Black Elk Wilderness USDA FOREST SERVICE BLACK HILLS NATIONAL FOREST. A Report on Wilderness Character Monitoring AUGUST, Elizabeth Mejicano

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1 USDA FOREST SERVICE Black Elk Wilderness A Report on Wilderness Character Monitoring Elizabeth Mejicano BLACK HILLS NATIONAL FOREST AUGUST, 2013 Page 1

2 Forest Supervisor Date Page 2

3 It is my hope in establishing the Black Elk Wilderness that the US Congress will be nourishing the root of Black Elk s sacred tree that from this site the reminder will come of man s relationship to nature and that in this small way Black Elk s vision of man s relationship to man and our destiny will take leaf and bloom and the tree be filled with singing birds. Such is the character of this special area and such is the nature of this one man s vision Senator McGovern in his introduction to the bill to designate the Black Elk Wilderness Page 3

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 6 Historical and Administrative Setting of the Wilderness 9 Biophysical Setting of the Refuge Wilderness 12 Documents Consulted 14 Staff Consulted 15 Process Used for Identifying Measures 16 Wilderness Character Monitoring Measures 17 Untrammeled 21 Natural 27 Undeveloped 56 Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation 67 Other Features 83 Measures Not Used 91 Conclusions 92 Appendices 93 A. Priority ranking of all measures considered 94 B. Summary of effort required for wilderness character monitoring 97 C. Data sources and protocols for all measures used 101 D. Overall score sheet for LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Figure 1 Keeping it Wild hierarchical framework 7 Figure 2 The Black Hills National Forest 10 Figure 3 The Black Elk Wilderness 11 Figure 4 The Black Hills from space 12 Table 1 Data Quantity 18 Table 2 Data Quality 18 Table 3 Overview of Measures Used Table 4 Untrammeled Quality 21 Table 5 Categories for significant change for authorized trammeling actions 22 Table 6 Authorized actions and persistent structures that trammel the wilderness 23 Table 7 Counting and reporting trammeling actions 23 Figure 5 Fire history in the wilderness area Table 8 Fire history in the wilderness Table 9 Categories for significant change for unauthorized trammeling actions 26 Table 10 Natural Quality 27 Table 11 Non-native invasive plants in the Black Elk Wilderness 28 Table 12 Status of rare plants and the associated measure values for significant change 29 Table 13 Final index for rare plant species 30 Table 14 Weighting scheme for the national/regional/local status of rare plant species 30 Table 15 Weighting scheme for the wilderness population status for each monitoring site 30 Table 16 Rare plant species scoring index for status in the Black Elk Wilderness 31 Table 17 Non-native species known to be in the wilderness 32 Table 18 Weighting scheme for native species of concern 34 Table 19 Index of native species of concern 35 Table 20 Categories for significant change for ozone concentration 36 Figure 6 Annual average and maximum ozone concentration (ppb) from Figure 7 Annual percent of hours with high ozone levels 37 Table 21 Categories for significant change for wet deposition of nitrogen 38 Figure 8 Annual wet deposition of nitrogen 39 Table 22 Categories for significant change for wet deposition of sulfur 40 Figure 9 Annual wet deposition of nitrogen 41 Page 4

5 Table 23 Categories for significant change for fine sulfate and nitrate 42 Figure 10 Average fine nitrate and fine sulfate 43 Table 24 Index of dams 44 Table 25 Measure scoring protocol for significant trend 46 Figure 11 Average annual summer temperatures 47 Figure 12 Average annual winter temperatures 47 Figure 13 Total annual precipitation 48 Figure 14 Cumulative annual winter snowfall 49 Figure 15 Severe weather events in the Central Black Hills 50 Table 26 Watershed condition class by acre 51 Figure 16 Watershed condition class for the Black Hills National Forest 52 Figure 17 Watershed condition class for the Black Elk Wilderness 52 Table 27 Vegetation condition class by acre 53 Figure 18 Vegetation condition class for the Black Hills National Forest 54 Figure 19 Vegetation condition class for the Black Elk Wilderness 54 Figure 20 The perimeter of wilderness serving as an entry point for invasive species 55 Table 28 Undeveloped Quality 56 Table 29 Index of authorized physical developments in the Black Elk Wilderness Table 30 Weighting scheme for authorized physical developments 60 Table 31 Categories for significant change for non-authorized motorized or mechanical use 62 Table 32 Unauthorized motorized or mechanical use 63 Table 33 Categories for significant change for emergency motorized or mechanical use 64 Table 34 Index of authorized emergency and special-provision use in Table 35 Weight for the amount/time of emergency/special provision equipment used 65 Table 36 Inherent weights of various types of motorized and mechanical use 65 Table 37 Hypothetical example of scoring administrative use 66 Table 38 Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Quality 67 Figure 21 The number of people registering upon entry to the wilderness from Table 39 Weighting scheme for visitor use 69 Table 40 Registration data for fiscal years Table 41 FY2012 trail counter data 70 Table 42 FY2011 trail counter data 70 Table 43 FY2009 trail counter data 70 Table 44 FY2008 trail counter data 70 Table wilderness ranger travel route encounters 72 Table wilderness ranger travel route encounters 72 Table 47 Weighting scheme for visitor encounters 72 Figure 22 Area of the wilderness away from sights and sounds of people 73 Table 48 Development index for user-created sites in the Black Elk Wilderness in Table 49 Development index for user-created sites in the Black Elk Wilderness in Figure 23 Area of the wilderness away from adjacent developments 75 Figure 24 Area of the wilderness impacted by commercial helicopter routes 76 Figure 25 The amount of development within 10 miles of the wilderness boundary 77 Table 50 Wilderness trails 78 Table 51 Index of authorized recreation facilities 79 Table 52 Weighting scheme for authorized recreation facilities 80 Table 53 Index of Management Restrictions in the Black Elk Wilderness 81 Table 54 Weighting Scheme for Wilderness Regulations 82 Table 55 Other Features Quality 83 Table 56 Categories for significant change for unauthorized actions against Harney Tower 85 Table 57 Amount of graffiti on Harney Tower 85 Table 58 Condition index for the Harney Tower site 86 Table 59 Weighting scheme for the condition of the Harney Tower site 87 Page 5

6 INTRODUCTION The Wilderness Act of 1964 was established to protect natural lands from the seemingly endless threat of expanding settlement and growing mechanization. The primary mandate of the Wilderness Act, Section 4(b), states that each agency administering any area designated as wilderness shall be responsible for preserving the wilderness character of the area. Today, many wilderness field and program managers perceive steady erosion in wilderness character caused by widespread threats 1, but lack a consistent definition of wilderness character and the means for measuring its loss or preservation or assessing the impact of stewardship. In 2006, an Interagency Wilderness Character Monitoring Team representing the USDA Forest Service and the Department of the Interior (DOI) Bureau of Land Management, DOI Fish and Wildlife Service, DOI National Park Service, and DOI U.S. Geological Survey was established to promote wilderness stewardship and develop a standard definition of wilderness character and strategy for monitoring trends in wilderness character. The Team identified 5 qualities of wilderness character based on the language of the Wilderness Act 2 : Untrammeled An area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man Natural Protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions Undeveloped An area of undeveloped Federal land without permanent improvements or human habitation Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation Other Features of Value May also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value These qualities apply to all designated wilderness areas regardless of their size, location, administering agency, or other unique place-specific attributes because they are based on the legal definition of wilderness. In addition to the five tangible qualities there are also important intangible aspects of wilderness character that would be difficult or even impossible to quantify or monitor. These intangible aspects are diverse and include the scenic beauty, spiritual experiences, immensity of an area, and 1 Cole, D.N Ecological impacts of wilderness recreation and their management. In Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values (J.C. Hendee and C.P. Dawson, editors). Third Edition. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing: Cole, D.N.; Landres, P.B Threats to wilderness ecosystems: impacts and research needs. Ecological Applications 6: Hendee, J.C; Dawson, C.P Stewardship to address the threats to wilderness resources and values. International Journal of Wilderness 7(3):4-9. Landres P.; Marsh, S.; Merigliano, L.; Ritter, D.; Norman, A Boundary effects on national forest wildernesses and other natural areas. In Stewardship Across Boundaries (R.L. Knight and P.B. Landres, editors). Washington, DC:Island Press: Landres, P.; Barns, C.; Dennis, J.G.; Devine, T.; Geissler, P.; McCasland, C.S.; Merigliano, L.; Seastrand, J.; Swain, R Keeping it Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor Trends in Wilderness Character Across the National Wilderness Preservation System. 81 pages. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-212, Fort Collins, CO. Page 6

7 opportunities for self-discovery, self-reliancy, and challenge that come from wilderness settings. Currently, these intangible aspects of wilderness can only be addressed in narrative form. Wilderness character may be either preserved or degraded by the actions or inaction of managers. The challenge of wilderness stewardship is that decisions and actions taken to protect one aspect of wilderness character may diminish another aspect. In addition, the accumulated result of seemingly small decisions and actions may cause a significant gain or loss of wilderness character over time. Because of this complexity, preserving wilderness character requires that managers document decisions made and the impacts of those decisions. In 2008, the Team published an interagency strategy for monitoring trends in wilderness character across the National Wilderness Preservation System titled Keeping it Wild. The framework is based on the qualities of wilderness character defined above. Each quality is divided into a hierarchical set of monitoring questions, indicators, and measures to assess trends in wilderness character. While the qualities, monitoring questions and indicators are nationally consistent, measures are specific and sometimes unique to individual wilderness areas (Figure 1). Wilderness Character Qualities Nationally Consistent Monitoring Questions Indicators Measures Locally Relevant Figure 1. Keeping it Wild hierarchical framework This approach balances national and local needs for monitoring by defining locally relevant measures whose trends can be compiled at higher levels for national or regional reporting. This interagency 7monitoring strategy: Evaluates and documents the effects of actions taken inside the wilderness and effects from threats outside the wilderness; Allows managers to understand consequences of decisions and actions in wilderness; Provides on-the-ground information to assess trends and make defensible decisions; Provides regional and national information to evaluate policy effectiveness; Provides solid information for planning; Guards against legal vulnerability; Synthesizes data into a single, holistic assessment of wilderness character; Communicates a positive and tangible vision for what wilderness is within the agency and with the public; Improves on-the-ground wilderness stewardship. Page 7

8 The purpose of this monitoring strategy is to offer a consistent means for documenting trends in wilderness character and wilderness management within a wilderness. Trends in wilderness character (i.e. improving, stable, or degrading) derived from this monitoring strategy are both nationally consistent and independent of the unique aspects specific to any given wilderness; therefore, trends in wilderness character can be compared between wildernesses or across regions. Under this monitoring strategy, while trends can be compared between wildernesses, comparing wilderness character itself among different wildernesses is inappropriate. Each wilderness is unique in its legislative and administrative direction, and in its social and biophysical setting; therefore wilderness character in a particular wilderness cannot, and will not, be compared to that of another wilderness. This interagency strategy has proved to be an effective tool for wilderness managers with limited resources. The following report establishes a baseline condition and monitoring strategy for the Black Elk Wilderness based the interagency strategy outlined in Keeping It Wild. A Wilderness Character Monitoring Database (WCMD) accompanies this document including entries for all measures and baseline data specific to this Wilderness. Page 8

9 HISTORICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SETTING OF THE BLACK ELK WILDERNESS HISTORY OF ESTABLISHING THE WILDERNESS The Black Hills (Pahá Sápa) are sacred ground to the Lakota people, to other members of the Sioux Nation, to the Cheyenne, and to the Arapaho, among others. Harney Peak (Hinhan Kaga Paha), now within the designated wilderness area, has long been (and still is) regarded as the center of the world by many peoples, and the area surrounding it considered the Heart of the Hills. It was on Harney Peak that Black Elk, the Oglala Sioux holy man for whom this wilderness is named, spoke his renowned prayer, and it is where his famous vision unfolded. The connections of various tribes to this land go back thousands of years and continue to this day. It was in part due to the cultural and spiritual significance of this land that it was proposed for wilderness designation. As former Senator McGovern stated in his introduction of the bill to designate the Black Elk Wilderness, it is not only important to preserve the area surrounding Harney Peak for generations to come so they might enjoy a taste of wilderness, but it is historically, morally, and spiritually so very right that we do so. The view of Harney Peak and the Black Elk Wilderness from Little Devil s Tower. Predating the wilderness designation by 60 years, the Norbeck Organic Act of June 5 th, 1920 established the Custer State Park Sanctuary (41 Stat. 986), later renamed the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve (63 Stat. 708), for the protection of game animals and birds to be recognized as a breeding place therefor. Today, the Black Elk Wilderness is located within and is surrounded by the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve. The enabling legislation for the wilderness states that the provisions of the Norbeck Organic Act shall also apply to the Black Elk Wilderness to the extent that they are not inconsistent with the provisions of the Wilderness Act. Twelve years later on July 3 rd, 1932, the Secretary of Agriculture established the Upper Pine Creek Research Natural Area within the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve in order to preserve an ecological example of virgin forest for future generations to experience, as well as to be used in research as a comparison with other types of land use areas. The 1,190 acres that make up this research natural area are now completely contained within the wilderness area. In accordance with 36 CFR , the Upper Pine Creek RNA must retain a virgin or unmodified condition except where measures are required to maintain a plant community which the area is intended to represent. Page 9

10 On December 22 nd, 1980 the Black Elk Wilderness was designated by congress as a wilderness area and component of the National Wilderness Preservation System (Public Law ). Originally 9,826 acres, the designated wilderness area was expanded in 2002 to a total of 13,426 acres (P.L , Sec. 706(n)) and now comprises 1.1% of the Black Hills National Forest. WILDERNESS PURPOSES The Wilderness Objectives of the Forest Service are as follows (FSM ): Maintain and perpetuate the enduring resource of wilderness as one of the multiple uses of National Forest System land. Maintain wilderness in such a manner that ecosystems are unaffected by human manipulation and influences so that plants and animals develop and respond to natural forces. Minimize the impact of those kinds of uses and activities generally prohibited by the Wilderness Act, but specifically excepted by the Act or subsequent legislation. Protect and perpetuate wilderness character and public values including, but not limited to, opportunities for scientific study, education, solitude, physical and mental challenge and stimulation, inspiration, and primitive recreation experiences. Gather information and carry out research Figure 2. The Black Hills National Forest. The National Forest is located in South Dakota and Wyoming and abuts Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Jewel Cave National Monument, Wind Cave National Park, and Custer State Park. in a manner compatible with preserving the wilderness environment to increase understanding of wilderness ecology, wilderness uses, management opportunities, and visitor behavior. The Black Hills National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Phase II Amendment (March, 2006) states that: the Black Elk Wilderness is to be managed to protect and perpetuate natural processes while providing opportunities for solitude and self-reliance. It is further intended that managers will: Actively restore Wilderness ecosystems damaged by humans to the degree feasible. Identify the processes needed to access, restore, or mitigate human-induced change. (Objective) Permit visitor freedom in Wilderness to the maximum extent feasible while recognizing that restrictions may be necessary to protect the quality of the wilderness experience. Take responsive actions quickly to protect the Wilderness Resource. (Objective) Coordinate with the Dept. of Defense agencies and the Federal Aviation Administration to develop procedures and guidelines to avoid or mitigate low-level flights over the Wilderness. (Objective) Use Wilderness as a baseline by measuring indicators critical to ecological integrity. (Goal) Restore fire in Wilderness to its natural role in the ecosystem. (Goal) Protect and preserve the social values unique to certain cultures while recognizing them within the context of an enduring resource of Wilderness. (Goal) Provide opportunities for solitude in the Wilderness. (Goal) Page 10

11 Emphasize opportunities outside Wilderness for recreation activities that are not dependent on a wilderness setting. (Goal) To the extent that the provisions of the Norbeck Organic Act (41 Stat. 986) are not inconsistent with the Wilderness Act, the following management objectives and goals for the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve from the Black Hills National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Phase II Amendment (March, 2006) apply to the Black Elk Wilderness: Emphasis on species commonly hunted, fished, or trapped will follow species priorities established by the state of South Dakota. Maintain habitat needed to support population goals agreed upon in consultation with the State. (Objective) Provide wildlife cover and forage. (Objective) Manage tree stands for wildlife habitat and vegetative diversity. (Goal) Manage forest cover types to provide variety in stand sizes, shape, crown closure, edge contrast, age structure and interspersion. (Goal) Consistent with wildlife needs, emphasize vista openings, rock outcroppings and hardwood stands along roads open year-long or seasonally, and along trails. (Goal) Research Natural Areas (RNAs), including the Upper Pine Creek Research Natural Area contained within the Black Elk Wilderness, are ecological areas designated for non-manipulative research, education, and biodiversity conservation. The standard for the Upper Pine Creek RNA from the Black Hills National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Phase II Amendment (March, 2006) is to conserve the natural condition of the ecosystem, its processes, and any species or values for which the research natural area was established. Figure 3. The Black Elk Wilderness. The Black Elk Wilderness is surrounded by the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve and contains within it the Upper Pine Creek Research Natural Area. Custer State Park and Mount Rushmore National Memorial abut the wilderness boundary. Page 11

12 BIOPHYSICAL SETTING OF THE BLACK ELK WILDERNESS GEOGRAPHIC SETTING The Black Elk Wilderness is part of the Black Hills National Forest and is managed by the Hell Canyon Ranger District based in Custer, SD. Close to the geographic center of North America, the wilderness is also centered in the most popular recreation area in the state: Mount Rushmore National Memorial and Custer State Park border the wilderness area, the Peter Norbeck National Scenic Byway circles it, and both Jewel Cave National Monument and Wind Cave National Park are less than 20 miles distant. The Black Hills are the remnants of an isolated mountain range formed from the same Laramide orogeny that produced most of the ranges of the Rocky Mountains. The uplift of this area began 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period and ended approximately 35 million years ago. Although the Black Hills were never affected by glaciation, over time erosion has created a rounded mountain range and removed the overlaying sedimentary and metamorphic rocks to expose the topography seen today. In its entirety, the Black Hills are about 120 miles long and 60 miles wide. From a distance, the pine covered mountains appear black against the flat backdrop of the prairies; the Lakota name for this area Pahá Sápa translates to hills that are black. Figure 4. The Black Hills from space (accessed from Google Maps 7/18/13) The central core geomorphological region of the Black Hills in which the Black Elk Wilderness falls consists primarily of domelike hills of exposed 1.6 billion year old Precambrian granitic and metamorphic rocks. Elevations range from 4,360 to 7,242 feet above sea level; Harney Peak, at 7,242 feet above sea level, is the highest point east of the Rocky Mountains in the US. In contrast to this uplift, the prairie surrounding the Black Hills is about 3,200 feet above sea level. The topography is defined by granite outcroppings and cliffs with steep slopes and narrow valley bottoms. Where there is soil, it is generally a shallow, sandy loam. The Black Hills are also mineral rich; arsenic, beryllium, feldspar, gold, lead, lithium, mica, silver, tantalum, tin, and tungsten have all been found in the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve. Local climatic conditions are strongly influenced by the topography of the hills. Temperature fluctuations, inversions, and large hail are not uncommon. Average annual precipitation is also higher in the Black Hills than in the surrounding prairie (20-24 inches compared with approximately 18 inches) with most of the precipitation falling as rain during the spring and summer months. ECOLOGICAL SETTING The Black Hills are located in the crossroads between the Rocky Mountains, eastern woodlands, northern forests, and the Great Plains and as such have fairly high species diversity. In the wilderness area, the predominant tree species is ponderosa pine with white spruce, aspen, and other hardwoods Page 12

13 also present in some areas. Natural openings, meadows, and bare rocky outcrops interrupt these forested stands. Due to the high elevation of the Black Elk Wilderness, many species that are found in the wilderness are not present or are rare elsewhere in the Black Hills. The Norbeck Wildlife Preserve s mandate to provide habitat for game animals and birds includes the wilderness area. While the populations of many native game animals and birds are actively maintained, so too are the populations of non-native mountain goats, bighorn sheep, and Merriam s turkey all introduced from s. No federal or state endangered species are present in the wilderness. The Black Elk Wilderness had a historical fire frequency of every years (range: years). The exposed granite outcrops and ridges of that area serve to limit the fire spread between stands, slightly decreasing the overall frequency of fire in the wilderness area from that generally found in the southcentral Black Hills (every 16 years, range: 1-45 years). Historically, these fires would have been surface fires of low severity that mainly burned the understory and small trees, with infrequent stand replacement occurring every 300+ years. The last large scale fire that occurred in the Black Elk Wilderness occurred in Over the course of the last century approximately five fire cycles have been missed due to suppression and other management activities. Prior to the Mountain Pine Beetle infestation of recent years, the forest community was representative of a late successional closed stage marked by dense stands of ponderosa pine and an average of 50-80% canopy closure a stand condition well outside the historical range of variability. (For the Black Hills National Forest as a whole there is a 67% or greater departure from the historical conditions). At this time, approximately 90% of the trees in the wilderness have been attacked by Mountain Pine Beetles and are in the process of dying. These beetles are native to western North America (including the Black Hills), attack ponderosa and limber pine, and are currently at epidemic levels. Both the blue stain fungus carried by the Pine Beetle killed trees in the Black Elk Wilderness. adults and the tunnels created by adults and larvae disrupt the movement of food and water within the trees they inhabit. High density stands of mature pines like those present in the wilderness area are vulnerable to large-scale infestation, especially when weakened by drought or other environmental factors. The Black Elk Wilderness is in the Cheyenne River Basin. While the Black Hills region has some of the best surface water in the state, the water in the wilderness area is, in general, of even higher quality. The cooler climate and higher elevations of the Black Hills leads to higher precipitation than the surrounding plains, and the even higher elevations in the wilderness area increases the precipitation there even above the surrounding Hills. Increased forest cover and less-erodible bedrock formations also contribute to the high water quality of the area. Water originating in the Black Hills is an important source for aquifers in the Northern Great Plains. Air quality in the wilderness is also considered to be good; although the Black Elk Wilderness is a class II airshed, neighboring Badlands and Wind Cave National Parks are both designated as class I. Page 13

14 DOCUMENTS CONSULTED Black Hills National Forest Documents Annual Wilderness Reports (Fiscal Years ) Black Elk Wilderness Decision Notice Implementation Schedule Environmental Assessment (Johnston, J., E. Singsaas, T. Reetz, R. Kehr, K. Luebechow, T. Phillipe, 1990) Black Elk Wilderness Prescribed Fire Assessment (Lloyd, M., A. Allen, K. Honors, S. Malon, G. Lipp, 2008) Black Hills National Forest Fire Management Plan (March, 2011) Black Hills National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Phase II Amendment (2006) Focus Species Norbeck Wildlife Preserve Black Hills National Forest (Griebal, R., K. Burns, S. Diesch, 2007) Final Environmental Impact Statement Volumes 1 & 2 Norbeck Wildlife Project (2010) Harney Lookout Tower Preservation Project Proposal (BKF Heritage Report No. R ) (Padilla, M., D. Pickford, J. Poppen, 2013) Memorandum of Understanding Between South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks and USDA Forest Service Black Hills National Forest (10-MU : Norbeck MOU SDGFP) (2009) Norbeck Wildlife Preserve Landscape Assessment (Continuing Education in Ecosystem Management Group Module XII, 2006) Other Documents The 2012 South Dakota Integrated Report for Surface Water Quality Assessment (South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2012) 36 CFR Part 800 Protection of Historic Properties (incorporating amendments effective August 5, 2004) Interagency Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) Guidebook Version 3.0 (2010) The Needles of Rushmore (Busse & Burr, 2012) Report to the Secretary of Agriculture USDA Policy and Procedures Review and Recommendations: Indian Sacred Sites (USDA Office of Tribal Relations and USDA Forest Service, 2012) USDA Forest Service Manual (FSM), Chapter , Wilderness Management Objectives (2007) USDA Watershed Condition Framework (FS-977) (2011) Wilderness Character Monitoring Documents Keeping It Wild: An Interagency Strategy to Monitor Trends in Wilderness Character across the National Wilderness Preservation System (USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-212) (Landres, P., C. Barns, J. G. Dennis, et al., 2008) *Referred to in text as Keeping it Wild Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service: A Strategy to Monitor Wilderness Character (Forest Service Wilderness Character Monitoring Team, May 31, 2013 Draft) *Referred to in text as Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service (May 2013 Draft) Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service: A Strategy to Monitor Wilderness Character (Forest Service Wilderness Character Monitoring Team, June 23, 2013 Draft) *Referred to in text as Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service (June 2013 Draft) Keeping It Wild in the National Park Service, A User Guide to Integrating Wilderness Character into Park Planning, Management, and Monitoring (National Park Service Wilderness Character Integration Team December 2012 Final Draft) Measuring Attributes of Wilderness Character, BLM Implementation Guide (Bureau of Land Management Version 1.5) *Referred to in text as the BLM Implementation Guide Technical Guide for Monitoring Selected Conditions Related to Wilderness Character (USDA Forest Service Report WO-80) (Landres, P., S. Boutcher, L. Dean, et al. 2009) *Referred to in text as the Forest Service Technical Guide Page 14

15 STAFF CONSULTED Hell Canyon District Ranger Office Laura Burns Staff Officer: Supervisory Forester (Heritage, Lands, Recreation, and Wilderness) Dave Pickford Recreation Specialist Meaghan Buehler Lands Specialist Gary Haag Geologist Matthew Padilla Archaeologist Brad Phillips Wildlife Biologist Tracy Clark Wildlife Biologist Jamie Wheeler Wildlife Biologist Sheila French Noxious Weeds Coordinator (Newcastle) Justin McConkey Range Management Specialist (Newcastle) Mystic Ranger District Les Gonyer Staff Officer: South Zone Hydrologist Supervisor Office Cheryl Mayer Stisser Botanist Rocky Mountain Research Station Mark Rumble Research Wildlife Biologist Other Gus Malon former Wilderness Specialist and climbing liaison (Hell Canyon Ranger District) Page 15

16 PROCESS USED FOR IDENTIFYING MEASURES The process for identifying measures began with gathering background information on the Black Hills National Forest and the Black Elk Wilderness to get a general sense of the management priorities for the wilderness area (see list of documents consulted). Forest Service staff members who worked mostly or partly in the wilderness area (see staff consulted) were then met with to discuss their wilderness field work and projects, what data were being collected, and what they were most concerned about and would most want to see monitored in the Black Elk Wilderness. During this time, the wilderness area was visited both alone and while working with the trail crew to gain insight to the perspectives of visitors and on-the-ground staff. From readings, discussions with staff members, and visits to the wilderness, a preliminary list of measures was developed. After receiving a copy of the May 31 st draft of Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service*, measures on this list that were similar in nature to any of the recommended measures were adjusted to comply with the descriptions in that document. Forest Service staff members were again met with in order to prioritize measures (see prioritizing measures worksheet), to eliminate all superfluous measures or measures lacking sufficient data, and to identify any additional potential measures. These were refined once more in response to an updated June 23 rd draft of Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service, and a final draft of measures was presented to various key wilderness staff members for comments and review. The actions that negatively impact sacred places, or impede/inhibit Native American access to or ceremonial use of sacred places indicator was originally developed through discussion with Forest Service staff and through reading various documents on sacred sites, the current use of these sacred places, and the history of land possession in the Black Hills. Additional discussion was undertaken with tribal members and representatives to determine their interest level and response to this indicator as well as to incorporate their feedback only a positive response from the concerned tribes would have allowed this indicator to be included in wilderness character monitoring. *In summer of 2013, the Forest Service Wilderness Character Monitoring Team was in the midst of drafting Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service: a Strategy to Monitor Wilderness Character, which adapts the national wilderness character monitoring strategy first outlined in Keeping it Wild for the needs of the Forest Service. In this document, they outline 48 recommended measures which are further classified as being required (25 measures), required if relevant (11 measures), or optional (12 measures) for all Forest Service managed wildernesses. 30 of the measures identified for the Black Elk Wilderness are required or required if relevant measures from the June 23, 2013 draft of this document; 5 additional measures are from the draft s optional recommended measures. The final 4 measures identified for the Black Elk Wilderness are not from this document but were included for their high local relevance. Page 16

17 WILDERNESS CHARACTER MONITORING MEASURES This section describes in detail the measures chosen to monitor the Black Elk Wilderness. The data source, collection protocol, contextual information, 2013 data value and the data year are described for each measure. Additional details are also addressed including: The frequency of a measure how often the data are collected and entered into the Wilderness Character Monitoring Database (WCMD), usually every one or five years. The significant change how much a measure s data point must change from a previous data entry to suggest a change in trend of wilderness character for that measure. The weight of a measure the importance of a measure relative to other measures within a particular indicator. The sum of the weights of each measure within an indicator equals 100%. All measures under each indicator are weighted equally for the Black Elk Wilderness. The condition (good, caution, or poor) what the measure s data indicate about wilderness character: whether the data reflect a good or poor condition of wilderness character, or whether the data indicate that while the effect is neither good nor poor, there is concern about what the data say about the wilderness character. The frequency, significant change, weight, and condition were determined by the Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer and/or resource specialists. Data adequacy (the reliability of the data to assess trends in the measure) will also be described for each measure. The intention behind evaluating data adequacy is to understand where improvements in data collection need to be made, not to evaluate how well an individual measure represents a particular aspect of wilderness character. For example, if the data indicate a degrading trend in a particular indicator and the data adequacy is deemed low, this would suggest that the trend be interpreted conservatively, not discounted entirely, and that greater efforts be expended in future years to acquire more or better data. To determine the data adequacy of each measure for this report, two related but distinct aspects of data adequacy are subjectively evaluated: data quantity and data quality. Data quantity refers to the level of confidence that all appropriate data records have been gathered. Data quality refers to the level of confidence about the source(s) of data and whether the data are of sufficient quality to reliably identify trends in the measure. Data quantity and quality is subjectively evaluated for each measure according to the following categories (Tables 1 & 2) is the baseline year for the wilderness as a whole. When measures have legacy data available, the baseline for that specific measure will be from the first year for which data is available post-wilderness designation. For the Black Elk, designated in December of 1980, the earliest possible baseline year for a measure would be A measure s 2013 data value, therefore, may not necessarily be the measure s baseline data value. For examining trends in wilderness character for the wilderness as a whole, 2013 remains the overall baseline year. In addition, for some measures (i.e. measures under the climate change and air and water indicators and the index of user-created sites) the protocol is to report the most recent available data as the 2013 value. The actual year of data collection (mostly 2011 or 2012) is recorded as the data year. The baseline assessment for the Black Elk Wilderness will be the first to be completed following the drafted guidelines of the Forest Service Wilderness Character Monitoring Team. As of yet, there is no Page 17

18 accompanying methodology document or technical guide for the recommended measures outlined in Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service (June 2013 Draft); all data collection protocols and indices presented here were either adapted from earlier implementation guides from the Forest Service and other agencies or developed with the input of resource specialists to achieve maximum local relevance. When a conflict arose between the Forest Service Wilderness Character Monitoring Team s measure descriptions and local data availability or local priorities, the assessment erred on the side of local relevance while still making an attempt to accommodate national consistency. If or when a technical guide is published in the future it may or may not be necessary to update the collection protocols accordingly. A basic overview of the five qualities of wilderness character, the monitoring questions and indicators described in Keeping it Wild in the Forest Service (June 23 rd draft), and the measures used for the Black Elk Wilderness is provided in Table 3. Table 1. Data quantity Complete Partial Insufficient This category indicates a high degree of confidence that all data records have been gathered. For example, to assess the occurrence of nonindigenous invasive plants, a complete inventory of the wilderness was conducted or all likely sites were visited. This category indicates that some data is available, but the data are generally considered incomplete (such as with sampling). For example, to assess the occurrence of nonindigenous invasive plants, a partial inventory was conducted or a sampling of sites was conducted where these plants are likely to occur. This category indicates even less data records have been gathered or perhaps this measure is not dependent on actual field data. For example, no inventory for nonindigenous invasive plants has been conducted, and visitor use was not assessed anywhere. Table 2. Data quality High Moderate This category indicates a high degree of confidence that the quality of the data can reliably assess trends in the measure. For example, data on the occurrence of nonindigenous invasive plants are from ground-based inventories conducted by qualified personnel; for visitor use, data would come from visitor permit data. This category indicates a moderate degree of confidence about the quality of the data. For example, data on invasive plants could come from national or regional databases; for visitor use, data could come from direct visitor contacts. Low This category indicates a low degree of confidence about the quality of the data. For example, data on invasive plants and visitor use could come from professional judgment. Page 18

19 Table 3. Overview of measures used UNTRAMMELED NATURAL UNDEVELOPED MONITORING QUESTION What are the trends in actions that control or manipulate the earth and its community of life inside wilderness? What are the trends in degradation to the natural environment from humancaused change? What are the trends in physical developments inside of wilderness? What are the trends in mechanization inside of wilderness? INDICATOR Authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Non-authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Plants Animals Air & Water Climate Change Ecological Processes Presence of structures, installations, and developments Inholdings Use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport MEASURE Number of authorized actions and persistent structures designed to manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire Percent of natural fire perimeters that were manipulated Number of unauthorized actions by agencies, citizen groups, or individuals that manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire Number of non-native invasive plant species Index of plant species of concern Number of non-native animal species Index of animal species of concern Ozone exposure statistics Wet deposition of nitrogen Wet deposition of sulfur Visibility statistics Index of dams Water quality statistics Average annual winter and summer temperatures Annual precipitation Annual winter snowfall Number of severe weather events Average watershed condition class Average natural fire regime condition class Miles of wilderness boundary serving as an entry point for invasive species Index of authorized physical development Index of inholdings Number of non-authorized uses of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of emergency and special-provision authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of administrative authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment or mechanical transport Page 19

20 Table 3. Overview of measures used (continued) SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATION MONITORING QUESTION What are the trends in outstanding opportunities for solitude inside wilderness? What are the trends in outstanding opportunities for primitive and unconfined recreation inside wilderness? INDICATOR Encounters Remoteness from sights and sounds of people inside of wilderness Facilities that decrease selfreliant recreation Management restrictions on visitor behavior MEASURE Number of visitors Number of travel route encounters Area of wilderness away from access and travel routes and developments Index of user-created sites Area of wilderness not affected by adjacent travel routes and human developments Area of wilderness not affected by commercial helicopter flights Viewshed affected by developments outside of wilderness Miles of developed trails (condition classes 3-5) Index of authorized recreation facilities Index of visitor management restrictions OTHER FEATURES What are the trends in features of cultural or historical value integral to the wilderness? Deterioration or loss of cultural resources integral to wilderness character: Harney Tower site Negative impacts to sacred places, or impediments or inhibitions to Native American access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Number of unauthorized actions that damage or disturb the Harney Tower site Condition index for Harney Tower site Authorized actions/non-actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Unauthorized actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Page 20

21 UNTRAMMELED Wilderness is essentially unhindered and free from modern human control or manipulation. The American Heritage Dictionary (1992) 1 defines untrammeled as allowed to run free and lists the following synonyms: unrestrained, unrestricted, unhindered, unimpeded, unencumbered, self-willed, and wildness. The use of this word in the Wilderness Act has received significant attention and discussion which continues even today. Nash (2004) 2 noted that when we protect wilderness we deliberately withhold our power to change the landscape. Withholding action is a key concept for understanding the Untrammeled Quality; management of Wilderness, in contrast to management of other types of land, should be approached with restraint and humility. The Untrammeled Quality monitors actions that intentionally manipulate or control the biophysical environment (in contrast to the Natural Quality which monitors the effects from such actions inside wilderness or from external forces). Although the Forest Service or other agencies, individuals, or citizen groups that trammel wilderness may do so to achieve a positive end (for example, in order to improve one of the other qualities of Wilderness Character, to comply with Federal regulations, or to improve visitor or community safety), those actions still degrade the Untrammeled Quality. Table 4. Untrammeled Quality Indicator Measure Frequency in Years Data Adequacy Significant Change 2013 Value Authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Non-authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Number of authorized actions and persistent structures designed to manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire Percent of natural fire perimeters that were manipulated Number of unauthorized actions by agencies, citizen groups, or individuals that manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire 1 <3 or >7 5 Any 100% 1 > American Heritage Dictionary Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. 2 Nash, R Celebrating Wilderness in George Wright Forum 21(3):6-8. Page 21

22 UNTRAMMELED QUALITY Authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Number of authorized actions and persistent structures designed to manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire 2013 Data Value: 6 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: A count of actions authorized by the Forest Service that are intended to manipulate, at a broad-scale, any component of the biophysical environment within wilderness (including vegetation, fish, wildlife, insects, pathogens, soil, water, or fire). This includes discretionary and non-discretionary actions required to uphold other laws as well as any independent actions authorized by the Forest Service through special permits (i.e. research actions, etc.). Persistent structures built in the wilderness that manipulate or alter the hydrology (i.e. dams, guzzlers, stock ponds, etc.) count as one action the year they were built. Use of motorized and mechanical equipment, while a degradation of the Undeveloped Quality, is not a trammeling action. The counting protocol is outlined in Table 7. A decrease in the number of authorized actions intended to manipulate the biophysical environment in the wilderness improves the Untrammeled Quality. Background and Context: There are various actions currently taken by the Forest Service or with Forest Service authorization that trammel the wilderness. These include: herbicide spraying, fire suppression, trapping of animals for research, etc. The potential for the number of authorized actions to increase is considered to be high. Potential future actions include but are not limited to the following: Using native seed mix or bringing in plants to restore native vegetation Seed collection of Limber Pine or other species (USFS Botany, this usually occurs every other year) Control of insects or disease Fuel reduction or prescribed burning Research actions taken by the Rocky Mountain Research Station in the Upper Pine Creek Research Natural Area Data source: Special use permits and various resource specialists including: Hell Canyon Noxious Weeds Coordinator Sheila French, Botanist Cheryl Mayer, Recreation Specialist Dave Pickford, Rocky Mountain Research Station (Rapid City office) Mark Rumble. Data adequacy: There is high confidence that all data records have been gathered, therefore data quantity is complete. Data quality is also high. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 5 below) is a significant change Table 5. Categories for significant change for authorized trammeling actions Category Good Caution Poor Very Poor Trouble Measure Value Page 22

23 Table 6. Authorized actions and persistent structures that trammel the wilderness # Actions Reason* By whom* Herbicide treatment of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) Natural Quality USFS Weeds Herbicide treatment of musk thistle (Carduus nutans) Natural Quality USFS Weeds 6 Herbicide treatment of houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale) Natural Quality USFS Weeds Herbicide treatment of common mullein (Verbascum thapsus) Natural Quality USFS Weeds Suppression of the 2013 Grizzly Fire Public safety USFS Fire Small mammal trapping and tagging (flying squirrel research) Research SD State Uni. *The reason and by whom columns do not have any effect on the number of actions counted. They are included here as extra information to help explain why actions were taken. Table 7. Counting and reporting trammeling actions Adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide (page 55) Type of Action Example Reporting Single action at a Spotted knapweed treated in a Report one action single location single location Single action at Spotted knapweed treated in Report one action for the single species multiple location Multiple actions at a single location Multiple actions at multiple locations Action occurs within a single fiscal year Action spans multiple fiscal years without interruption Action spans multiple fiscal years with interruption several locations An herbicide is used to treat spotted knapweed and Canada thistle in the same location An herbicide is used to treat both spotted knapweed and Canada thistle in several locations Spotted knapweed treated from June July 2007 Spotted knapweed treated in May and again in August Herbicide treatment initiated in August 2007 and ended in November 2007 Herbicide treatment occurred August November from 2007 to 2009 regardless of the number of locations Report one action for each species (one treatment on two species = two actions) Report one action for each species regardless of the number of locations (one treatment on two species = two actions) Report one action Report one action Report one action for the fiscal year in which treatment was initiated (one action for FY07, zero actions for FY08). Report one action for each fiscal year in which treatment was initiated (one action for FY07, one action for FY08, one action for FY09, zero actions for FY10). Different types of herbicide treatments (i.e. chemical spraying, granular pellets, hand pulling, etc.) are not considered different actions (using both Milestone and granular herbicides on 1 species = 1 action) Using bio-control is counted as a separate action from using chemical herbicides or mechanical treatment because it is also a release of species into the wilderness Treatment of a few lone specimens of one species is not of a large enough scale to be included here Each fire is a separate event and is counted separately (suppression of two distinct fires = 2 actions) Separate research treatments or species should follow the rules above (treating plants and trapping small mammals = two actions; mist netting birds and bats = two actions) Do not combine multiple research permits when counting (two permits to mist net bats = two actions) Research occurring off and on over a year or in various locations is counted as one action Trapping = one action; trapping and tagging = one action; trapping and taking samples (blood, tissue, etc.) = one action; trapping, tagging, and taking samples = one action Observational research is not trammeling (observing presence/absence of bird species = zero actions) Page 23

24 UNTRAMMELED QUALITY Authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment 2013 Data Value: 100% Data Year: 2013 Condition: Poor Percent of natural fire perimeters that were manipulated Measure description and collection protocol: The percentage of the sum total of the perimeters of natural, wilderness-originating fires that were manipulated. This tracks fire management actions taken to affect the behavior of fires that originated naturally in the wilderness and is intended to look at the percent of natural fires in the wilderness that are allowed to run their natural course without interference; natural fires originating outside of the wilderness that may burn into the wilderness are not counted under this measure, nor is management of human-caused fires. All fires less than 10 acres are assigned a perimeter of 0.5 miles as they are too small for a true perimeter to be calculated (0.5 miles will generally be an overestimate of the total perimeter). For 5 year periods in which there are no fires, the previous 5 year period s value will be used. A decrease in the percent of natural fire perimeters that were manipulated improves the Untrammeled Quality. Background and Context: Fire is a natural and essential part of the ecosystem in the Black Elk Wilderness, and suppression of natural fires is a trammeling action. Currently, all natural, wildernessoriginating fires receive a suppression response. Given the high amount of private and non-forest Service land in the area surrounding the wilderness, this strategy of complete suppression is expected to continue indefinitely. Definitions: National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) Fire Size Class Codes: A: greater than 0 but less than or equal to.25 acres B: 0.26 to 9.9 acres C: 10.0 to 99.9 acres Data source: Individual Wildland Fire Reports and O drive GIS data of fire points and fire history. Data adequacy: Due to the abundance of fire documentation, data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Page 24

25 Figure 5. Fire history in the wilderness area Table 8. Fire history in the wilderness Fire Name Year Cause Area Class Perimeter Percent manipulated (Acres) (miles) (in 5 year intervals) Grizzly 2013 Lightning B (~3) : 100% Norbeck 2007 Lightning A (0.1) 0.5 Pine Creek 2007 Lightning A (0.2) 0.5 Starling 2006 Lightning B (0.5) 0.5 Grizzly Bear 2006 Lightning A (0.1) : 100% Horse Thief 2005 Lightning B (0.5) 0.5 Norbeck Overlook 2005 Lightning A (0.1) 0.5 Nelson Creek 2004 Lightning B (2.7) 0.5 Elkhorn* 2003 CAMPFIRE C (40.6) 1.37 Grizzly Bear 2003 Lightning B (1) 0.5 Lost Cabin 2002 Lightning C (24.0) 1.05 Buckhorn 2002 Lightning B (1) 0.5 Grizzly 2001 Lightning A (0.1) : 100% Grizzly Creek 2001 Lightning A (.5) 0.5 Elk Horn 2000 Lightning B 0.5 Horse Camp 2000 Lightning B 0.5 Black Elk 1996 Lightning A 0.5 Lost Cabin 1995 Lightning B : 100% Harney View 1991 Lightning B 0.5 Misery 1989 Lightning A 0.5 Marmaduke 1989 Lightning A : 100% Winston* 1989 ARSON B 0.5 Suckling 1988 Lightning A 0.5 Cliff 1987 Lightning B 0.5 Snuffy 1987 Lightning B 0.5 Washington 1986 Lightning A 0.5 Iron Mtn.* 1986 UNKNOWN UNKNOWN : 100% Grizzly 1985 Lightning B 0.5 Goat 1985 Lightning B 0.5 Toll Gate 1985 Lightning A 0.5 Tucker 1983 Lightning A : 100% *These fires were not included in calculating the 5 year percent values because they were not naturally started fires. They are included in this list for informational purposes only. Page 25

26 UNTRAMMELED QUALITY Non-authorized manipulations of the biophysical environment Number of unauthorized actions by agencies, citizen groups, or individuals that manipulate plants, animals, pathogens, soil, water, or fire 2013 Data Value: 0 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: A count of actions not authorized by the Forest Service that are taken by individuals, citizen groups, or other agencies that are intended to manipulate, at a broad-scale, any component of the biophysical environment (i.e. cutting/thinning trees, purposely releasing non-native species, etc.). A decrease in the number of unauthorized actions intended to manipulate the biophysical environment improves the Untrammeled Quality. Background and Context: Unauthorized trammeling actions are fundamentally different from authorized trammels in that they are usually taken with little or no consideration of the effects on the broader ecological systems within the wilderness. Although unauthorized actions may not occur every year, they occur at a high enough frequency that the condition is considered to be at the caution level at this time. Past unauthorized actions that have trammeled the wilderness that are expected to occur again in the future include: Boundary incursions (i.e. cutting timber over the boundary line, either by the Forest Service, Custer State Park, Mount Rushmore, or private individuals) State release of wildlife or fish* directly outside of the wilderness without the knowledge and/or explicit authorization of the Forest Service and with the intent that those animals will enter and reside inside the wilderness *While Rainbow Trout are stocked by the State in Lakota and Horsethief Lakes, there is currently not a significant number of these fish that swim down streams into the wilderness area. Data source: Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: There is little communication between the state and the Forest Service and boundary incursions are only discovered incidentally; therefore data quantity is insufficient and data quality is low. Frequency: Yearly Custer State Park timber markings on the stump of a cut tree inside the wilderness (Norbeck 3). Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 9 below) is a significant change Table 9. Categories for significant change for unauthorized trammeling actions Category Good Caution Poor Very Poor Trouble Measure Value Page 26

27 NATURAL Wilderness ecological systems are substantially free from the effects of modern civilization. The Natural Quality incorporates all of the biological and physical elements that occur in the wilderness and the interactions between them. Unlike the Untrammeled Quality which focuses on actions, the Natural Quality examines effects on the biophysical environment in the wilderness. The monitoring question further specifies that the effects are a result of human-caused change; changes in communities or processes that occur naturally over time are not intended to be included under this quality. Natural processes and elements present in wilderness are threatened by modern human activity both inside and outside of the wilderness. While some aspects of the Natural Quality may be under the control of wilderness managers, other aspects (such as air quality or the effects of climate change) may not be. Indicator Table 10. Natural Quality Measure Frequency in Years Data Adequacy Significant Change 2013 Value Plants Animals Air & Water Climate Change Ecological Processes Number of non-native invasive plant species 5 Any 5 Index of plant species of concern 5 9 or > Number of non-native animal species 5 Any 3 Index of animal species of concern 5 Any 8 Ozone exposure statistics 1 50 ppb ppb Wet deposition of nitrogen 1 <7 or 9 kg/ha 7.08 kg/ha Wet deposition of sulfur 1 <1 or 3 kg/ha 2.7 kg/ha Visibility statistics 1 5 µg/m³ µg/m³ Index of dams 5 Any 1 Water quality statistics Average annual winter and summer p-value 1 temperatures Annual precipitation 1 p-value inches Annual winter snowfall 1 p-value inches Number of severe weather events 1 p-value Average watershed condition class 5 Any 2 Average natural fire regime condition class 5 Any Miles of wilderness boundary serving as an entry point for invasive species 5 Any 12.2 miles Page 27

28 NATURAL QUALITY Plants Number of non-native invasive plant species 2013 Data Value: 5 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The number of non-native, locally invasive plant species present in the wilderness. The count will be compiled from records of invasive plants the weeds crew has found and treated in the wilderness in the last five years. A decrease in the number of non-native invasive species improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Alteration of plant communities in wilderness due to the presence of invasive species has the potential to result in cascading effects to the ecosystem. The weeds crew currently treats any invasive plant that they notice when working in the wilderness area. Invasive plants are treated with granular herbicides by foot, and with liquid spraying of herbicides by horseback; bio-control techniques have also been used in the past. Trailheads to the wilderness and in the Norbeck are also monitored annually for the spread of invasives: at this time leafy spurge, yellow toadflax, and knapweed have all been found in the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve or at trailheads or parking lots outside of the wilderness boundary; none, however, have been encountered in the wilderness as of yet. As these plants are of particular concern due to their tenacity and ability to spread, and since they are not present in the wilderness as of yet, the baseline condition is considered to be good. Data source: Hell Canyon Noxious Weeds Coordinator Sheila French, Range Management Specialist Justin McConkey. Data adequacy: Noxious weeds are actively monitored for in and around the wilderness area. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Total 5 Table 11. Non-native invasive plants in the Black Elk Wilderness Plant Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense) Musk Thistle (Carduus nutans) Houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale) Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata) to date only one plant has been found in the wilderness Page 28

29 NATURAL QUALITY Plants Index of plant species of concern 2013 Data Value: 10.2 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: A count of native plant species that are sensitive species or of local concern weighted by both the national/regional/local listing status of the plant and its population status in the wilderness. This measure is intended to show whether the wilderness functions as a regional refuge to protect threatened, endangered, or sensitive plant species. All wilderness sites still currently monitored are included in this measure. Sites for which no data have been collected in the last 5 years will use the most recent available data. The population status at each site will be determined by the professional judgment of the botanist (see Table 15) and the scores for all the sites for a plant species will be averaged. As a proxy for abundance, the number of sites will be multiplied by 0.02 and subtracted from the species average; the discovery of a new site, therefore, will improve (decrease) the species score. The wilderness population status of each species will be multiplied by the national/regional/local listing status (see Table 14) and added together to attain the final measure value. A decrease in the measure value indicates an improvement in a species listing status or an increase in its wilderness population status and therefore an improvement in the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Native plant species are uniquely adapted to local environmental conditions and serve to benefit and maintain the local community of life through such roles as providing soil nutrients, preventing soil erosion, and providing food and habitat for native wildlife. The higher elevations in the wilderness area act as a refuge for species that are rare elsewhere in the forest. There are currently six rare plant species that are known to be present in the wilderness area. Data source: Botanist Cheryl Mayer. Data adequacy: Rare plant sites are monitored in the wilderness on an annual, biannual, or multi-year basis; the majority of sites, however, have been monitored at least once in the last five years. Data quality is high and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any change in overall status is a significant change (see Table 12) Table 12. Status of rare plants and the associated measure values for significant change Overall Status Measure Value Excellent 9 Good Moderate Poor Terrible 18 Page 29

30 Table 13. Final index for rare plant species Species National/Regional/ Status in the Black Total X Local Status Elk Wilderness Botrychium multifidum 1 (SOLC) Carex bella 1 (SOLC) Oxyria digyna 1 (SOLC) X Pinus flexilis 1 (SOLC) Plantanthera orbiculata 1 (R2) Viola selkirkii 1 (R2) Grand Total 10.2 Table 14. Weighting scheme for the national/ regional/local status of rare plant species National/Regional/Local status for Weight each species R2 sensitive species or BHNF SOLC 1 State or federally threatened 2 State or federally endangered 3 Table 15. Weighting scheme for the wilderness population status for each monitoring site Population status in the Black Elk Weight Wilderness for each monitoring site Present & Healthy (high/normal 1 abundance, limited or no disease, etc.) Present & At Risk (decreased abundance from baseline or historic normal, some 2 disease present, etc.) Present & Imperiled (low abundance, 3 high levels of disease, etc.) Absent 4 Page 30

31 Species Table 16. Rare plant species scoring index for status in the Black Elk Wilderness Wilderness Site Year of most recent monitoring Presence/ absence and condition Score Botrychium multifidum BOMU-1 BOMU Present Healthy Present At Risk 1 2 BOMU ABSENT 4 BOMU Present At Risk 2 BOMU Present Healthy 1 BOMU Present Healthy 1 Carex bella CABE Present At Risk 2 CABE Present At Risk 2 CABE Present At Risk 2 CABE Present Healthy 1 CABE Present Healthy 1 Oxyria OXDI Present Healthy 1 digyna OXDI Present Healthy 1 OXDI Present Healthy 1 OXDI Present Healthy 1 OXDI Present Healthy 1 OXDI Present Healthy 1 Pinus flexilis PIFL Present At Risk 2 PIFL Present Imperiled 3 PIFL Present At Risk 2 Platanthera PLOR Present At Risk 2 orbiculata PLOR Present Imperiled 3 PLOR Present At Risk 2 Viola selkirkii VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present At Risk 2 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present Healthy 1 VISE Present At Risk 2 VISE Present At Risk 2 Species Average Species average (0.02 x # of sites) = Status in the Black Elk Wilderness = = = = = = 0.9 Page 31

32 NATURAL QUALITY Animals Number of non-native animal species 2013 Data Value: 3 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: A count of non-native animal species that exist in wilderness. This includes non-native stocked fish; recreational stock use is not included here as the presence of these animals is temporary. A decrease in the number of non-native invasive species improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: There is currently no data on non-native species in the wilderness, although their impacts on native flora and fauna are generally considered to be low. The non-native species listed in this count, therefore, are those which we know for a fact are present in the wilderness because their populations are actively maintained by the state. The three wildlife species listed below were all originally introduced in the 1950s or earlier and stocking continues to this day. Data source: Wildlife biologist Brad Phillips and RMRS Research Wildlife Biologist Mark Rumble. Data adequacy: No data is collected on invasive species the only non-native species that we know for sure are in the wilderness are those stocked by the state. Data quantity is insufficient and data quality is low. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 17. Non-native species known to be in the wilderness Total Number Species Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) 3 Mountain Goat (Oreamnos americanus) Merriam s Turkey (Meleeagris gallepavo merriami) Page 32

33 NATURAL QUALITY Animals Index of animal species of concern 2013 Data Value: 8 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: An index of animal species that are sensitive species or of local concern weighted by both the listing status of the animal and its wilderness population status (see Table C. below). An improvement in a species listing status or an increase in its abundance or habitat improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Three species (see descriptions below) have been selected to represent native animal species of concern. Limiting factors to population density are thought to be primarily based on habitat availability; however, anthropogenic influences (primarily the number of humans, horses, and pets) can also impact native animal breeding success and survival. Black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) Data supplied by the Rocky Mountain Research Station (M. Rumble, personal communication 2013) suggests that this species is currently benefitting from the mountain pine beetle (MPB) epidemic. An estimated breeding pairs are presumed to occur in the wilderness (Rumble, 2013). Black-backed woodpeckers are a Norbeck Focus Species chosen by the Black Hills National Forest and South Dakota Game, Fish, & Parks biologists in May, 2007 as a representative animal for species utilizing habitat of dead trees (burned areas and MPB killed trees). This species is also a Region 2 Sensitive Species. Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) This species was recorded on Breeding Bird Surveys routes in the wilderness conducted in the 1990s. Presently observations are rare but still occur. Habitat preferences for aspen and spruce may allow this bird to increase in the future; as ponderosa pine trees are reduced by MPB, aspen will be allowed to increase. Conversations with South Dakota Game, Fish, & Parks biologists and observation reports suggest that the grouse population in the wilderness and immediate vicinity is low but stable at this time. Ruffed Grouse are a Black Hills National Forest Management Indicator Species (these species were chosen to assist the Forest in monitoring habitat trends that result from Forest management activities and natural disturbance events; the current list of species was determined for the 1997 revised Black Hills National Forest Land and Resources Management Plan, as amended in 2006 (Phase II amendment)). They are also a Norbeck Focus Species (chosen as a representative of species that depend on aspen). American Marten (aka Pine Marten) (Martes americana) This solitary animal was studied between (Fecske, 2003) and that report classified the Black Elk Wilderness/Norbeck Wildlife Preserve as a high quality habitat patch for this species in the Black Hills Forest region. The data of that study suggest that at that time the marten population in the wilderness was stable. Since 2003, MPB associated conifer tree mortality has increased dramatically. How this has affected the survival of the marten is unclear, but sightings of the marten in the wilderness are still being reported. This animal might be expected to see population decreases as the MPB continues to change what was referred to as high-quality habitat and as human visitation (and the number of offleash dogs) continues to increase. American Marten are a Region 2 Sensitive Species. Fecske, D.M Distribution and Abundance of American Martens and Cougars in the Black HIlls of South Dakota and Wyoming. Dissertation, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD. Page 33

34 Definitions: Population Status Increasing: species populations are naturally increasing (i.e. increases are not thought to be due to habitat degradation elsewhere forcing a species to crowd into the wilderness area) Stable: species population appears stable; if only presence or absence data is known, a score of stable would indicate presence Decreasing: species population is decreasing; this score should be based on actual State or Forest population monitoring data Extirpated: a species no longer exists in the wilderness but is believed to still exist elsewhere; this score should be based on actual State or Forest population monitoring data Habitat Threat Low/None: habitat for this species is not at risk either within the wilderness or in the immediate area surrounding the wilderness Medium: habitat for this species is at moderate risk either within the wilderness or in the immediate area surrounding the wilderness (for example, high MPB tree mortality in the wilderness increases the risk of catastrophic wildfire) High: habitat for this species is at risk with improvement difficult or unlikely Data source: The wilderness status was determined by Brad Phillips (Hell Canyon Ranger District wildlife biologist). The population status was based on available Black Hills National Forest and South Dakota Game, Fish, & Parks data, as well as local knowledge and anecdotal information provided by the Hell Canyon Ranger District biologists. The habitat threat score is based on existing conditions and considers immediate threats to these habitats (i.e. ongoing conifer mortality from the MPB infestation inside the wilderness and the surrounding area). Data adequacy: At this time due to the lack of hard data being collected in the wilderness area this score is largely subjective. Data quality is low and data quantity is insufficient. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 18. Weighting scheme for native species of concern Wilderness Status National/Regional/Local Status Score X R2 Sensitive Species, Norbeck Focus species, BHNF Management Species, or Species of Local Concern 1 Population Status Score Increasing 1 X Habitat Threat Status Score Low/None 1 State or Federally threatened species 2 X Stable 2 X Medium 2 State or Federally endangered species 3 Decreasing 3 High 3 Extirpated 4 Page 34

35 Species Table 19. Index of native species of concern National/Regional/Local Status X Population Status Wilderness Status X Habitat Threat Status Black-backed R2 Sensitive Species & Woodpecker Norbeck Focus Species = 1 Stable = 2 Low* = 1 2 Ruffed Grouse BHNF MIS Species & X X = Stable = 2 Low* = 1 Norbeck Focus Species = 1 2 American Marten R2 Sensitive Species = 1 Stable = 2 Medium = 2 4 Grand Total 8 *Current levels of MPB caused tree mortality is providing additional habitat for the black-backed woodpecker. It is also improving growing conditions for aspen which benefits the ruffed grouse. = Total Score Page 35

36 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Ozone exposure statistics 2013 Data Value: ppb Data Year: 2011 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The average annual ozone concentration (ppb). Data are taken from Wind Cave National Park, the nearest monitoring site to the wilderness (less than 20 miles away). A decrease in ozone concentration improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Ozone is a phytotoxic compound: the effects of ozone range from visible leaf/needle injury to premature leaf loss, reduced photosynthesis, and reduced growth in sensitive species. While ozone affects vegetation and plant species, as it is an airborne product of urban areas it is counted under this indicator. The current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for Ozone is.075 ppm (75 ppb); ozone concentrations under 40 are considered to be near background level. Although W126 and N100 statistics would ideally have been included under this indicator, no calculations for these statistics exist for this monitoring site. Data source: Visibility Information Exchange Web System (VIEWS): (Report: raw data; Dataset: EPA Ozone Hourly; Site: Wind Cave National Park; Parameter: Ozone; Dates: choose one year and select all months). Data adequacy: The monitoring station at Wind Cave, while within a negligible distance from the Black Elk Wilderness, is at a significantly lower elevation (1,500 feet lower on average than the wilderness area). Because there tends to be increased concentrations of ozone at higher elevations, it is assumed that the ozone exposure statistics from Wind Cave are lower than that in the wilderness area. Data quality is therefore moderate. Data are collected every hour, every day; data quantity is therefore complete. Frequency: Yearly (yearly collection will be data from 2 years prior due to the delay in posting data) Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 20 below) is a significant change Table 20. Categories for significant change for ozone concentration Category Excellent Good Caution Poor Measure Value < 50 ppb > 100 ppb Page 36

37 O3 (ppb) Annual ozone Year average ozone maximum ozone Figure 6. Annual average and maximum ozone concentration (ppb) from Annual percent of hours with high ozone concentrations Percent of hours with high ozone concentrations Year Percent of hours over 60 ppb Percent of hours over 75 ppb Figure 7. Annual percent of hours with high ozone levels. The current National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for Ozone is.075 ppm (75 ppb). The EPA proposed to revise the standard to between ppb in 2010 but no final decision was reached and the proposed revision was eventually withdrawn. Page 37

38 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Wet deposition of nitrogen 2013 Data Value: 7.08 kg/ha Data Year: 2011 Condition: Poor Measure description and collection protocol: The sum of the amounts of ammonium and nitrate that are added to the wilderness annually through wet deposition. Data are taken from Wind Cave National Park, the nearest monitoring site to the wilderness (less than 20 miles away). A decrease in the amount of nitrogen deposited through precipitation improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Nitrogen is a major component of acidic deposition, which causes chemical changes in freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, and soils that can affect aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. In addition, the deposition of nitrogen can result in unnatural nutrient enrichment, which can lead to changes in plant and animal diversity and shifts in ecosystem processes. Data source: National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) website: (site: Wind Cave National Park (SD04); annual data summary: deposition, annual (NH 4 and NO 3 )). Data adequacy: Data are collected weekly; annual data reports state whether or not annual data meet NADP/NTN completeness criteria (annual data have been meeting these criteria since 2003). Although the monitoring station is outside the wilderness, the distance is negligible. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly (yearly collection will be data from 2 years prior due to the delay in posting data) Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 21 below) is a significant change Table 21. Categories for significant change for wet deposition of nitrogen Category Excellent Good Caution Poor Very Poor Trouble Measure Value < 1 kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha High Concern kg/ha Page 38

39 10 Annual wet deposition of nitrogen Wet deposition of nitrogen (kg/ha) NH4 + NO3 NO3 NH Year Figure 8. Annual wet deposition of nitrogen Page 39

40 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Wet deposition of sulfur 2013 Data Value: 2.7 kg/ha Data Year: 2011 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: The amount of sulfur that is added to the wilderness annually through wet deposition. Data are taken from Wind Cave National Park, the nearest monitoring site to the wilderness (less than 20 miles away). A decrease in the amount of sulfur deposited through precipitation improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Sulfur is a major component of acidic deposition, which causes chemical changes in freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, and soils that can affect aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. A decrease in deposition of sulfur indicates a decrease in the threat of atmospheric pollutants to the wilderness. Data source: National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) website: (site: Wind Cave National Park (SD04); annual data summary: deposition, annual (SO 4 )). Data adequacy: Data are collected weekly; annual data reports state whether or not annual data meet NADP/NTN completeness criteria (annual data have been meeting these criteria since 2003). Although the monitoring station is outside the wilderness, the distance is negligible. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly (yearly collection will be data from 2 years prior due to the delay in posting data) Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 22 below) is a significant change Table 22. Categories for significant change for wet deposition of sulfur Category Excellent Good Caution Poor Measure Value < 1 kg/ha kg/ha kg.ha kg/ha Page 40

41 Annual wet deposition of sulfur Wet deposition of sulfur (kg/ha) Year Figure 9. Annual wet deposition of sulfur. Page 41

42 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Visibility statistics 2013 Data Value: µg/m³ Data Year: 2011 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The sum of anthropogenic fine nitrate and sulfate, this measure represents visual air quality. Data are taken from Wind Cave National Park, the nearest monitoring site to the wilderness (less than 20 miles away). The average annual fine sulfate and average annual fine nitrate are added to get a total annual sum. A decrease in the sum of anthropogenic fine nitrate and sulfate improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Sulfate particles form from sulfur dioxide gas, which is mostly released from industrial sources; nitrate particles form from nitrogen oxide gas that is mainly released from combustion activities. Fine particulates are more efficient at scattering and absorbing light thus impacting visibility and causing regional haze than are course particulates. Reduced visibility causes increased reflective power, which can affect local climate and photosynthetic activity as well as wildlife species that depend on clear, clean air for successful foraging. The primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard for fine particulate pollution (PM 2.5 ) is 12 µg/m³ (annual mean averaged over 3 years). Although the percentage of sulfates and nitrates in the PM 2.5 composition varies by region, they generally can represent roughly half of the total. There is concern that pollutants from coalbed methane development in eastern Wyoming will blow into the wilderness area. Although ideally deciview would also be included here, deciview measurements at Wind Cave stopped in Data source: Visibility Information Exchange Web System (VIEWS): (Report: summary statistics (average); Dataset: IMPROVE aerosol; Site: Wind Cave National Park; Parameters: Fine Nitrate and Fine Sulfate; Dates: choose one year and select all months). Data adequacy: Data at the Wind Cave National Park monitoring station are collected every few days, therefore data quantity is complete. Although the monitoring station is outside the wilderness, the distance is negligible and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly (yearly collection will be data from 2 years prior due to the delay in posting data) Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 23 below) is a significant change Table 23. Categories for significant change for fine sulfate and nitrate Category Excellent Good Caution Poor Measure Value <3 µg/m³ µg/m³ µg/m³ >9 µg/m³ Page 42

43 1.4 Average fine nitrate and fine sulfate 1.2 Mass of particles < 2.5 µ in diameter (µg/m³) Year Average Fine Sulfate (SO4) Average Fine Nitrate (NO3) Figure 10. Average fine nitrate and fine sulfate Page 43

44 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Index of dams 2013 Data Value: 1 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: A count of dams within wilderness weighted by their impact (size, mean water flow of channel, etc.). Dams will be weighted according to the development level values from the Forest Service Technical Guide (see Table 24 below) and the sum of the weights for all dams will be the index number. A decrease in the number or impact of dam in the wilderness improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: By restricting and moderating water flow, dams significantly impact the Natural Quality. There is only one dam in the wilderness area. This dam supports a 5,000 gallon reservoir and, as part of the Harney Peak site, it is also counted under the Other Features Quality. No other dams are ever expected to be constructed in the wilderness, and it is highly unlikely that the Harney Peak dam will be removed in the near future. Data source: Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: The only dam in the wilderness is on the National Register of Historic Places and its presence is of common knowledge. No other dams are ever expected to be built. Therefore, data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 24. Index of dams, adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide (page 156) Development Level Values Dams not meeting National Inventory of Dams (NID) criteria dams with a height less than 6 feet or a maximum storage of less than 15 acre-feet or other instream structures Dams meeting NID criteria dams greater than 6 feet high and a maximum storage greater than 15 acre-feet that are constructed of native materials (i.e. earthen dams) Dams meeting NID criteria dams greater than 6 feet high and a maximum storage greater than 15 acre-feet that are constructed of nonnative materials (i.e. concrete dams) Weight Wilderness dams at this level Sub Total Page 44

45 NATURAL QUALITY Air & Water Water quality statistics 2013 Data Value: Data Year: Condition: Measure description and collection protocol: Locally collected statistics of water quality (e.g. temperature, quantity, dissolved O2, dissolved pollutants, sedimentation, etc.). Although water temperature could be affected by climate change, that aspect of water quality should be included in this measure if data are available. Background and Context: Data source: Data adequacy: Frequency: Significant change: Page 45

46 NATURAL QUALITY Climate Change Average annual winter and summer temperatures 2013 Data Value: 0 Data Year: 2012 (for winter temperatures this indicates the value) Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Average annual winter (December February) and summer (June August) temperatures. The monitoring site is located at Mount Rushmore National Memorial, which abuts the wilderness area. Data are seasonal averages of the average monthly temperature for the three summer or winter months. The measure value will be based off of regression analysis (see table C. Measure scoring protocol for significant trend). Any trend in the average annual winter or summer temperature (whether increasing or decreasing) is a degradation of the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Climate change has the potential to drastically alter the natural systems within wilderness. Changes in annual temperature patterns affect almost all aspects of an ecosystem species distribution and demography, phenology, rates of nutrient cycling, etc. Data source: Western Regional Climate Center: (in the search box type Mount Rushmore and click climate survey; choose custom monthly listing on the left sidebar, select daily mean temperature and mean). Data adequacy: Data are collected daily and compiled monthly. Months in which any days of data collection were missed are noted; if there are more than 5 days of data missing for any month, data quantity and quality for that year is considered partial and moderate respectively. Data quality is high and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Simple linear regression analysis, α =.05, for all data 1981-present; any significant trend is a significant change (see Table 25 below). Any change in the measure value is a significant change Table 25. Measure scoring protocol for significant trend Average Annual Summer Temperatures Average Annual Winter Temperatures Measure Value No significant trend No significant trend 0 Significant trend No significant trend 1 No significant trend Significant trend 1 Significant trend Significant trend 2 Page 46

47 75 Average annual summer temperatures Average Summer Temperature June-August (degrees Fahrenheit) y = x Years Figure 11. Average annual summer temperatures. There is no significant trend from (F = 0.28; P-value = 0.60). 36 Average annual winter temperatures Average Winter Temperature December-February (degrees Fahrenheit) y = x Years Figure 12. Average annual winter temperatures. There is no significant trend from (F = 0.14; P-value = 0.71) Page 47

48 NATURAL QUALITY Climate Change Annual precipitation 2013 Data Value: inches Data Year: 2012 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Total annual precipitation falling in wilderness. The monitoring site is located at Mount Rushmore National Memorial, which abuts the wilderness area. Data are the annual sums of the cumulative daily precipitation. Any trend in the annual precipitation (whether increasing or decreasing) is a degradation of the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Precipitation is a key component of the wilderness ecosystem. Both drought and excessive precipitation can have major effects on plant and animal species as well as on soil and water quality. Data source: Western Regional Climate Center: (in the search box type Mount Rushmore and click climate survey; choose custom monthly listing on the left sidebar, select daily precipitation and sum). Data adequacy: Data are collected daily and compiled monthly. Months in which any days of data collection were missed are noted; if there are more than 5 days of data missing for any month, data quantity and quality for that year is considered partial and moderate respectively. Overall, data quality is high and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Simple linear regression analysis, α =.05, for all data 1981-present; any significant trend is a significant change Cumulative inches of precipitation Total annual precipitation Year Figure 13. Total annual precipitation. Marked points indicate years in which more than 5 days of data were missing for any given month. There is no significant trend from (F = 0.42; P-value = 0.52). Page 48

49 NATURAL QUALITY Climate Change Annual winter snowfall 2013 Data Value: 64.8 inches Data Year: 2012 (this indicates the winter of ) Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: The cumulative inches of annual winter snowfall in the wilderness area. The monitoring site is located at Mount Rushmore National Memorial, which abuts the wilderness area. Data are the annual sum of the cumulative daily snowfall from July to June. Any trend in the annual snowfall (whether increasing or decreasing) is a degradation of the Natural Quality. Background and Context: As the climate changes, the timing and phase of precipitation may be altered to increase or reduce the amount of precipitation falling as snow. Data currently do not exist to measure the annual snow water content; cumulative snowfall is therefore considered the best alternative to look at trends in precipitation phase over time. The baseline condition for this measure is caution because data analysis of all available data (including pre-wilderness designation data) indicates that there is almost a significant decreasing trend (p-value = 0.06). Data source: Western Regional Climate Center: (in the search box type Mount Rushmore and click the climate survey link; choose custom monthly listing on the left sidebar, select daily snowfall and sum, select July as the month to begin annual total). Data adequacy: Data are collected daily and compiled monthly. In general, the historical data quantity is complete and historical data quality is high; however, there have been a few years in which there have been a significant number of days missing data. If there are more than 5 days of data missing for the primary snowfall months (November-April), data quantity and quality for that year is considered partial and moderate. Following this, data quantity for is partial and data quality is moderate. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Simple linear regression analysis, α =.05, for all data 1981-present; any significant trend is a significant change Cumulative Snowfall (Inches) Cumulative annual winter snowfall y = x Year (July-June) Figure 14. Cumulative annual winter snowfall. Marked points indicate years in which more than 5 days of data were missing from November-April. There is no significant trend from (F =.64; P-value = 0.43) Page 49

50 NATURAL QUALITY Climate Change Number of severe weather events 2013 Data Value: 5 Data Year: 2012 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The number of severe weather events (e.g., tornadoes, hurricanes, microbursts, straight line winds, flooding, etc.) that occur in wilderness. Drought is not included in this measure, as it is a product of reduced precipitation that will be quantified by the Annual precipitation measure. In some areas these extreme weather events are part of the natural climate, and if this is the case the baseline data will indicate their occurrence. Large hail and other county-based severe weather events are not included under this measure as the NOAA data were considered to be too small-scale to be applicable for the entire wilderness area (i.e. events are tied specifically to small towns and not inclusive of isolated events in the center of the wilderness area, causing data quantity to be less than complete). Any trend in the number of severe weather events (whether increasing or decreasing) is a degradation of the Natural Quality. Background and Context: As the climate changes, there is a possibility that there will be a corresponding change in the number of severe weather events. Departure from the historic or natural storm regime could potentially have a large effect on the wilderness ecosystem. Data source: NOAA Storm Events Database: (select South Dakota); select all zone events and select Central Black Hills zone. Data adequacy: Although the data do not include all types of storm events, data quantity for the storm events that are considered is complete, and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Simple linear regression analysis, α =.05, for all data available; any significant trend is a significant change Severe weather events Year blizzard winter storm winter weather heavy snow cold/windchill high wind flood Figure 15. Severe weather events in the Central Black Hills. There is no significant trend (F = 2.55; P-value =.13). Number of events Page 50

51 NATURAL QUALITY Ecological Processes Average watershed condition class 2013 Data Value: 2 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The average of the watershed condition class by acre within wilderness. The condition class will be obtained from the Forest Service Watershed Condition Framework data, which describe the condition of watersheds based on 12 different metrics (watershed quality, water quantity, aquatic habitat, aquatic biota, roads and trails, soils, riparian/wetland vegetation, fire regime or wildfire, forest cover, rangeland vegetation, terrestrial invasive species, and forest health). Under this national protocol, watersheds are classified as properly functioning, functioning at risk, or impaired. All acres classified as properly functioning will be assigned a value of 3, those that are functioning at risk will have a value of 2, and impaired will be 1. An increase in the average value for the wilderness therefore will indicate an improvement of the watershed condition. Background and Context: There are four watersheds in the wilderness: Iron Creek, Sheridan Lake Spring Creek, Newton Fork Spring Creek, and Grizzly Bear Creek Battle Creek. Although there is very little water in the wilderness, watershed quality in the Black Hills in general and in the wilderness in particular is considered to be some of the highest in the state due to the increased elevation and forest cover. Definitions: From Watershed Condition Framework (FS-977, May 2011) Impaired: low geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to their natural potential condition Functioning at Risk: moderate relative geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity Properly Functioning: high relative geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity Data source: Forest Service Watershed Condition Framework Data: Data adequacy: The Forest Service Watershed Condition Framework is a national dataset that is updated periodically; data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any; change in this measure value should be interpreted carefully as the majority of the area in these watersheds is located outside of the wilderness Table 26. Watershed condition class by acre Watershed Wilderness Acreage Condition Class Iron Creek Sheridan Lake Spring Creek Newton Fork Spring Creek Grizzly Bear Creek Battle Creek Page 51

52 Figure 16. Watershed condition class for the Black Hills National Forest. Green indicates watersheds that are properly functioning; yellow indicates watersheds that are functioning at risk. Figure 17. Watershed condition class for the Black Elk Wilderness. Green indicates watersheds that are properly functioning; yellow indicates watersheds that are functioning at risk. Page 52

53 NATURAL QUALITY Ecological Processes Average natural fire regime condition class 2013 Data Value: 1.95 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Poor Measure description and collection protocol: The average of the LANDFIRE vegetation condition class by acre within wilderness representing the degree of departure from the historical fire regime. A decrease in the average natural fire regime condition class improves that Natural Quality. Background and Context: As a ponderosa pine dominated ecosystem, fire naturally plays a large role in the ecology of the Black Elk Wilderness. The historical fire frequency was every years (range: years) with infrequent stand replacement occurring every 300+ years. The last large scale fire in the wilderness occurred in Over the course of the last century approximately five fire cycles have been missed due to suppression and other management activities. Prior to the Mountain Pine Beetle infestation of recent years, the forest was representative of a late successional closed stage marked by dense stands of ponderosa pine and an average of 50-80% canopy closure a stand condition well outside the historical range of variability. The high density of ponderosa pines contributed to the vulnerability of the forest to the current large-scale infestation of Mountain Pine Beetle. Definitions: From the Interagency Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) Guidebook Version 3.0 (September, 2010): Vegetation Condition Class I: 33% departure from the reference (i.e. historic) condition within the reference condition range of variability Vegetation Condition Class II: >33% and 66% departure from the reference condition Vegetation Condition Class III: >66% departure from the reference condition Data source: LANDFIRE Vegetation Condition Class layer (online at or on the FS hard drive: T:\FS\Reference\RSImagery\ProcessedData\wo_nfs_rsac\LANDFIRE\LANDFIRE_Refresh_Nov2012draft\ US_110_Mosaic_Refresh\US_110vcc\grid1). Data adequacy: LANDFIRE is a national dataset that is updated periodically; data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any change greater or equal to 0.05 Table 27. Vegetation condition class by acre Vegetation Condition Class Count (from the attribute table) Score Average score/acre I Low Departure II Medium Departure III High Departure Total Count = Page 53

54 Figure 18. Vegetation condition class for the Black Hills National Forest. Green indicates class I, yellow class II, and red class III; purple indicates urban areas. Figure 19. Vegetation condition class for the Black Elk Wilderness. Green indicates class I, yellow class II, and red class III; purple indicates urban areas (roads). Page 54

55 NATURAL QUALITY Ecological Processes Miles of wilderness boundary serving as an entry point for invasive species 2013 Data Value: 12.2 miles Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Miles of wilderness boundary that are crossed by or abut disturbed areas. This includes timber management projects; trailheads, roads, and campgrounds; and burned or otherwise disturbed areas that could act as corridors for the movement of invasive species into wilderness. All disturbed areas adjacent to the wilderness boundary are assigned a buffer of 500 feet, all trailheads that cross the wilderness boundary are assigned a buffer of 5 feet. A decrease in the number of miles of wilderness boundary serving as an entry point for invasive species improves the Natural Quality. Background and Context: Disturbed areas can act as corridors for the movement of invasive species. Invasive species have the potential to greatly alter the natural ecosystem and the plant and animal communities of life in the wilderness. Data source: O drive GIS data of current timber sale units, roads, and wilderness and outfitter trails. Data adequacy: Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Figure 20. The perimeter of wilderness serving as an entry point for invasive species. The total perimeter of the wilderness is 27.4 miles miles of that perimeter (marked in red) are crossed by or are adjacent by 500 feet of trails, roads, and timber sale units. Page 55

56 UNDEVELOPED Wilderness retains its primeval character and influence, and is essentially without permanent improvement or modern human occupation. For many people, the most familiar and recognizable quality of wilderness character is that it is undeveloped: the lack of man-made structures or roads and the absence of modern conveniences such as cars or chainsaws is a defining aspect of wilderness. The Wilderness Act of 1964 makes the following allusions to the Undeveloped Quality of wilderness character: The Wilderness Preservation System was created in order to assure that an increasing population, accompanied by expanding settlement and growing mechanization, does not occupy all areas within the United States (2a) Wilderness is in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape (2c) Wilderness should be managed in such a way that the imprint of man s work is substantially unnoticeable (2c) And that there shall be no permanent road within any wilderness area and, except as necessary to meet minimum requirements for the administration of the [wilderness] area (including measures required in emergencies involving the health and safety of persons within the area), there shall be no temporary road, no use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment or motorboats, no landing of aircraft, no other form of mechanical transport, and no structure or installations within any such area (4c) Table 28. Undeveloped Quality Indicator Measure Frequency in Years Data Adequacy Significant Change 2013 Value Presence of structures, installations, and developments Index of authorized physical development 1 Any 291 Inholdings Index of inholdings 5 Any 0 Use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Number of non-authorized uses of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of emergency and special-provision authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of administrative authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment or mechanical transport 1 1 <2 or >4 <5 or > Any 0 Page 56

57 UNDEVELOPED QUALITY Presence of structures, installations, and developments Index of authorized physical development 2013 Data Value: 291 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The quantity and type of physical developments, installations, or structures authorized by the Forest Service; abandoned structures built pre-wilderness designation are also included in this measure. Developments, installations, and structures that are considered Other Features still impact the Undeveloped Quality and are included here. The index is adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide and calculated by taking into account the level of development, physical size, materials used, etc. (see Table 30). A decrease in the index value for authorized physical development improves the Undeveloped Quality. Background and Context: The majority of authorized physical development in the Black Elk Wilderness is recreational infrastructure (including developed trails, bridges, stairs, maintained hitch posts/highlines, and signs). Some physical developments are associated with Harney Tower and unlikely to be changed. Mining sites were prevalent in the area pre-wilderness designation and have had no active reclamation work done; many of these sites are thought to now be effectively naturally reclaimed but no inspections have been carried out in at least a decade to confirm this. Additionally, the wilderness boundary has never been officially surveyed and the boundary altered to reflect pre-existing roads and other developments; once the wilderness is surveyed the boundary will be adjusted around the two roads that currently intersect with corners of the wilderness. Data source: Documentation on the O drive, The Needles of Rushmore (Busse & Burr, 2012), special use permits, Recreation Specialist Dave Pickford, Minerals Specialist Gary Haag (mines), Botanist Cheryl Mayer (plant flagging). Data adequacy: Most of the data are well known and documented in various folders in the O drive. Other data (such as the amount of fencing) have no documentation and are the best estimates of the recreation specialist. Although for the latter data quality is moderate to low, for the majority of categories data quality is high. Data quantity is also complete. See Table 29 s note on fixed anchors. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any Page 57

58 Table 29. Index of authorized physical developments in the Black Elk Wilderness Number Weight of level of Category Development of Category development develop weight Develop Size/ -ments -ment materials Trails Primitive trails 0 miles Simple trails 0 miles Developed trails 34.7 miles & Stairs on Centennial # Trail Features Stairs on Harney #9S Stairs to Harney Tower Stairs on Norbeck # Water crossing on #89 by south TH Water crossing on #9S near #2B Water crossing on Grizzly # Campsites N/A Total Score Lost Cabin on Nelson Creek Buildings Abandoned Cuyahoga Cabin Harney Tower Harney Pump House Dams Harney Dam Roads N/A* Harney cast iron sewer pipes Infrastructure Harney galvanized steel water pipes #2B galvanized steel water pipes Spring box off #9S Mines Abandoned, non-reclaimed mines Other Directional trail signs** Wilderness boundary signs Additional signs Iron hitch post on #9N Wooden/rope hitch post at Harney Culverts on Grizzly # Culvert on Norbeck # Culverts on Harney #9S Culverts under Centennial Bridge Rare plant flagging orchids Marking trees for research project Tagged small mammals (research) Tagged bighorn sheep Tagged mountain goats Traffic counters Fencing ~½ mile Iron Creek Horse Fencing ~1 mile Cuyahoga mine Fixed anchors Page 58

59 *Although on some maps it appears that there are two corners of roads that are inside the wilderness, the actual boundary is 200 feet from their centerlines and the roads are not actually inside the wilderness. **There are 4 signs (3 directional, 1 boundary (see note below)) for which it is undetermined whether or not they are in the wilderness: 3 signs at the Blackberry/89 junction and one in the middle of Norbeck 3 somewhere near the western boundary with Custer State Park. It is assumed that these are inside the wilderness boundary and these are therefore included in this count. This section includes Wilderness boundary signs that are located inside the wilderness not wilderness boundary signs that are located on the boundary line or outside of the wilderness. Additional signs include: no camping sign within Harney Tower, no camping sign at the junction of trails 9S and 4/3, and the interpretive National Register of Historic Places sign in Harney Tower. Although it is not known how many tagged animals are present in the wilderness, it is thought that only the tagged bighorn sheep and mountain goats are consistently present in enough numbers to be counted here. Only a few individuals of tagged mountain lions and black-backed woodpeckers are present in the wilderness at any given time and therefore are not included. Currently, small mammals are actively being tagged in the wilderness; given their short lifespans, this development should drop off 2 years after the tagging stops. The fixed anchor value was attained through counting the number of bolts and fixed pins on wilderness routes described in The Needles of Rushmore (Busse & Burr, 2012). There is a possibility that some wilderness routes may have been accidentally left out, and that other non-wilderness routes may have been included by mistake. Other undocumented routes are present in the wilderness and are not included here due to the lack of information (i.e. the Marina area). This value is assumed to be within 10% of the true number. The index value for fixed anchors was calculated as 1% of the total number of fixed anchors in wilderness rounded to the nearest whole number. Page 59

60 Table 30. Weighting scheme for authorized physical developments, adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide (pages ) Category and inherent Level of development X weight multiplied by the size and/or materials if necessary Trails Primitive (trail class of 1) 1 Total trail length divided by 10 and Simple (trail class of 2) 2 X rounded to the nearest whole & Developed (trail class 3-5) 3 number (i.e miles => 3) Trail Features (major 1 Primitive (native materials, i.e. log bridge) 1 constructions i.e. Developed (native materials processed to form dimensional materials, i.e. bridges, boardwalks, boards or stone hauled in) 2 docks, stairways) Constructed (non-native materials, i.e. bridge with steel supports) 3 Developed Light impact (impact rating 1-3) 1 campsites (not Moderate impact (impact rating 4-6) 2 1 including usercreated sites) Severe impact (impact rating 7-8) 3 <500 sq. ft. of mostly man-made Non-residential or abandoned 1 materials or <1000 sq. ft. of mostly natural materials 1 Buildings sq. ft. of mostly manmade materials or 1000 sq. ft. 2 X Part-time (seasonal) residential 2 of mostly natural materials Full-time (year-round) 1000 sq. ft. of mostly manmade materials 3 residential 3 Dams not meeting National Inventory of Dams (NID) criteria (height less than 6 ft. or a maximum storage of less than 15 acre-ft.), or other instream 1 X features Dams 3 Dams meeting NID criteria (height at least 6 ft. and a maximum storage of at least 15 acre-ft.) made of native materials 2 Dams meeting NID criteria (height at least 6 ft. and a maximum storage of at least 15 acre-ft.) made of non-native materials 3 Non-system roads, decommissioned roads, and existing system roads with level 1 Road length less than ¼ mile 1 1 operational maintenance Roads 3 X Existing system roads with level 2 Road length between ¼-1 mile 2 2 operational maintenance Existing system roads with level 3+ operational maintenance 3 Road length more than 1 mile 3 Infrastructure (permanent utility lines, pipes, etc.) Mines 3 Other (signs, fences, tagged wildlife, fixed anchors, culverts ) 3 1 Small scale (individual site less than 1 acre) 1 Moderate scale (individual site bigger than 1 acre, or corridor 1 mile or less) 2 Large scale (corridor longer than 1 mile) 3 Inactive* 1 Active and the disturbed area is less than 1 acre 2 Active and the disturbed area is more than 1 acre 3 Small scale (individual or multiple sites that total less than 1 acre) 1 Moderate scale (site(s) bigger than 1 acre, or corridor 1 mile or less) 2 Large scale (corridor longer than 1 mile) 3 *An inactive mine that has been out of use for more than 30 years and has been inspected by the Forest Service and deemed to have been effectively naturally reclaimed will not be counted on this list. A naturally reclaimed mine site will have no trash piles, no visible human development, and no open cut. Divots or other traces of old cuts or shafts are acceptable so long as vegetation has completely reclaimed the area and it is not so deep as to be a hazard for wildlife or visitors. Page 60

61 UNDEVELOPED QUALITY Inholdings Index of inholdings 2013 Data Value: 0 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Number of privately owned structures that are inholdings in wilderness. A decrease in the number of inholdings improves the Undeveloped Quality. Background and Context: Inholdings are extremely vulnerable to development that would like have an adverse effect on the surrounding wilderness. There are no inholdings in the wilderness area, and that is not expected to change at any time in the wilderness. This measure is included here because each indicator requires at least one measure. Data source: Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Page 61

62 UNDEVELOPED QUALITY Use of motorized vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Number of non-authorized uses of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport 2013 Data Value: 2 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: Unauthorized and illegal visitor uses of motorized equipment or mechanical transport. This includes visitor use of strollers, bikes, ATVS, UTVs, power drills for rock climbing, chainsaws, etc. and evidence of visitor use (i.e. tire tracks in the wilderness). It also includes unauthorized SAR use of motorized equipment and mechanical transport. A decrease in the number of non-authorized uses of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, and mechanical transport improves the Undeveloped Quality. Background and Context: There is typically no discretion or consideration of the ramifications of using this type of transportation or equipment by visitors. Many unauthorized uses (especially bike and stroller use) occur on the Harney 9S trail that begins in Custer State Park when people do not realize they have crossed a wilderness boundary. The Black Hills National Forest s relationship with the climbing community is good and motorized rock drill use is currently rare in the wilderness area. Search and rescue operations are performed by the county and they generally have not sought authorization prior to using ATVs and other motorized equipment or mechanical transport in the wilderness. Data source: Incident Reports and/or tickets issued for motorized/mechanical violations in wilderness, Wilderness Annual Reports, and Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: The data are dependent on the number of wilderness rangers patrolling the wilderness as well as the amount of time they spend in any given area of the wilderness which can vary from year to year. In addition, strong attention to detail is required for finding evidence of previous motorized and mechanical use (i.e. tire tracks). Data quantity is therefore partial and data quality is moderate. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 31 below) is a significant change Table 31. Categories for significant change for non-authorized motorized or mechanical use Category Good Caution Poor Very Poor Measure Value Page 62

63 Table 32. Unauthorized motorized or mechanical use Fiscal Year Unauthorized use Documentation Total FY13 (partial) Stroller on 9S Incident Report ATV use for SAR no report documented Laura Burns 2 FY12 Bicycle track on 9S Incident Report Bicyclist on top of Harney Annual Report 3 ATV for SAR two sick individuals Laura Burns FY11 Power drill in wilderness Annual Report Tire tracks Annual Report ATVs for SAR rock climbing fall at Harney Peak Infra-WILD 5 ATVs for SAR horse fall on 89 Infra-WILD ATVs for SAR lost hikers on 2 Infra-WILD FY10 ATVs for SAR horse throw/head injury on 7 Laura Burns Bicyclist on 9S Laura Burns 3 Bicyclist on 9S Laura Burns FY09 0 FY08 Stroller Annual Report Stroller Annual Report 3 Stroller Annual Report FY07 0 FY06 Chainsaw use unauthorized thinning/encroachment Laura Burns 1 Page 63

64 UNDEVELOPED QUALITY Use of motorized vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of emergency and special-provision authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport 2013 Data Value: 6 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: Authorized uses of motorized equipment or mechanical transport for emergency and special provision purposes. Authorized administrative uses are not counted under this measure as they typically require more discretion than emergency and special provision uses and are therefore counted under a separate measure. This measure includes authorized SAR use and use during fire emergencies (do not count SAR and fire emergency use for which there was no authorization). The inherent weight of the equipment (see Table 36) is multiplied by the weight for the amount of use (a combination of the number of pieces of equipment and the number of days they were used, see Table 35) to get a score for each use. These are added together for the year to attain the measure value. A decrease in the number of emergency uses of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, and mechanical transport improves the Undeveloped Quality. Background and Context: Concerns about public health and safety in response to emergency requests often justify exemptions to the prohibition against use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport. There is typically less discretion in the authorization for these purposes, as compared to administrative uses, and trends in this measure over time may be due to factors outside of agency control. Data source: County SAR information (which also should be in Infra-WILD), Wildland fire reports, and Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: There can sometimes be a lack of communication between county SAR and the Forest Service; data quantity is therefore partial and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 33 below) is a significant change Table 33. Categories for significant change for emergency motorized or mechanical use Category Good Caution Poor Very Poor Trouble Measure Value Table 34. Index of authorized emergency and special-provision use in 2013 Weight of Emergency/ Length of Inherent Equipment amount Total Special Provision time used weight of use Grizzly Fire Suppression 3 chainsaws 1 day Page 64

65 Table 35. Weight for the amount/time of emergency/special provision equipment, adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide (page 174) 1 day 2+ days 1 piece of equipment pieces of equipment 2 3 Table 36. Inherent weights of various types of motorized and mechanical use, adapted from the Forest Service Technical Guide (page 170) Battery-powered tool Bicycle Wheelbarrow Wheeled litter 4 Heavy Equipment Air compressor Generator Motorized winch Portable pump Air tanker ATV Chain saw Concrete equipment Fixed-wing aircraft Float plane Helicopter Motorcycle Motorized watercraft Rock drill Snowmachine Truck Page 65

66 UNDEVELOPED QUALITY Use of motorized vehicles, motorized equipment, or mechanical transport Index of administrative authorizations to use motor vehicles, motorized equipment or mechanical transport 2013 Data Value: 0 Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Authorized uses of motorized equipment or mechanical transport for administrative purposes. An example of this would be authorized uses for non-emergency prescribed fires. Because more information is generally had for length of time and numbers of equipment used for administrative authorizations, this index (in contrast to that for emergency and special provision use) will use actual data instead of the weighted values defined in Table 35 (above). The inherent weight of the equipment (see Table 36) is multiplied by the number of pieces of equipment and the number of days for which they were used to get a score for each use. These are added together for the year to attain the measure value. A decrease in the number of administrative authorizations for the use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, and mechanical transport improves the Undeveloped Quality. Background and Context: There is typically more discretion in authorization for administrative purposes, as compared to emergency uses, and minimum requirements analyses are usually considered. Although there are frequent requests for administrative use, at this time there is strong support for preserving wilderness character and these results have mostly been denied. The potential for this value to increase as personnel changes, however, is considered to be very high. Data source: Recreation, Lands, Heritage, and Wilderness Staff Officer Laura Burns. Data adequacy: Any administrative authorizations for motorized or mechanical use should be well documented. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any Situation Tree over trail, too hazardous to use a crosscut saw Table 37. Hypothetical example of scoring administrative use Number of Inherent Equipment pieces of weight equipment Number of days used Total Chainsaw 3 x 1 x 1 = 3 Page 66

67 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATION Wilderness provides outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation. As populations increase and technology advances, wilderness provides opportunities for solitude and for a primitive or unconfined type of recreation that are not available in many other places. Wilderness is unique in that its managers are mandated to provide outstanding opportunities for a specific type of recreational experience. Although managers cannot guarantee or require that visitors experience solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation, they must protect and uphold the opportunity to have said experiences. The Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation quality focuses on the tangible aspects of the setting that affect the visitor experience, and not on the subjective nature of the visitor experience itself. There are many intangible aspects of wilderness recreation (challenge, self-reliance, self-discovery, a sense of connection with times past, etc.) that are not included under this quality but that are still integral to the wilderness experience. Table 38. Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Quality Indicator Measure Frequency in Years Data Adequacy Significant Change 2013 Value Number of visitors 1 Any 3 Encounters Number of travel route encounters 1 Any 3 Remoteness from sights and sounds of people inside of wilderness Area of wilderness away from access and travel routes and developments 5 Any 7,947.5 acres Index of user-created sites 5 Any 38 Remoteness from sights and sounds of people outside of wilderness Facilities that decrease self-reliant recreation Management restrictions on visitor behavior Area of wilderness not affected by adjacent travel routes and human developments Area of wilderness not affected by commercial helicopter flights Viewshed affected by developments outside of wilderness Miles of developed trails (condition classes 3-5) 5 Any 5 5 Any 100 acres Any 100 acres 11,910.0 acres 4,701.9 acres 2,400.6 acres 5 Any 34.7 miles Index of authorized recreation facilities 5 Any 39 Index of visitor management restrictions 5 Any 24 Page 67

68 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Encounters Number of visitors 2013 Data Value: 3 Data Year: 2012 Condition: Poor Measure description and collection protocol: The number of visitors or groups entering the wilderness during the fiscal year. This measure is looking at the density of visitor use in the wilderness. The trend in the number of visitors entering via Harney 9S will be analyzed separately from all other wilderness trails given its significantly higher use. The number of visitors to both Harney 9S and all other trails will be counted and weighted (see Table 39). This score will be added together to get the total measure value. A decrease in total score indicates an improvement of the solitude aspect if this quality. Background and Context: The number of visitors entering the wilderness relates to the number of encounters a visitor may have. Given that the data are collected through registration slips (with approximately 70-80% compliance rate), it is considered to provide much more accurate data for visitor use. Visitation is not distributed equally across all the trail areas: the Harney 9 South trail is by far the most popular trail with the highest amount of visitor use. In recent years, the wilderness carrying capacity of 30,000 people per year (from the Forest Management Plan) has been exceeded. Data source: Registration slip data (from Infra-WILD). Although data on visitor use are available both through TRAFX counter data and registration slip data, due to pervasive traffic counter vandalism and malfunctions in the last several years the registration slip data are considered to be more reliable at this time and should be used exclusively. Should the TRAFX counter data become more complete and reliable, it should be considered for inclusion; a suggested method of inclusion is to score both TRAFX and registration numbers for each trail category, average the two, and then sum the Harney 9S average score and the other trails average score as normal to attain the total measure value. Another possibility if TRAFX data are available for 9S but is not complete for all other trails is to average the TRAFX and registration slip data for 9S but include only the registration slip data for the other trails. Data adequacy: With a consistent ~70-80% compliance rate and registration boxes located all over the wilderness, data quality is high and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any Page 68

69 Number of Visitors Registration Data Fiscal Year 9S All Other Trails Figure 21. The number of people registering upon entry to the wilderness from Table 39. Weighting scheme for visitor use Harney 9S All other trails Number of visitors Score Number of visitors Score 0-15, , ,000-20, ,000-15, ,000-25, ,000-20, ,000-30, ,000-25,000 3 Table 40. Registration data for fiscal years Year Total visitors 9S Score All other trails Score Measure Value ,586 15, , ,715 12, , ,575 13, , ,876 18, , ,528 19, , ,773 23, , ,157 21, , ,391 22, , ,821 24, , Page 69

70 Table 41. FY2012 trail counter data* Table 42. FY2011 trail counter data* Trailheads Visitors 2 Trailheads Visitors 2 9S S B B 684 GRAND TOTAL 9003 GRAND TOTAL 6490 *All 3 counters malfunctioned for at least one month during the summer and 2 malfunctioned all winter; actual totals are likely much higher than what is listed here *The 9S counter was tampered with twice during the summer and was inactive all winter; actual totals are likely much higher than what is listed here Table 43. FY2009 trail counter data* Table 44. FY2008 trail counter data* Trailheads Visitors 2 Trailheads Visitors 2 Big Pine 1127 Big Pine 367 Grizzly Bear Creek # Grizzly Bear Creek # Harney Peak #9 South 29,546 Harney Peak #9 South Horsethief # Horsethief # Iron Mountain # Norbeck #3 600 Norbeck # Palmer Creek 1450 Palmer Creek 735 Harney #9N 1893 Harney #9N 1599 Cathedral Spires upper # GRAND TOTAL 43,504 Centennial Bypass #89B 6739 GRAND TOTAL 41,726 *Trail counter data are included here for informational purposes only; no data from the traffic counters were used to calculate the measure value. If traffic counter data will be used in the future, it will be necessary to divide the visitor numbers by 2 to account for the visitor tendency to enter and exit via the same trailhead. No traffic counter data is available for 2010 as traffic counter types were changed that year and the data were extremely unreliable. Page 70

71 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Encounters Number of travel route encounters 2013 Data Value: 3 Data Year: 2012 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: The number of visitors or groups encountered by wilderness rangers on established trails in the wilderness per unit of time during the primary use season (May-September). There will be two data values for this measure: the number of travel route encounters in the 9S trail area and the number of travel route encounters on the rest of the trails in the wilderness. Days in which wilderness rangers were working in a non-wilderness area are not counted; days in which wilderness rangers were in the wilderness but counted 0 contacts are counted. Any ticket location that includes 9S is included under the 9S trail area category (for example, if the location specifies #9S, #4, and #2 spur, all contacts are counted as being in the 9S trail area). The number of contacts made is divided by the days worked to attain the average contacts per day for each trail category; these are scored based on separate weighting schemes (see Table 47) and then summed to attain the measure value. A decrease in the index value indicates an improvement of the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Solitude is dependent on the absence of other people, particularly those outside one s immediate group. Because most wilderness travel is concentrated on established travel routes, this measure is important to capture the likelihood that the typical visitor will encounter other visitors while travelling in wilderness. The 9S trail area leading to Harney Peak from Sylvan Lake in Custer State Park is by far the busiest trail area and receives a significantly greater amount of use than the rest of the wilderness trail system. Data source: Wilderness Ranger Daily Job Ticket forms. Data adequacy: The data are a summary of the visitors contacted throughout an entire day: it is not specified whether the wilderness/trails crew was stationary or traveling throughout the day, and all trails travelled on throughout the day are included in the visitor contact daily total. The number of days and personnel will also vary from year to year. Due to the sampling nature of the data, data quantity is partial and data quality is moderate. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any Page 71

72 Table wilderness ranger travel route encounters Location All 9S Trail Other Area Trails Number of Contacts Number of Days Average Contacts/Day Score 3 0 Grand Total 3 Table wilderness ranger travel route encounters Location All 9S Trail Other Area Trails Number of Contacts Number of Days Average Contacts/Day Scores 2 0 Grand Total 2 Table 47. Weighting scheme for visitor encounters 9S Trail Area All Other Trails Average Average Score Contacts/Day Contacts/Day Score Page 72

73 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Remoteness from sights and sounds of people inside of wilderness Area of wilderness away from access and travel routes and developments 2013 Data Value: 7,947.5 acres Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: The area of wilderness located away from access points, travel routes, and developments that are located within or on the boundary of wilderness. This does not include air travel routes above the FAA enforced 2000 foot ceiling. Abandoned structures and historical sites (i.e. abandoned mines, cabins, etc.) are not included under this measure. All wilderness trails are buffered by ¼ mile. An increase in the area of wilderness away from these features, either due to trail closure or an increase in total wilderness acres, would improve the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Most wilderness use is concentrated within a concentrated within a few miles of trailheads or access points, especially where day use makes up much of the visitation as it does in the Black Elk Wilderness. There are currently two sets of trails which are not administratively maintained: the Rushmore Resort trails maintained by an outfitter, and the Wrinkled Rock climbing area user trails. No data have been collected by the Forest Service on the trails at Wrinkled Rock. Data source: O drive GIS data of wilderness and outfitter trails. Data adequacy: Data quantity is partial due to the missing information in the Wrinkled Rock climbing area. Data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Figure 22. Area of the wilderness away from sights and sounds of people. Buffers are ¼ mile from developments, access points, and travel routes inside or on the wilderness boundary. Blue trails are maintained by outfitters. Page 73

74 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Remoteness from sights and sounds of people inside of wilderness Index of user-created sites 2013 Data Value: 38 Data Year: 2011 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: An index of the condition of campsites located throughout the wilderness. Using the rapid assessment Wilderness Campsite Inventory form, usercreated campsites are rated for their ground disturbance (0-4), tree damage (0-2), and disturbed area (0-2) and given an overall impact rating from 0-8. Campsites with overall impact ratings of 0-2 will be assigned a weight of 1, those with ratings of 3-5 will be assigned a weight of 2, and those with ratings of 6-8 will be assigned a weight of 3. A decrease in the impact rating or in the number of user-created sites improves the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Recreation impacts at campsites are one of the most prevalent and obvious human impacts that visitors may encounter. All campsites in the Black Elk Wilderness are user-created sites, but there can be large variation in the degree of development. Data source: The Black Elk Wilderness Rapid Assessment Campsite Inventory. Data adequacy: As a standardized assessment tool that personnel are trained to complete, it is assumed that data will be collected in a consistent manner over time and by different people. It is also presumed that the majority of visible sites will be accounted for. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Data are collected at least once every 5 years. The most recent campsite assessment will be used for this measure Significant change: Any Table 48. Development index for user-created sites in the Black Elk Wilderness in 2009 Overall Number Impact Rating of Sites Weight Total Table 49. Development index for user-created sites in the Black Elk Wilderness in 2011 Overall Number Impact Rating of Sites Weight Total Page 74

75 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Remoteness from sights and sounds of people outside of wilderness Area of wilderness not affected by adjacent travel routes and human developments 2013 Data Value: 11,910.0 acres Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The amount of wilderness away from roads, structures, and other developments outside the wilderness. Developments outside the wilderness that are only visible on certain peaks within the wilderness are not counted under this measure. Commercial helicopter travel routes are a significant disturbance in the Black Elk Wilderness and as such are counted under a separate measure and are not counted here. All roads, addresses, and current timber sale units adjacent to the wilderness are buffered by ¼ mile and the area of the buffer within the wilderness is calculated. Non-motorized trails are not included under this measure. An increase in the area not affected by adjacent travel routes and developments improves the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Adjacent travel routes and developments can result in significant sight and sound intrusions to the wilderness area. Although the Black Elk Wilderness is bordered primarily by the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve, at certain times during the primary use season, traffic noise from motorcycles and cars on the scenic byway and other adjacent highways can severely impact the wilderness. Data source: O drive GIS data for roads, addresses, and structures in Custer and Pennington counties, as well as for current timber sales. Data adequacy: Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Figure 23. The area of wilderness away from adjacent developments. Buffers are ¼ mile from adjacent roads, structures, and other developments outside of wilderness. Page 75

76 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Remoteness from sights and sounds of people outside of wilderness Area of wilderness not affected by commercial helicopter flights 2013 Data Value: 4,701.9 acres Data Year: 2010 Condition: Poor Measure description and collection protocol: The amount of wilderness away from helicopter travel routes. This measure looks at the ability of a visitor to escape from the persistent sound of helicopters during the primary use season. This does not include other types of aircraft that fly very silently (i.e. fixed wing aircraft) or at such an altitude that they are virtually a non-disturbance. All helicopter travel routes are buffered by 1 mile. An increase in the area not affected by commercial helicopter flights improves the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Disturbance from sight and sound of commercial helicopter tours is a arguably the number one threat to wilderness character in the Black Elk Wilderness. Commercial helicopters are audible from virtually every point in the wilderness area, and weather allowing air tours occur frequently throughout the day during the primary use season. Helicopters over wilderness are not regulated by the Forest Service but by the FAA; although there is a recommended 2000 AGL over Harney Tower and nearby trails, it is commonly known that commercial helicopters frequently go below that limit. It has generally proven extremely difficult for the Forest Service to follow through on low flying commercial helicopter violations. Although this measure does not take frequency into account, and although commercial helicopters can and do vary their flight paths, this measure is considered to be a good approximation of their impacts to the wilderness area in lieu of better data. Data source: Air tour routes GIS data (2010) from the local air tour operators. Data adequacy: Data quantity is complete, however, due to the age of the data accessed and the frequency that helicopter tours change their flight paths to suit visitors, data quality is moderate. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any change greater or equal to 100 acres Figure 24. Area of wilderness impacted by commercial helicopter routes. Orange indicates 1 mile, red ½ mile. Wilderness trails are marked in blue a majority of wilderness trails are within the red and orange affected areas. Page 76

77 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Remoteness from sights and sounds of people outside of wilderness Viewshed affected by developments outside of wilderness 2013 Data Value: 2,400.6 acres Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: The area of developed land within 10 miles of the wilderness boundary. The majority of developments visible from Harney Peak and other peaks in the wilderness are roads and buildings; primitive trails, timber sales, fields, etc. are not included in this measure. All buildings and roads within 10 miles of the wilderness boundary are merged and assigned a buffer of 10 feet. A decrease in the area of developed land around the wilderness improves the solitude aspect of this quality. Background and Context: As the highest point east of the Rocky Mountains, Harney Peak offers long distance scenic views not available elsewhere in the forest. Developments outside of the wilderness degrade the viewshed and impact visitors remoteness from the sight of people outside of wilderness. Although it is possible to see much farther than 10 miles from high elevations in the wilderness, the majority of recognizable developments are within this distance. Data source: O drive GIS data of Custer and Pennington County roads, addresses, and structures, Norbeck roads, and the Peter Norbeck scenic byway. Data adequacy: Because the measure value was attained through GIS analysis instead of actual images of what the human eye can see from peaks in the wilderness, data quality is moderate and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any change greater or equal to 100 acres Figure 25. The amount of development within 10 miles of the wilderness boundary. There are currently acres of roads and 50.5 acres of buildings within 10 miles of the wilderness. Page 77

78 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Facilities that decrease self-reliant recreation 2013 Data Value: 34.7 miles Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Miles of developed trails (condition classes 3-5) Measure description and collection protocol: The total length of developed trail distance that is classified as condition classes 3-5. While some trails may be managed for a lower class, and there may be the desire to update Infra-WILD accordingly, until that occurs all trails will be listed as they are in Infra-WILD. Lowering the condition class or closing trails improves the primitive aspect of this quality. Background and Context: Increased opportunities to travel on less developed trails increases opportunities for primitive and self-reliant recreation. All trails in the wilderness are Condition Class 3. Definitions: (Further descriptive information can be found in the USFS trail class matrix) Trail Class 1: minimal/undeveloped trail Trail Class 2: simple/minor development trail Trail Class 3: developed/improved trail Trail Class 4: highly developed trail Trail Class 5: fully developed trail Data source: Forest trail miles documentation (O drive), Infra-WILD. Data adequacy: Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 50. Wilderness trails Trail Name Length (miles) Condition Class Lost Cabin # Lost Cabin Spur B (#2B) Norbeck # Willow Creek Rushmore # Grizzly # Harney #9 North (#9N) Harney #9 South (#9S) Horsethief # Iron Mountain # Centennial # Centennial Bypass (#89B) Page 78

79 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Facilities that decrease self-reliant recreation Index of authorized recreation facilities 2013 Data Value: 39 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: An index of authorized developments that decrease selfreliant recreation using a count of authorized recreation facilities in wilderness weighted by their impact (size, materials used, etc.).examples include highlines, hitching posts, bridges, stairs, signs/blazes, etc. Trail maintenance constructions (i.e. water bars, erosion checks, etc.) are not counted under this measure. Although many of these facilities are also counted under the authorized development index, this measure tracks their impact on visitors opportunity to experience self-reliant recreation. A decrease in the number or size of authorized recreation facilities improves the primitive aspect of this quality. Background and Context: The Forest Service installs and maintains many developments within wilderness for resource protection. Although these facilities often make visitors wilderness experiences easier or more comfortable, they also decrease opportunities for self-reliant recreation. Miles of signs and blazes are used instead of the actual number because there currently is no count of the number of blazes in the wilderness. Data source: Documentation in the O drive, Recreation Specialist Dave Pickford. Data adequacy: Most of the data are well known and documented in various folders in the O drive. Data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Trail markers or signs Major trail features (i.e. bridge, stairs) Table 51. Index of authorized recreation facilities Facility Number Weight Score Blazes Signs of native materials Stairs on Centennial # Stairs on Norbeck # S stiars Harney stairs Water crossing on #89 by south TH Water crossing on #9S near #2B Water crossing on Grizzly # Amenities Iron hitch post on #9N Wooden/rope hitch post at Harney Page 79

80 Table 52. Weighting scheme for authorized recreation facilities, adapted from the BLM Implementation Guide (page 45) Category Recreation Facility Weight Trail markers or signs Major trail features (i.e. bridge, stairs) Amenities Blazes or cairns The miles of trail with this 1 Signs of native materials x facility divided by 10 (i.e. for 3 Signs or markers of non-native materials 34.7 miles, multiply by 3.5) 5 Primitive (built with raw, native materials) 1 Constructed with native materials that have been processed and hauled in 3 Constructed with nonnative materials 5 Hitching posts or highlines of native materials 1 Hitching posts or highlines of non-native materials (i.e. iron) 3 Page 80

81 SOLITUDE OR PRIMITIVE AND UNCONFINED RECREATIION QUALITY Management restrictions on visitor behavior Index of visitor management restrictions 2013 Data Value: 24 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Good Measure description and collection protocol: Management restrictions that substantially restrict visitor behavior, access, or equipment in wilderness. This includes any hunting restrictions. The index used is from the Forest Service Technical Guide (page 219). Each regulation category is assigned a score for severity (see Table 54) and a weight of extent (1 = the regulation applies to a sub-area of wilderness, 2 = the regulation applies to the entire wilderness area). The severity score and the weight of extent are multiplied for a total score for each regulation category; the index value is the sum of the total scores. A decrease in the index of visitor management restrictions improves the unconfined aspect of this quality. Background and Context: While restrictions on visitor behavior are generally intended to protect the resource or improve solitude, they also degrade the visitor opportunity for unconfined recreation. Data source: Infra-WILD. Regulation information can also be found on the back of registration slips. Data adequacy: Data are readily available to the public; data quantity is complete and quality is high. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 53. Index of management restrictions in the Black Elk Wilderness Severity Score Weight of extent Type Specifics Campfires No campfires are permitted Camping No camping within ¼ mile of Harney Peak summit; Camp at least 100 ft. from trails, streams, and water sources Fees No fees are required to enter the wilderness area, but Custer State Park charges entrance fees to reach some trails Permits Self-issued registration is required Human Waste Bury waste 6-8 inches deep, 100+ feet from water sources Length of Stay 14 days Stock Use Certified weed- and seed-free hay and pellets required; Stock must be restrained with highlines or hobbles; Stock cannot be hitched within 100 feet of water sources Total Swimming/Bathing No restrictions Area Closure No restrictions Group Size Limits 25 heartbeats (humans and saddle/pack animals) Dogs/Pets Dogs must be leashed or under strict voice control Page 81

82 Table 54. Weighting scheme for wilderness regulations, page 219 from the Forest Service Technical Guide Category Score Type of restriction Page 82

83 OTHER FEATURES Wilderness may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value. The Other Features Quality is different from the other four qualities in that it may not be relevant for all wildernesses. When Other Features are present in a wilderness, the indicator(s) will be unique and may not follow the national protocol (a discussion of the indicators specific to the Black Elk Wilderness is provided on the following pages). The Other Features Quality is generally reserved for physical, sitespecific features of unique geologic or historic value that are integral to wilderness character and whose presence adds value to the wilderness resource; unique features that fit most logically under a different quality (for example, an ecological feature may be most appropriately considered under the Natural Quality) should not be considered under the Other Features Quality. Other Features may: Be specifically identified in the enabling legislation for the wilderness, be on the National Register of Historic Places, on a State Register, or part of a National Historic Trail, or be identified as a Priority Heritage Asset Contribute to making the area s meaning and significance clear and distinct, or help define how people think about and value an area Help tell a broader story of a distinctive human relationship with the land Contain additional educational, scientific, or scenic value Even if a feature fits in one or more of the above categories, it still may not be considered as an Other Feature. Ultimately, it is up to local resource specialists and wilderness managers to determine the Other Features at any given wilderness area. Features that are included under the Other Features Quality should also be counted under other qualities if relevant. For example, a building in the wilderness area that is on the National Register of Historic Places could add value to wilderness character under the Other Features Quality for its historic or cultural significance, but as a structure in wilderness it would also degrade the Undeveloped Quality. Table 55. Other Features Quality Indicator Measure Frequency in Years Data Adequacy Significant Change 2013 Value Deterioration or loss of cultural resources integral to wilderness character: Harney Tower site Negative impacts to sacred places, or impediments or inhibitions to Native American access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Number of unauthorized actions that damage or disturb Harney Tower site 1 <20 or >29 Condition index for Harney Tower site 5 Any 22 Authorized actions/non-actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Unauthorized actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places 22 Page 83

84 INDICATOR DETERIORATION OR LOSS OF CULTURAL RESOURCES INTEGRAL TO WILDERNESS CHARACTER HARNEY TOWER SITE Harney Peak was named in 1855 after Gen. William Selby Harney during the course of the military expedition of Lt. Col. George Custer s military expedition of 1874 also visited Harney and attempted the first recorded climb of the peak (unsuccessfully). Harney Peak was first used as a fire lookout in The first tower was a 12 square feet wooden room built in 1920 which, in 1921, was enlarged to 16 square feet. In 1935, a dam and 5,000 gallon reservoir were also constructed below the tower. The current Harney Tower was built in 1938 by the 7 th Corps of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) stationed in Camp Doran. Designed by James L. Brownlee, the tower easily blends into the natural rock peak. The ashes of Dr. McGillycuddy, a topographer with the Jenney-Newton Survey Expedition that made the first recorded successful attempt at climbing Harney Peak in 1875, were interred in the stairway upon his death in The current tower was manned as a fire lookout by the Forest Service until 1965 and remained in operation from under South Dakota Game, Fish, and Parks. The Harney Tower site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 for its historical significance (the presence of the burial crypt of Dr. McGillycuddy and the site s association with the military expeditions of 1852 and 1874), architectural significance (as a unique example of fire tower architecture and a priceless example of CCC workmanship), association with land conservation (as a fire tower from ), and recreation value (Harney Tower is by far the most popular site in the wilderness area). The site includes the tower, stairway, pump house, and dam. There is also currently one small interpretive sign in the tower. The Harney Tower site is included as an Other Feature because of its listing on the National Register of Historic Places and its historical significance as described above, and because of its exceptional scenic value. Any deterioration to or destruction of the Harney Tower site whether by natural or human means degrades this indicator, whereas restoration work would improve the indicator. Page 84

85 OTHER FEATURES QUALITY Deterioration or loss of cultural resources integral to wilderness character: Harney Tower site Number of unauthorized actions that damage or disturb Harney Tower site 2013 Data Value: 22 Data Year: 2012 Condition: Poor Measure description and collection protocol: The number of unauthorized visitor actions that cause deterioration, damage, or loss of cultural resources. Examples include graffiti and theft. Deterioration or damage caused by natural phenomena is not counted in this measure. While camping in the tower is a violation of wilderness regulations, it is not considered to be a damaging action and is not included here. Each signature/individual graffiti mark (each photo in the incident report) is considered to be a separate action. A decrease in the number of unauthorized actions that damage or degrade the Harney Tower site improves the Other Features Quality. Background and Context: Any deterioration or damage inflicted upon the Harney Tower site is a defacement of federal property and a degradation of wilderness character. The greatest annual threat to this historic resource is graffiti and vandalism from visitors. Data source: Incident reports and/or violation notices. Data adequacy: Wilderness rangers frequently check Harney Tower for new graffiti and vandalism during the primary use season. Any graffiti that can be removed or painted over is, and photos are taken of all new graffiti. Because removing graffiti is fairly high on the list of priorities, data quantity is complete and data quality is high. Frequency: Yearly Significant change: Any change from one category to another (see Table 56 below) is a significant change Table 56. Categories for significant change for unauthorized actions against Harney Tower Category Good At risk Poor Very Poor Awful Very Awful Etc. Measure Value Etc. Table 57. Amount of graffiti on Harney Tower Fiscal Year Number of graffiti names/marks FY 13 (partial) 7 FY FY11 49 Page 85

86 OTHER FEATURES QUALITY Deterioration or loss of cultural resources integral to wilderness character: Harney Tower site Condition index for Harney Tower site 2013 Data Value: 22 Data Year: 2013 Condition: Caution Measure description and collection protocol: An index of the condition of the cultural resource which includes safety and structural/historical integrity (see Table 59). The tower, stairway, pump house, dam, and reservoir are all part of the Harney Tower site and should all be considered when assigning an index value; however, because Harney Tower is the most significant and meaningful structure of the site, more weight should be given to its condition than to the condition of the other structures of the site. An increase in the condition index value improves the Other Features Quality. Background and Context: It has been decided that the historic integrity of the Harney Tower site will be maintained by following the Secretary of the Interior s Standards for Preservation. It is important that the site maintain its original appearance and that it is accessible to visitors. 36CFR800 defines seven types of integrity: integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. Anything that diminishes one or more of these is considered to have had an adverse effect on the historic site. There are currently plans to restore the Tower beginning in the fall of 2013 which should improve the condition index value. Data source: Professional judgment of Matt Padilla, Hell Canyon RD Archaeologist. Data adequacy: Since this measure relies on professional judgment, data quality is moderate and data quantity is complete. Frequency: Every 5 years Significant change: Any Table 58. Condition index for the Harney Tower Site Category Score Public Safety 3 Integrity of Location 3 Integrity of Design 2 Integrity of Setting 3 Integrity of Materials 3 Integrity of Workmanship 2 Integrity of Feeling 3 Integrity of Association 3 Total 22 Page 86

87 Table 59. Weighting scheme for the condition of the Harney Tower site Description Weight Public Safety Stable foundation, all areas accessible, no loose debris 3 Foundation may be unstable, access may be partially restricted due to unsafe conditions, or loose/falling debris may pose some danger 2 Foundation unstable, access restricted due to unsafe conditions, danger of loose/falling debris 1 Integrity of Location Site is in its original location 3 Part of the site has been moved and part remains in its original location 2 Site has been moved 1 Integrity of Design Design reflects original historic functions, technologies, and aesthetics: buildings are complete without missing components, a majority of the original equipment is present, almost all original distinctive 3 architecture, painting, or other markings have been retained Design partially reflects original historic functions, technologies, and aesthetics: buildings may be missing some minor components, much of the original equipment may have been removed, or some 2 original distinctive architecture, painting, or other markings may have been lost Design does not reflect historic functions, technologies, and aesthetics: buildings may be missing major components or many components, most original equipment may be missing, or most original distinctive 1 architecture, painting, or other markings may have been lost Integrity of Setting Setting remains in a forested primitive state; views are still good with long distance sighting possible 3 Setting is partially developed with moderate forest loss; views are somewhat obstructed by nearby development 2 Setting is completely developed retaining almost no forested area; views are significantly obstructed by nearby development 1 Integrity of Materials >80% of the site uses original materials or has been restored using original/near-original materials % of the site uses original materials or has been restored using original/near-original materials 2 <50% of the site uses original materials or has been restored using original/near-original materials 1 Integrity of Workmanship Original CCC workmanship is obvious; almost all restoration work is of high quality and has mimicked CCC techniques and technologies 3 Some original workmanship is apparent; some restoration work is of poor quality or has used obvious modern techniques and technologies 2 Original workmanship is not evident; restoration work is of poor quality or has used obvious modern work techniques and technologies 1 Integrity of Feeling Physical characteristics of the site and its surroundings evoke the aesthetic and historic sense of the past 3 Some modern developments or improvements of the site and its surroundings serve to partially diminish the aesthetic and historic sense of the past 2 Modern developments or improvements of the site and its surroundings serve to diminish the aesthetic and historic sense of the past 1 Integrity of Association The site is obviously linked to the CCC and its original purpose as a fire lookout tower is apparent 3 The site may not be obviously linked to the CCC or its original purpose as a fire lookout tower may not be apparent 2 It is not obvious that the site is linked with the CCC and its original purpose as a fire lookout tower is not apparent 1 Page 87

88 INDICATOR NEGATIVE IMPACTS TO SACRED PLACES, OR IMPEDIMENTS OR INHIBITIONS TO NATIVE AMERICAN ACCESS TO AND CEREMONIAL USE OF SACRED PLACES Harney Peak More than 30 Native American nations consider the Black Hills to be sacred ground. Several peoples, notably the Lakota people and other peoples of the Sioux nation, have a long history in the Black Hills that has been fraught with cultural and historical trauma in the last few centuries. Harney Peak, considered by some to be the center of the world, is a sacred place to the Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne. With a long history of cultural use, still today Harney Peak is the site of special ceremonies and offerings which do not occur in other areas of the wilderness; most notably, it is the place of gathering for the spring ceremony of calling back the thunders. In addition, Harney Peak is also the site of the vision and prayer of Black Elk, for whom the wilderness is named. In 2009, the non-profit Defenders of the Black Hills also requested (unsuccessfully) that 40,000 acres of the Black Hills National Forest which included the entire Black Elk Wilderness and much of the Norbeck Wildlife Preserve be designated as a National Monument for its significance as a sacred place. While spirituality is generally intangible, in this case, it is associated with a specific, physical landform. The long human history linked to this sacred place combined with its continued cultural significance tells a broader story of a distinctive human relationship with the land and helps define how people think about the area. While not specifically mentioned in the enabling legislation, the spiritual, cultural, and historic significance of Harney Peak was an integral topic of discussion in Sen. McGovern s introduction to the bill to designate this wilderness area. This sacred place also contains additional educational and scenic values that contribute to the value of the area. As a sacred place with great cultural and historical significance, Harney Peak is an integral part of the wilderness character and included as an Other Feature. Page 88

89 OTHER FEATURES QUALITY Negative impacts to sacred places, or impediments or inhibitions to Native American access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Authorized actions/non-actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places 2013 Data Value: Data Year: 2013 Condition: Measure description and collection protocol: Examples include: allowing too many visitors, constructing too many trails, permit restrictions on large ceremonial events, fees to access sacred places, actions elsewhere in the forest that would affect sound or view during a ceremony, removal of offerings, restrictions on traditional cultural practices, etc. A decrease in the number of authorized actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede or inhibit access to sacred places improves the Other Features Quality. Background and Context: Data source: Data adequacy: Frequency: Significant change: Page 89

90 OTHER FEATURES QUALITY Negative impacts to sacred places, or impediments or inhibitions to Native American access to and ceremonial use of sacred places Unauthorized actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede/inhibit access to and ceremonial use of sacred places 2013 Data Value: Data Year: 2013 Condition: Measure description and collection protocol: Examples include: helicopters flying too low during ceremonies, advertising the ceremonies, removal of offerings A decrease in the number of unauthorized actions that negatively impact sacred places or impede or inhibit access to sacred places improves the Other Features Quality. Background and Context: Data source: Data adequacy: Frequency: Significant change: Page 90

91 MEASURES NOT USED FOR WILDERNESS CHARACTER MONITORING Natural Index of connectivity: Dispersal and migration between adjacent groups is often necessary to maintain viable populations of native species; connectivity (or fragmentation) is a measure of the degree to which those movements are possible. Although this measure was rated as a high priority, concerns about the workload allowed this measure to be reprioritized to a lower level and fall from consideration. Natural Disturbances to water resources: This measure was intended to look at course alteration, erosion, and sedimentation of streams that has occurred as a result of stock and visitor use in the wilderness. While trail use can have an impact on the streams in the wilderness, data for this measure are nonexistent and therefore not included. Natural Site soil disturbance and erosion: Disturbances to soil at campsites and other use areas (i.e. overlooks and climbing areas) can be significant. At this time, data on soil disturbance are only collected as part of the rapid assessment campsite inventory which is already counted under the measure of user-created sites. Because of overlap with this measure and because of lack of other data, this measure was not included. Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Soundscape: Sound pollution is arguably the most significant impact to wilderness character in the Black Elk Wilderness at this time. The soundscape of the Black Elk Wilderness is severely impacted by helicopter tours, and by train and vehicle traffic outside of the wilderness area; the impact of motorcycles during the August Sturgis rally is of particular concern. While this measure is considered to be of high significance and in poor condition, no data (decibel measures) are being collected at this time. Should this ever begin to be monitored, this measure should be considered for inclusion. Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Night sky light pollution: Darkness and the ability to see the stars and moon contribute to the sense of distance from civilization that is integral to opportunities for solitude. Light impacts from Rapid City and other closer and smaller towns as well as from the nightly light show at Mount Rushmore National Memorial decrease the night sky visibility in the wilderness. Although this measure is rated as a high priority, no reliable data currently exist for this area at this time. Should night sky light pollution ever begin to be monitored, this measure should be considered for inclusion. Solitude or Primitive and Unconfined Recreation Urban smog: Since the Black Elk Wilderness is circled by the Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway and centered in an area that receives an extremely high amount of visitation, impacts on the viewshed from visible urban smog can be a problem (especially during the Sturgis rally in August). There are no data currently being collected on visibility in regards to viewshed impacts, and the visibility measure (under the Natural Quality) focusing on anthropogenic fine nitrate and sulfate is considered a viable alternative. Page 91

92 CONCLUSIONS There is a unique historical legacy to the Black Hills that makes this land a very special place; from their renown as sacred ground to many native peoples, to their central location in the treaties and wars of the late 1800s, to the discovery of gold and present-day mining of various other minerals, to the carving of Mount Rushmore and Crazy Horse, and more, the human connection to this land has always been strong. Even today, the unique topography and history of the Black Hills continues to irresistibly draw people to them. As an increasing human population occupies and modifies so much of the Black Hills, the Black Elk Wilderness endures as a protected area permanently secured for current and future generations. As the only wilderness area in the Black Hills, the Black Elk Wilderness is a singular resource; maintaining or improving the wilderness character of this unique and special place is therefore of the utmost importance. The greatest menace to wilderness character in the Black Elk Wilderness is human use both within the wilderness and in the surrounding area. Centered in the most popular recreation area in South Dakota, the vast number of tourists and the recreational developments outside of the wilderness that they trigger are continuously The Black Elk Wilderness. increasing. Although the economic impacts of this increasing tourism benefits the local towns and the economy of the state of South Dakota, the effect on wilderness character is not so positive. At this point in time, visitor numbers have exceeded the original carrying capacity by almost 150%. Sight and sound pollution from outside or above the wilderness is a constant annoyance and a creeping threat. While there are still opportunities for solitude and primitive or unconfined recreation in the wilderness, the risk of losing those opportunities is steadily growing higher. Additional threats to wilderness character come from all sides: from visitors who do not realize they have left Custer State Park, to public pressure to mitigate the fire hazard that the wilderness presents, to budget cuts and loss of staff, to climate change, and more. While the current administration consists of strong wilderness advocates, the danger remains that personnel changes will result in less committed or less stalwart management. The hope for this document, and for wilderness character monitoring in general, is that it will act as a support for managers resolve to prevent the degradation of wilderness character. Page 92