Team Member Field

Transcription

1 Organized Avalanche Response Team Member Field Reference Guide

2 Copyright 2012, Justice Institute of British Columbia, Emergency Management Division. Produced for: Emergency Management BC Ministry of Justice by Emergency Management Division Justice Institute of British Columbia All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic of mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of this work should be directed to the publisher. Additional copies of the work may be obtained from the publisher: Emergency Management Division Justice Institute of British Columbia 715 McBride Boulevard New Westminster, BC V3L 5T4 Phone: Website: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Justice Institute of British Columbia. Emergency Management Division Organized avalanche response team member field reference guide / Emergency Management Division. ISBN Avalanches--Control--British Columbia. 2. Emergency management--british Columbia--Planning. I. Title. Published 2012 Printed in Canada GV A82 J C

3 CONTENTS Overview Roles and Responsibilities OAR Team Member (OARTM) OAR Team Leader (OARTL) Avalanche Safety Officer Avalanche Site Safety Officer ICS Organizational structure for oar OAR Strike Teams & Task Forces Safety Measures Group Management Site Safety Considerations Weather and Avalanche Condition Updates Equipment/resources Helicopters Avalanche Dog Teams Personal Equipment Specialized Equipment Avalanche Rescue Cache AVAlanche self rescue companion rescue 5 steps of organized response OAR SAR Techniques Wanding/Marking Standard Search Techniques Probe Line Techniques Deep Burials Triage Considerations Shoveling Techniques ATEs public communication model acronyms notes 3

4 for more info For more information on this course and other SAR offerings, contact the SAR Training Program in the Emergency Management Division at or go to emergency overview This field guide is intended as a quick reference document for both paid and unpaid professionals who may be responding to an avalanche incident as part of an organized avalanche search and rescue response team. The guide is meant as an accompaniment to the SAR151 Organized Avalanche Search and Rescue Team Member course offered through the Justice Institute of British Columbia (JIBC) and is not meant to provide an individual with sufficient knowledge to perform these duties without successfully completing the SAR151 course or equivalent training. The course materials for the SAR151 course include the Avalanche Search and Rescue (AVSAR) Response manual published by the Canadian Avalanche Association (2010) and as such the Field Guide is in alignment with concepts introduced therein. For more information on this course and other SAR offerings, contact the SAR Training Program in the Emergency Management Division at sar@jibc.ca or go to 4

5 Roles & Responsibilities Organized Avalanche Response Team Member (OARTM) The main duties of the OAR Team Member (OARTM) are: Maintain personal safety Follow direction of the Team Leader Perform task that has been assigned Identify and convey safety concerns to TL and other OARTMs Be willing to be assigned to duties as required Organized Avalanche Response Team Leader (OARTL) The main duties of the OAR Team Leader (OARTL) are to: Monitor and maintain safety, health and well being of team members in the field Ensure active avalanche safety measures are followed Follow communication protocols Complete team assignment Initiate, maintain, complete and submit all required documentation Avalanche safety officer A member of the command staff responsible for: Assessing avalanche hazard Monitoring weather and avalanche conditions Developing and implementing the Active Avalanche Safety Program Avalanche Site safety officer Assistant to the Avalanche Safety Officer who is responsible for: On-site evaluation of risk of further avalanches Identification of other hazards Monitoring of rescue operations on-site Conducting field assessments and gathering observations On-site implementation of measures to ensure personnel safety 5

6 ICS ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR OAR SMALL RESPONSE The size of the response and the amount of available resources will dictate the organizational structure that is in place. For small incidents, the SAR Manager/ Commander may work directly with a limited number of resources as per below. SAR Commander SAR Manager Avalanche Safety Officer Avalanche Site Safety Officer Comms Operator Transceiver Searcher Prober Shoveller 6

7 LARGE RESPONSE During a large, multi-agency and/or multi-jurisdictional avalanche response and/or when necessary due to span of control limitations, this typical structure can get significantly more complex as seen in the organizational chart below. Typically, during an avalanche response, an OAR team member would fall under the Operations Section, likely under the supervision of a Team Leader. Branches, divisions and groups are established as necessary. SAR Commander SAR Manager Deputy SAR Manager Avalanche Safety Officer Liaison Officer Information Officer Operations Section Chief Planning Section Chief Logistics Section Chief Admin/Finance Section Chief Comms Operator Staging Areas Interview & Investigate Service Director Support Director Procurement SAR Director Air Director Incident Status Check-in/out Facilities Task Claims Search Supervisor Transceiver Strike Team Extrication Strike Team Medical Strike Team Heli Base Coordinator Heli Coordinator Resource Status Avalanche Specialist Communications Medical Supplies Transport Operation Expenses Probe Strike Team Avalanche Dog Team Transportation Strike Team Demobilization Documentation Food & Shelter Security 7

8 EXAMPLES OF OAR STRIKE TEAMS AND TASK FORCES SEARCH AVSAR Task Force safe travel transceiver search, probing, shoveling, medical aid Search Strike Team searching for all types of signals (electronic, visual, audio, olfactory, sensory) Visual Sweep Search Strike Team spot probing, wanding, documentation Transceiver Search Strike Team signal, coarse, fine search Probe Strike Team spot, pinpoint and probe lines Single Resource Dog Team RECCO Strike Team HAZARD MITIGATION Explosives Strike Team RESCUE Shovel Strike Team Rescue Task Force medical and extrication Medical Strike Team basic, on-site life support Transportation Strike Team Technical Rescue Strike Team CDFL, high angle, water ice, crevasse rescue RECOVERY Body removal service Coroner Investigation Team 8

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10 SAFETY MEASURES The number one response goal of the British Columbia Emergency Response Management System (BCERMS), which applies to all responses including organized avalanche response, is to provide for the safety and health of all responders. As in other responses, the safety priority is: #1 Self #2 team BCERMS Response goals Provide for the safety and health of all responders Save lives Reduce suffering Protect public health Protect government infrastructure Protect property Protect the environment Reduce economic and social losses #4 Subject(s) Group Management When travelling in avalanche terrain, implementing an appropriate basic group management approach is the responsibility of every team member. Your safety and that of other responders and bystanders comes first the safety of subjects is secondary. Always consider the following: Buddy system Appropriate spacing Communications Safe regroup area Escape route plan Spotter Guards #3 Bystanders Avalanche signal Group fatigue / pacing Leadership Tailsweep Visual or audio contact 10

11 Site Safety Considerations The avalanche incident site is a complex and dynamic environment. All responders are tasked with maintaining situational awareness identifying and communicating potentially unsafe situations to the best of their ability. Site safety considerations on an avalanche incident site can include: Lingering avalanche danger Multiple start zones Visible track Terrain traps Weather (precipitation, changing temperature) Hazards on access/ egress routes Bystander safety Helicopter and snowmobile traffic Identifying potential escape routes Equipment cache location Non avalanche winter hazards lakes, tree wells, gullies, crevasses, glaciers, tree bombs, icefall, cornice, cliffs, rock fall, animals Weather and Avalanche Condition Updates An OARTM may be assigned responsibility for updating Command regarding current conditions on the ground. Command could also update field teams with new weather forecasts. In general, any change in condition should be communicated: 11

12 EQUIPMENT/resources HElicopter landing zone guidelines A good landing zone: HELICOPTERS Due to the nature of avalanche operations, helicopters will likely be used for various purposes. These include: Transportation Hazard assessment Signal searching RECCO search Explosive mitigation CDFL operations Communication Has enough cleared space for helicopter to land and take off into the wind Is a minimum of 50m from end of landing zone to first 15m high object in flight path Has touchdown pad that is level, firm, clear of debris Is free of overhead obstacles Has indication of wind direction Has wand or individual for pilot s visual reference Has the best approach identified (i.e. best approach is from south) To prepare a landing site on snow: Check with pilot about requirements Pack snow level with snowshoes, skis, feet or snowmobile Pack the snow at least half hour before helicopter arrives so it can harden 12

13 Avalanche Dog Teams Avalanche dog teams are an integral resource when searching for buried subjects who are not wearing a functioning transceiver. In order for other team members to effectively work with dog teams during an avalanche response, special considerations should be taken into account such as: Limit number of searchers in area if possible Avoid contamination of search area with scents i.e. spit, urine, fuel, food Avoid leaving unnecessary objects in search area Remove surface clues (i.e. subjects hats) but record location and wand Limit number of searchers working up-wind of area being searched by dog team Keep equipment and facilities downwind Locate helicopter landing site and on-snow vehicle parking downwind Locate landing sites and parking far enough away from search site to avoid rotor wash Ignore the dogs Remove fatalities ASAP (upon approval of coroner) and mark with wand appropriately 13

14 Personal Equipment In order to respond to avalanche incidents or searches that require travel in avalanche terrain, each individual must carry their own personal winter ready pack. In addition to the normal requirements, a winter ready pack must include: Avalanche transceiver Shovel Probe Radio/Satellite phone Small set of coloured wands for marking Copy of safety plan/contacts Personal travel equipment Repair kit & tools 14

15 Specialized Equipment The following specialized equipment may be used to locate buried subjects when other methods are deemed unsuitable or inefficient. RECCO Detector Barryvox VS Pro Ext Receiver Metal detectors Ground penetrating radar Heavy machinery One piece long probes Used more regularly as more clothing and gear incorporates the RECCO reflector. Often used in conjunction with a transceiver search. Used when situation is too dangerous for responders as it minimizes the time responders spend on debris by locating transceiver signals from helicopter with a 300m range. Also used when faced with a large signal search. Devices that detect metal buried in debris may be used to locate subjects and/or equipment. Radar pulses are used to image the subsurface indicating the location of buried subjects. May be used when other approaches have failed. Excavators, snowcats etc. Used mostly on highways or large avalanches where vehicles and homes may be buried. Industrial style probes that are useful for non-skilled probers to cover more area when resources are exhausted or limited. 15

16 Avalanche Rescue Cache What is in a cache depends on the organization setting up the cache. Preplans can help dictate what a cache will contain and where it will be stored. It needs to be easy to access and ready to deploy when needed. Below you will find a categorized list of avalanche rescue equipment that an organization may choose to store in a cache. Transportation equipment Rescue litter Rescue toboggan (ski or snowmobile) Rope rescue kit CDFL kit Helicopter cargo net Snowmobile(s) Medical equipment (Usually Deployed With Irt) Trauma kit Hypothermia kit Body bags Search and rescue equipment Transceivers Probes specific to operational needs i.e. lightweight vs. long rigid steel Steel shovels (ideally with D handle) Avalanche marking kits (wands, spray paint and flagging tape) RECCO Detector Long-range transceivers (Barryvox VS Pro Ext) Investigation kit (for documentation) MISCELLANEOUS equipment Scene lighting Investigation equipment Chainsaw Camp equipment Metal detectors 16

17 AVALANCHE SELF-RESCUE Self rescue includes the immediate actions that are taken if you trigger or are caught in an avalanche AT FIRST Shout Escape to an island of safety Discard cumbersome gear like skis and snowboards, but keep your backpack Swim, kick, fight like hell Grab for rocks, trees, etc. Keep your mouth closed AS THE AVALANCHE SLOWS & SETTLES Orient your body vertically Put hand near mouth to create breathing space Thrust arm to surface to signal rescuers Try to dig yourself out and create air space Listen and shout to aid searchers REMAIN CALM, DO NOT PANIC Training and experience is required to safely travel in avalanche terrain. 17

18 COMPANION RESCUE Pages 18 & 19 are courtesy of Canadian Avalanche Centre Choose a Leader to organize and direct the rescue Be in charge delegate tasks Assess Safety Avoid travel on adjacent slopes or above the avalanche site if this could trigger additional avalanches Head Count: how many are missing? Identify the point last seen; mark if possible and question witnesses Turn All Transceivers to Search do a physical check Determine the Search Area: look for signs of victims on the surface, then start searching below the point last seen in areas of deposition Priority search areas: Fall line below point last seen In line with clues such as lost gear In terrain traps POINT LAST SEEN 6 Signal Search Send one or two searchers ahead Use 40m search strips Look/listen to transceiver Investigate visual clues (pull out of snow; mark if possible) Prepare probes, shovels, first aid kit 40m SINGLE SEARCHER 40m MULTIPLE SEARCHERS 20m 40m 40m 20m 18

19 7 Coarse Search move fast Start a coarse search when a signal is detected Slow down as you get closer to the signal 8 Fine Search move slow Use a systematic bracketing pattern to find the closest point to the signal Have only one searcher doing the fine search Pinpoint Using Probe Use a spiral probe pattern Leave probe in place PROBE ANGLE 90º SPIRAL PATTERN 25cm 25cm Dig as fast as possible; dig a large hole in a V shape Dig from below and toward the tip of the probe Change shovellers often Be careful near the end of the probe Patient Care Clear the airway; stabilize ABCs Protect neck and spine Treat for injuries/shock/hypothermia Leave patient in hole where found if safe Call for Outside Help only if extra rescuers are available or after everyone has been recovered 19

20 5 Steps of Organized Response Organized response is a response by an external trained response group or agency. The five steps are: Planning Pre-search Search Extrication and Transportation Demobilization Step 1: Planning This step occurs prior to entering avalanche terrain. This step is not usually the responsibility of the Team Member, though they may be involved in the development process. It may include the development of preplans including the following: Establishing rescue protocols Rescue party organization i.e. ICS, site management, roles and responsibilities Resource list snow safety personnel, helicopters, rescue dogs, snowmobiles, etc. Contact names and numbers Communication protocols Safety plan Transportation plan Medical plan Training plan Check lists Search termination protocols Interagency agreements 20

21 Step 2: Pre-Search The pre-search component typically occurs after the avalanche has occurred and before searchers access the deposit. During this step, the role of the OARTM is to follow directions and complete assignments as delegated by the most qualified person. Duties that fall into this step include: Establish command and control (most qualified person on scene) Gather information Establish PLS Assess further danger Post guard if necessary Avalanche control if required Plan escape routes Turn transceiver to receive Organize gear cache Prepare rescue gear Communicate with base Establish and follow route plan Step 3: Search This step is solely committed to finding subjects and OARTM may be tasked with any of the following duties. What actions are performed depends on available resources and on what is found. This is not a linear process as many of the following actions can occur simultaneously. The search phase is complete once all subjects have been located. Duties that fall into this step include: Visual sweep/scuff search Transceiver search Triage Investigate and mark all surface clues (preserve evidence and clue marking) Removal of clues Sketch map of site Transceiver search (signal search) Transceiver search (coarse and fine search) Pinpoint search (spiral probing) Spot probing at likely burial spots 3 hole per step probe lines Position probe Search dogs Use of other specialized equipment Prepare for prolonged search efforts Suspend search efforts 21

22 Step 4: Extrication and Transportation Following a hit with a visual clue, probe or dog, the subject will be extricated and transported off of the site. Duties that fall into this step include: Coordinated shoveling dig to face Clear airway Artificial respiration Stabilization Recovery of body Packaging subjects for transport Organize transportation ground or air Triage transport priority Communicate with EMS Care for survivors Searchers, bystanders and subjects must be removed from site Step 5: Demobilization Demobilization will be led by a Team Leader or SAR Manager following a completed field effort. Team Members may be involved in the following actions as part of the demobilization: Head count Accounting for equipment Wrap-up of operation Safe travel back Debrief CISM considerations Investigation/Documentation witness statements, weather forecasts, PAB, snow profiles Reporting CAA avalanche incident report Restock rescue kits personal and gear cache return to operational readiness 22

23 OAR SAR TECHNIQUES Wanding/Marking Standard Canada, as an IKAR member country, has adopted this standard and EMBC, in consultation with CARDA and the CAA, have further added to it to reflect the work of dog teams. Safety Access / Egress Indicates a route for subsequent teams to follow or as escape route Perimeter Indicates perimeter of avalanche path and debris and line where sign cutting has been completed Areas Probed Indicates areas spot-probed and the boundaries of an area covered by a probe line Finds by Rescuers Labeled wand flag or flagging tape indicating objects found, tracks and dog team indications Point Last Seen (Any colour) Indicates the point where the subject was last seen, either before the avalanche or while being carried by the it Body or Live Find (ANy Colour) Indicates where the subject was found essential for multiple burials 23

24 SEARCH TECHNIQUES 1. signal Search What: Transceiver search to establish signals. When: Use when no signal is found right away. How: This needs to be fast and searchers should rotate the transceiver as they travel. A. Single Searchers 20m from edge of debris; own tracks can be 40m apart. 40m 40m 20m 40m 40m 20m B. Multiple Searchers Searchers 40m apart and parallel to direction of slide. Note: The search stripwidth is a guideline only. It s important to know the range of your transceivers. 24

25 SEARCH TECHNIQUES 2. Coarse Search What: Transceiver search to narrow down search area. When: When signal has been found. How: Depends on number of burials, their proximity and type of transceiver used. A. Tangent Search When: For a single antenna Analog transceiver. i. Reduce range ii. Rotate transceiver on horizontal plane iii. Find strongest signal iv. Move towards strongest signal v. When loudest signal - repeat from i. until search area has been narrowed to within 3m B. Single burial Search WHEN: For a multiple antenna digital transceiver. i. Travel in the direction of indicators ii. Ensure distance is decreasing iii. When distance indication is within 3m move to fine search SIGNAL DETECTED - END OF SIGNAL SEARCH START OF COARSE SEARCH INDUCTION (BLACK LINE) WITH DIGITAL TRANSCEIVER TANGENT SEARCH (RED LINE) WITH ANALOG TRANSCEIVER 25

26 C. Multiple Burials Far apart When: When multiple transceiver signals are detected. How: Use search strip 6-20m wide to locate subsequent signals. Signal detected - end of signal search, start of coarse search 26

27 D. Micro Search Strip Technique When: When multiple signals detected in close proximity. Can be used with different transceivers when marking function not available. How: Parallel strips 2-5m apart. Distance depends on number of subjects and how close they are. More subjects and closer proximity = strips closer together. No more than 15m should be travelled laterally. Continue to fine search until subject s exact location identified. Continue on with micro search strip technique where left off until all subjects exact locations are identified. Multiple Signals in close proximity detected - end signal search, start micro search strips 27

28 3. FINE SEARCH WHAT: Transceiver search technique using a systematic bracketing pattern. WHEN: At the end of the coarse signal search. HOW: Conducted by a single searcher using technique in diagram. 1. Move in one direction until signal strength decreases or distance indication increases. 2. Reverse direction. 3. Use grid pattern as shown in diagram. 4. Continue bracketing until finding strongest signal or lowest distance indication. 5. Start pinpoint search (spiral probing). 28

29 4. Pinpoint search WHAT: A systematic approach to identify where the subject is located. When: Beginning at the strongest point where the transceiver signal is found. HOW: Probing is conducted perpendicular to the slope in a spiral pattern. Probe into the area, in 25cm increments from the initial probe hole. If no hit is registered, continue to probe outwards in a spiral fashion until a strike is made. NOTE: Always probe perpendicular to the slope. Incline Probing Techniques 29

30 5. POSITIONal PROBING WHAT: Probing to determine orientation of buried subject. WHEN: After initial probe strike and when knowledge of position is required to optimize shoveling effort. HOW: Use other probes to determine exact orientation. Try to determine where head/ airway is and direct shoveling efforts to this area. Position Probing 6.SPOT PROBING WHAT: Probing used to search likely burial areas. When: Frequently used by available resources despite the knowledge of a functioning/nonfunctioning transceiver. It is also used when a signal search results in no transceiver signal being located. HOW: Identify likely burials below PLS such as terrain traps, around trees, rocks, etc. 30

31 ProbE Line Techniques THREE HOLES PER STEP (3HPS) WHAT: Probe lines used to locate a subject when transceiver search is not possible. It is designed to maximize the potential of locating a subject alive in a short period of time. WHEN: Used when a signal search results in no transceiver signal being located and in conjunction with other techniques if sufficient resources are available. HOW: Searchers are lined up fingertip to fingertip. Designated TM may coordinate the probe line by calling the moves (usually used if untrained probers are involved). First hole between the searcher s feet. The next two holes are approximately 60cm to each side at a comfortable arm s reach and at an angle of approximately 10. The probe line then advances 60cm. FINE PROBE WHAT: Probe lines used in recovery operations to locate a subject when transceiver search is not possible. WHEN: Used when subject is presumed dead and coarse probing has not been successful. HOW: Designated TM would coordinate the probe line. Searchers are lined up elbow to elbow and probe two holes per step, one in front of each boot. The probe line then advances 30cm. three holes per step (3HPS) 31

32 Deep Burials Considerations for deep burials Transceiver responds with less precision Probing is more difficult due to deflection with increased depth & snow density Shoveling takes more time Survival rate decreases for burials below 1.6m When moving parallel to a transmitting transceiver a searcher may wrongly believe it is a deep burial False maximums may exist for older receivers Triage Considerations In situations where there are multiple burials and overwhelmed and/or limited resources, several factors both medical and tactical need to be taken into consideration. Factors to consider in medical and tactical triage in an avalanche response include: Medical status Relative burial depths Extrication time Presence of air pocket Potential terrain hazards in burial location Type of life-saving measures necessary Subject s ability to self rescue Subject s ability to assist rescue effort once extricated 32

33 Shoveling Techniques Things to consider during shoveling and extrication: Safety of subject Depth of burial Number of people available to shovel Strategy for efficiency Positional probing to optimize shoveling effort Time is of the essence! Do not stand on top of subject. V-Shaped Conveyor Method What: Efficient shoveling technique used to extricate a buried subject. When: After subject s position is identified. How: Fast, efficient offset shoveling creating a ramp to the subject. Must ensure safety of subject (i.e. do not stand on top of subject which could damage their air pocket). 33

34 V-Shaped Conveyor Method ( Copyright 2008 Genswein/Eide) cm Positioning of rescuers: quick measurement of distance between shovelers Working in sectors on the snow conveyor belt: snow is transported with paddling motions. Clockwise rotation is initiated by the front person: job rotation maintains a high level of motivation and minimizes early fatique Buried victim is first seen: more rescuers are needed at the front, and the snow conveyor belt only need be kept partially running. Careful work near the buried victim while some shovelers aggressively cut the side walls to adapt the tip of the V to the real position of victim. Interface to organize rescue: more space shoveled only after medical treatment of victim has started. 34

35 5. AVALANCHE TERRAIN EXPOSURE SCALE (ATES) ATES Figure 1: ATES Public Communication Model (v.1/04) Model (Source: Parks Canada) Description Class Terrain Criteria Simple 1 Exposure to low angle or primarily forested terrain. Some forest openings may involve the runout zones of infrequent avalanches. Many options to reduce or eliminate exposure. No glacier travel. Challenging 2 Exposure to well defined avalanche paths, starting zones or terrain traps; options exist to reduce or eliminate exposure with careful routefinding. Glacier travel is straightforward but crevasse hazards may exist. Complex 3 Exposure to multiple overlapping avalanche paths or large expanses of steep, open terrain; multiple avalanche starting zones and terrain traps below; minimal options to reduce exposure. Complicated glacier travel with extensive crevasse bands or icefalls. ATES Figure 2: ATES Technical Model (v.1/04) Model (Source: Parks Canada) 1 Simple 2 - Challenging 3 - Complex Slope angle Slope shape Forest density Terrain traps Avalanche frequency (events:years) Start zone density Runout zone characteristics Interaction with avalanche paths Route options Exposure time Glaciation Angles generally < 30º Mostly low angle, isolated slopes >35º Variable with large % >35º Uniform Some convexities Convoluted Primarily treed with some forest openings Minimal, some creek slopes or cutbanks 1:30 size 2 Limited open terrain Solitary, well defined areas, smooth transitions, spread deposits Runout zones only Numerous, terrain allows multiple choices None, or limited exposure crossing runouts only None Mixed trees and open terrain Some depressions, gullies and/or overhead avalanche terrain 1:1 for < size 2 1:3 for size 2 Some open terrain. Isolated avalanche paths leading to valley bottom Abrupt transitions or depressions with deep deposits Single path or paths with separation A selection of choices of varying exposure, options to avoid avalanche paths Isolated exposure to start zones and tracks Generally smooth with isolated bands of crevasses Large expanses of open terrain. Isolated tree bands Many depressions, gullies, cliffs, hidden slopes above gullies, cornices 1:1 < size 3 1:1 size 3 Large expanses of open terrain. Multiple avalanche paths leading to valley bottom Multiple converging runout zones, confined deposition area, steep tracks overhead Numerous and overlapping paths Limited chances to reduce exposure, avoidance not possible Frequent exposure to start zones and tracks Broken or steep sections of crevasses, icefalls or serac exposure 35

36 ACronyms Common abbreviations used throughout this manual ATES CAA CARDA CDFL CISM EMBC EMS IKAR PAB PLS RECCO - Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale - Canadian Avalanche Association - Canadian Avalanche Rescue Dog Association - Class D Fixed Line - Critical Incident Stress Management - Emergency Management BC - Emergency Medical Services - Internationale Kommission für Alpines Rettungswesen (International Commission for Alpine Rescue - ICAR) - Public Avalanche Bulletin - Point Last Seen - a registered trademark for a two-part system that utilizes harmonic radar to search for subjects wearing RECCOequipped clothing 36

37 NOTES 37

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