2010; Mirzaee Farangis excavated Ghapan site in Shahindezh West Azerbaijan 1 Maku is a city in the West Azerbaijan Province, North-West of Iran. 19

12 Province in 2010 and rescue excavation at Baezidabad in Naghdeh West Azerbaijan Province by Khanmohammadi Behroz in 2010 (Khatib Shahidi et al., 2012; Maziar, 2010). 2.4 Kura-Araxes Culture The Maikop As identified by Kohl (2009), the Maikop culture emerged in the northern parts of Caucasus and entered to this region by the middle of the 4 th millennium B.C. Subsequent to this culture, the Kura-Araxes culture was revealed in the Caucasus area towards to the second half of 4 th millennium B.C. The Maikop and Kura-Araxes are two integral cultures that have more similarities in technology. Despite the common technologies, the most metal objects are related to the Maikop culture due to more mound burials or Kurgans have been discovered that related to this culture. The number of investigated Kura-Araxes cemeteries is scarce. The Maikop culture is contemporaneous with the Uruk Expansion in the northern Mesopotamia. It is thought that the Uruk culture is an intrusive factor into Caucasus, northern Euphrates and eastern Anatolia. The similarities between two cultures, the Maikop and the Uruk culture contain the riches in the metal tools, weapons, vessels and ornaments. Most excavations of central Georgia and northwestern Azerbaijan uncovered the metal objects. Burial mounds or kurgans were revealed in the early 4 th millennium B.C. in the Caucasus regions, eastern Anatolia and probably north of Mesopotamia. Six kurgans related to the Maikop culture from Se Girdan have been excavated by Muscarella in 1968 and 1970, located southwest of Lake Urmia in the northwestern of Iran which dated back to the second half of the 4 th millennium B.C. (Kohl, 2007, 2009) Characters The term Kura-Araxes was coined by Kuftin (Kuftin & Field, 1946) in the 1940s. The reason for this name is the most noticeable black and red-burnished and also hand-made ceramics were discovered for the first time at the sites between two 20

13 rivers namely the Kura and the Araxes in the southern Caucasus. Kuftin ascribed the Kura-Araxes culture to the Chalcolithic period (Kohl, 2007, 2009). The other terms within different regions had been adopted for this culture that could be named as Karaz in Anatolia, Khirabet Kerak in the Levant (the Syria, Jordan and Palestine area), and Early Transcaucasia (ETC) among the western archaeological literature (FAHIMI, 2005). Map 2-3: The distribution of Kura-Araxes sites through North-West of Iran, South Caucasus, South-East of Turkey, North of Mesopotamia and Levant (Kohl, 2009). Geographic range of ETC culture encompasses large areas consisting the south parts of Caucasus, southeastern Anatolia, northwestern and central western Iran as well as the Gilan province in the north and central Iranian Plateau, the Caspian coastal, southeastern Dagestan and northeastern Azerbaijan (Map 2-3) (Kohl, 2009; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). In spite of wide geographic of Kura-Araxes culture, there are common characters in technology and settlements for this culture throughout the geographic areas (Kiguradze & Sagona, 2003): Architecture with straight-lined, sub-rectangular, and circular houses built of mud brick or wattle and daub. 21

14 Kitchen ranges, portable and fixed hearths which were often anthropomorphic or zoomorphic in style. Hand-made, red- and- black or gray burnished ceramics, incised ornaments which sometimes filled with white paste decoration. Tools made of bone, stone and obsidian. Homogeneous horned animal figurines. Metal objects made of arsenical copper/bronzes. According to Batiuk and Rothman (2007), the ETC culture spread from its homeland to Transcaucasia and Near East by the 4th-3rd millennia BC. Some archaeologists believed that the ETC people were farmers and pastoral nomads. They migrated for different reasons such as trade from their homeland to southwest and south. He noted that, the ETC population migrated from Transcaucasia and northwest of Turkey to south and southwestern parts during 2000 years. Some archaeologists like Charles Burney believed that population pressure were the cause to push migrants. Others thought that environment pushed them out of their original land. Table 2-1: Chronological correlation for the Kura-Araxes culture. Based on Batiuk and Rothman (2007) Period (Abbreviation) Local Phase Dates Late Chalcolithic Kura-Araxes I BCE Early Bronze Age I/IIA (EB 1/2A) Early Bronze Age IIB/III (EB 2B/3) Middle Bronze Age I (MB 1) Middle Bronze Age II (MB 2) Kura-Araxes II Kura-Araxes III BCE BCE BCE BCE Batiuk is searching to define pulling immigrants to lands for this reason. Moreover, the Caucasus region has been influenced by other previous Middle Eastern cultures; the Sioni culture belong to Late Neolithic in 4 th - 5 th millennia B.C., the Chalcolithic Tsopi culture, and the Uruk Expansion by the end of 5 th and at the beginning of 4 th millennia B.C. (Pitskhelauri, 2012). Growth in the number of Kura-Araxes settlements within Transcaucasia and northeastern Anatolia might have caused their dislocation. The new comers from the north had four-wheeled and ox-driven wagons. Another reason was the increase of 22

15 population or to pursue the agricultural land and pasture. At some regions, such as northwestern Armenia, the houses have been abounded with their interior contains like storage jars and portable hearth. Hence, this is inconsistent with coming back again. People of the Kura-Araxes seemed to avoid occupying some regions like northern Mesopotamia. This can be illustrated by less remains of this culture at Tell Brak. Something is outlandish for archaeologists that the distribution of the Kura- Araxes population into most sites has occurred peacefully and without overrun. Subsequently, newcomers mixed with the locals and started to live together. Shifting from the rich source of metal to unknown sources, might have been the other purpose (Kohl, 2007, 2009). The settlements of ETC could be defined in two groups. First, permanent settlements based on agricultural and animal husbandry. In this category, temporary settlements were also there for pasturing the animals in the summer months. Second, temporary settlements were located not far from villages with the aim of daily using. Moreover, other settlements had been used for longer occupation that located far from villages. The environment and climate were suitable for permanent settlement, agriculture and also breeding animals and cattle. No traces of urbanization such as public and administrative buildings had been found. Cult sites have been known, but no traces of religious or ritual buildings like temples were known. In addition to, writing and seal impressions have not reported (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). At some Kura-Araxes settlements, the fortified towns had been informed but without city structures. Ravaz near Maku in Northwest of Iran exposed remarkable fortified Kura- Araxes town (Kohl, 2009). An abandonment period has been occurred between the Late Chalcolithic and early Kura-Araxes settlements while others depicted multi-periods. The size of dwelling is different and most of the settlements are small, about 3-5 ha 1 in size. At the same time, Arich in northwestern Armenia is 12 ha in size. Separate grave interments and small kurgans related to Kura-Araxes had been excavated in the settlements and also cemeteries. In contrast to northwestern Caucasus and also Maikop culture, there was no evidence of burial wealth in the southern Caucasian (Kohl, 2007, 2009). 1 ha is abbreviation of Hectare, a unit of area. 23

16 2.4.3 Pottery The ETC pottery was handmade, burnished with incised out decoration and mostly black in the outer side and red or black in the inner side (Batiuk & Rothman, 2007). Basically, the geometric designs were the most elements of ornaments. The Nakhchivan Lug is one of the Kura-Araxes pottery features that have been seen in different geographical ETC zone (Lamb, 1954). It is believed that the most characteristic red-and-black burnished ceramics of Kura-Araxes originated at northeast of Anatolia and successively spread to east into Transcaucasia (Kiguradze & Sagona, 2003). Batiuk and Rothman (2007) state that, at the same time, the pottery of those territories which these people migrated to, was wheel-made in different shapes and colors were buff with painted decoration. At first, the ETC pottery emerged in a small number around the immigration lands. Latter, the extent of sites with mostly ETC pottery increased. To this end, the ETC ceramic alongside local pottery spread at the large settlements. For instance, the ETC ceramics appeared at the beginning of EBA at Amuq Valley. The quantity of ETC pottery increased during the later period, EB 2B/3 along with local ceramics in the large settlements whereas at the smaller sites the quantity of ETC ceramics was most. Khirabet kerak presented the ETC wares mixed with local ceramics around 2700 BCE Architecture Architecture characterization was in circular buildings and built-in kitchen ranges in the ETC II as seen at Yanik Tape and Haftavan Tape in northwestern of Iran. In the subsequent period, ETC III, rounded houses were altered to rectangular in shape. In both periods materials used include sun-dried mud bricks and stones. Buildings made of wattle and daub were seen at Arslantepe and Norsuntepe with portable hearths in the Transcaucasia and in Eastern Turkey areas (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). For various types of occupation from the altitudinal zones to valleys, the kinds of architecture materials were different between stone, mud-brick, wattle and daub (Kohl, 2009). Brazier or portable hearth was an architectural feature during this period in various areas which often was anthropomorphic or zoomorphic in style (Lamb, 1954). 24

17 2.4.5 Iran Yanik Tape belongs to ETC II-III and Geoy Tape in the Urmia basin, northwestern of Iran that appeared with the ETC material during the end of fourth millennium after a break with the LCA ruins. It seemed that this culture separated to this area earlier to the upper Euphrates region due to lack of Uruk existence. This movement spread to the central western Iran later. The Gijlar Tape in west of LUB exposed dense Kura-Araxes deposits about 11 meters (Kohl, 2007, 2009; Swiny, 1975). At this area, Haftavan VIII-VII and Hasanlu VII contained the Kura-Araxes deposits. According to Geoffrey D. Summers (2013), although many archaeologists believed that the ETC cultural area was rich of metal sources, but this was not evident in the north-west of Iran. He states that, large populations of ETC were transhumant having economy based on herding but this evidence was scant in Iran. Nine black ETC burnished potsherds had been collected during the Japanese surveys at Diarjan, a village located south of Lahijan city, north of Iran in The decoration of these ceramics included incised out triangles that some of them filled with white paste, resembled those found at Yanik Tape and Godin IV known as the Kura-Araxes ceramics (FAHIMI, 2005). These ceramics revealed the eastern parts of Kura-Araxes culture influence of Iran. In the LCA, most of the Kangavar valley in the central western Iran abounded. In contrast, the number of settlements in the caves, open air sites and slopes increased by the ETC people. Godin Tape, the southernmost extension of ETC migration reoccupied by new immigrants (Batiuk & Rothman, 2007). 2.5 Early Bronze Age Key sites of North-West of Iran: Yanik Tape Yanik Tape, a large mound extended twenty acres with a height of meters, is located 5 km west of Khosrowshahr and about 32 km (20 miles) southwest of Tabriz, East Azerbaijan Province in the northwestern of Iran (Map 2-4). It s Latitude and longitude are N, E. Yanik Tape was discovered by Charles Burney in and selected for excavation due to the surface of the mound covered by distinctive potsherds. Excavations were conducted by Burney in 25

18 during three seasons. The cultural sequence was distinguished from Late Neolithic period lasted to the Iron Age. He believes that some gaps were exposed during these periods; abandonment occurred in the end of Late Neolithic Age and Early Chalcolithic period and again there was a gap between LCA and EBA I and succeeding the ETC settlement, the Yanik Tape reoccupied in the Iron Age (C. A Burney, 1961). Map 2-4: The Excavated Kura-Araxes sites across North-West of Iran. map of maphill (2011b) with little changes. In the first season of excavation at Yanik Tape, several rooms belong to LCA along with some other narrow rooms perhaps functioned as store rooms were founded around a courtyard. The characteristic factors of this period were rectangular buildings and red pottery while in the next period after an abandonment occupation, the EBA I began with circular buildings and dark pottery (C. A Burney, 1961). The twenty three rounded houses were exposed during the EBA I (Figure 2-1). 26

19 The materials used for building were mud bricks and stones which were built on the floor without foundation. Most of these circular buildings reached 5 meter in diameters with having a central pole with the aim of supporting the roof which perhaps was made of wattle and daub. The components for most of houses were partitions, niches, benches, bins and hearths. The elaborate kitchen range was an element for many of huts with a sunken fire pits. These pits sometimes were filled with stones with the aim of absorbing heat for baking flat bread. The entrance was located on the right side of kitchen range. One of these circular buildings (circle I) was built without doorway which probably served different purpose. It had two concentric outer walls to prevent water penetration. Burney believed that this building was used as granary. Fire was a common event in most parts of village. According to Burney (C. A Burney, 1961), a stone built defensive wall appeared during this period whereas Summers (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013) suggested that it was a wall surrounding an area rather than a defensive wall. Figure 2-1: Plan of Level 4B of Yanik Tape, North-West of Iran (C. A Burney, 1961). In the subsequent period, EBA II, some differences in the architecture and ceramic tradition occurred. The architecture plan changed from circular buildings to rectilinear. The two stories houses were built in this period. This was consistent with 27

20 the massive wall. The interior components such as kitchen range, bench and central pole were reserved. In contrast to EBA I, the EBA II seemed to have been a peacetime that were showed by nonexistence of burning houses (C. A Burney, 1961, 1962; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). The Chalcolithic straw-tempered ceramics were hand-made and red color. Different fired wares reflect the insufficient temperature of firing. Common forms of wares consist of jars, bowls, pot-stand and goblets. Pottery decorations comprise dots, solid squares, schematized men, chevrons and cross-hatched triangles. The ceramic of this period of Yanik Tape is comparable with the Late Chalcolithic pottery of the Hasanlu Tape (C. A Burney, 1961). The Early Bronze Age I (EBA I) ceramics are hand-made and mostly black to grey burnished with incised out and excised decorations. The ornament patterns consisted of simple bands of wavy lines, geometric designs and horned animals decorations. The most forms include jars, bowls and small cups. In the EBA II the tradition of pottery making continued as preceding period with the exception that, those incised and excised decorations completely disappeared (C. A Burney, 1961, 1962) Hasanlu Tape The Hasanlu Tape ( N, E) lies in the Solduz valley at the south of Lake Urmia in Western Azerbaijan Province, North-West of Iran (Map 2-4). The mound involved of two separate topographic areas: a high, flat-topped mound and a lower mounded area (Dyson Jr, 1989; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013). Hasanlu Tape was investigated by Sir Aurel Stein, a British archaeologist in The site was excavated under the Hasanlu Project led by Robert H. Dyson jointly sponsored by the University of Pennsylvania and The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York and also the Archeological Service in Iran During the 1956 to 1974 (Dyson, 1962, 1977; Muscarella, 1965). In Hasanlu Tape, ten occupation periods were exposed lasting from sixth millennia B.C 1. to the Islamic era as the following stratigraphic levels: 1 B.C. is an abbreviation for Before Christ, a unit for time. 28

21 1. Level I: Islamic settlement 2. Level II: Achaemenian deposits about the fourth century B.C. 3. Level III: Iron III, a period between ninth to fifth century B.C. 4. Level IV: Iron II, dating about B.C. 5. Level V: Iron I, dating about B.C. 6. Level VI: Late Bronze Age, B.C. 7. Level VII: Middle Bronze Age 8. Level VIII: Early Bronze Age 9. Level IX: Chalcolithic Age, dating about fourth and fifth millennia B.C. 10. Level X: the Neolithic Age, about 5500 B.C. (Muscarella, 1968; Talai, 2009, pp. 73,74). A hiatus of occupation occurred between the Chalcolithic Age known as Pisdeli phase and the EBA at Hasanlu Tape. The Bronze Age deposits were revealed in the Hasanlu VI, VII and VIII levels of settlements. The ETC II and III characters appear at Hasanlu VIII which is correlated to Yanik Tape and Haftavan Tape (Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Talai, 2009) Haftavan Tape The Haftavan Tape is a large area of about eighteen hectares and one of the biggest sites in the Urmia region. It is located ( N, E) near modern city Salmas and around 15 km northwest of Lake Urmia, North-West of Iran (Map 2-4). The site was discovered by Charles Burney in 1958 and the excavations started by him during the years of 1968, 1969, 1971, 1973 and 1975 (C. Burney, 1970; Edwards, 1981; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Talai, 2009, pp ). Eight periods of occupation were revealed at Haftavan Tape during the excavations started from ETC II (Haftavan VIII) to Sasanian and Later time (Haftavan I). Haftanan VIII: this period indicates the EBA (ETC II) occupation with rounded architecture and burnished wares similar to Yanik Tape in the east side of Lake Urmia and also sites in the Transcaucasia region. The burning evidence and destruction by fire exposed in the Haftavan layers as Yanik Tape (C. Burney, 1973). Haftavan VII: this level duplicated the ETC III levels of the Yanik Tepe. The buildings were built by mud-bricks and the evidence of pole holes, beams and two story houses were seen. Haftavan VII showed a peaceful time at this site and it dated to the middle and late of third millennia B.C. The painted pottery and also Painted 29

22 Orang Ware similar to Hasanlu VII occurred in this level (C. Burney, 1973). A type of polychrome pottery known as Urmia Ware exposed at the Late Bronze Age (hereafter LBA) (Haftavan VI) (Talai, 2009, pp ) Geoy Tape Geoy Tape ( N, E) lies in the Urmia plain, on the western side of Lake Urmia and about 9 km south of modern city of Urmia in the North-West of Iran (Map 2-4). The site was explored by Sir Aurel Stein and the excavation was started by Burton Brown during Although the stratified deposits at Geoy Tape was not completed, seven occupation periods were distinguished and named as A, B, C, D, K, M and N by Brown. The ETC II period was revealed at the K level with circular houses and ceramics similar to Haftavan VIII and Gijlar Tape (Fleming, Bedal, & Swann, 1995; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013; Talai, 2009, p. 76) Gijlar Tape The Giljar Tape ( N, E) with 25 m above the plain is placed in the west of Lake Urmia and about 18 km north of Urmia, North-West of Iran (Map 2-4). The site could be called as a very large settlement, measuring further than 300 meters in diameter and 11 meters depth deposits of the Kura-Araxes (ETC) were appeared at period B. At the beginning of this period, phases VII and VIII, the circular buildings and rectangular structures were exposed. The ceramics of this period were similar to those found at Haftavan Tape VII, VIII and Geoy Tape K. The hiatus have been occurred in the Late Neolithic period and also Middle Bronze occupations (Kohl, 2009; KROLL, 2005; Geoffrey D. Summers, 2013) Kohne Pasgah Tepesi Kohne Pasgah Tepesi could be seen on the south bank of the Araxes valley in the Khodaafarin region. It is about 33 km north of modern city of Kaleybar in East Azerbaijan province, Northwestern of Iran (Map 2-4). The site was excavated during the salvage excavations under the Khodaafarin dam project. Five occupation phases were distinguished at Kohne pasgah Tepesi from LCA to the EBA. The evidence showed the gradual transition and changes from the end of Chalcolithic period to the EBA. The ETC ceramics along with local wares were common in this region. The Phases II and III at Kohne Pasgah Tepesi were contemporary with EBA I and II. It 30

23 seemed that the subsequent periods were abounded until the Iron Age owing to flooding of Araxes River (Maziar, 2010). 2.6 Conclusion A distinctive culture called the Kura-Araxes (or Early Trans-Caucasia, ETC) with new characteristic aspects was dominated south Caucasus, southeast of Turkey and North-West of Iran by the end of fourth millennia B.C. Bearers of this culture migrated into new regions and changed some customs of local people. The reasons behind this event are still unclear. It is believed that, the new migrants were cattle rears and transhumant. They were in search of new pasture for their herds. The Kura- Araxes culture reached up to northwestern of Iran after a gap of occupation by the end of Chalcolithic Age and renamed in the Iranian archaeological studies to the Yanik Culture. The first evidences of this culture were revealed at Yanik Tape in the eastern side of Lake Urmia. Evidences of ETC culture had been reported from several sites in the study area. However, there is still more sites left to study. 31