KING COMMERCIAL PILOT COURSE

Transcription

1 KING COMMERCIAL PILOT COURSE King Schools, Inc Calle Fortunada San Diego, CA (USA) (Worldwide)

2 Copyright King Schools, Inc. KSI000A10 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo copying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of the author and publisher. Manufactured in the United States of America.

3 COMMERCIAL PILOT COURSE BOOK TABLE OF CONTENTS COURSE NOTES Aerodynamics... 1 Sectional Charts... 5 Airspace and Weather Minimums... 6 Radio Navigation and Flight Instruments Flight Operations Weather Federal Aviation Regulations Cross Country Planning Aircraft Performance Weight and Balance Helicopter Military Competency (Including Instrument Regulations) LEARNING STATEMENT CODES... FIGURES... Appendix 1 VOR ORIENTATION DIAGRAM... Back of Book

4 Appendix 1 FIGURES FIGURE 1. Drag vs. Speed...1 FIGURE 2. Stall Speeds...1 FIGURE 3. Angle of Attack, Degrees...2 FIGURE 4. Stall Speed/Load Factor...3 FIGURE 5. Velocity vs. G-Loads...4 FIGURE 6. Adiabatic Chart...5 FIGURE 7. Stability Chart...6 FIGURE 8. Fuel Consumption vs. Brake Horsepower...7 FIGURE 9. Fuel, Time, and Distance to Climb...8 FIGURE 10. Fuel, Time, and Distance to Climb...9 FIGURE 11. Cruise and Range Performance...10 FIGURE 12. Cruise Performance...11 FIGURE 13. Fuel, Time, and Distance to Climb...12 FIGURE 14. Fuel, Time, and Distance to Climb...13 FIGURE 15. Fuel, Time, and Distance to Climb...14 FIGURE 16. Magnetic Compass/ADF...15 FIGURE 17. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)...16 FIGURE 18. Magnetic Heading/Radio Compass...17 FIGURE 19. Magnetic Heading/Radio Compass...17 FIGURE 20. Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)...18 FIGURE 21. Isosceles Triangle FIGURE 22. Isosceles Triangle FIGURE 23. Isosceles Triangle...20 FIGURE 24. Isosceles Triangle...20 FIGURE 25. ILS RWY 13L (DSM)...21 FIGURE 26. ILS RWY 24R (LAX)...22 FIGURE 27. ILS/DME RWY 35R (DEN)...23

5 FIGURES continued FIGURE 28. ILS RWY 31R (DSM FIGURE 29. ILS RWY 8L (ATL) FIGURE 30. VOR/DME A (7D3) FIGURE 31. Wind Component Chart FIGURE 32. ObstacleTake-off Chart FIGURE 33. Maximum Rate-of-Climb Chart FIGURE 34. Cruise Performance Chart FIGURE 35. Normal Landing Chart FIGURE 36. Stations Diagram FIGURE 37. Center-of-Gravity Envelope and Loading Graph FIGURE 38. Loading Graph and Center-of-Gravity Envelope FIGURE 39. Stations Diagram FIGURE 40. Weight and Balance Chart FIGURE 41. Hover Ceiling vs. Gross Weight FIGURE 42. Rate of Climb (Ft/Min) FIGURE 43. Best Rate-of-Climb Speed FIGURE 44. Rate of Climb FIGURE 45. Running Takeoff FIGURE 46. Jump Takeoff FIGURE 47. (Withdrawn) PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK FIGURE 48. Performance Curves Chart FIGURE 49. Performance Curves Chart FIGURE 50. Flight Envelope FIGURE 51. Airport Signs FIGURE 52. Sectional Chart Excerpt FIGURE 53. Sectional Chart Excerpt FIGURE 54. Sectional Chart Excerpt FIGURE 55. En Route Low Altitude Chart Segment FIGURE 56. Two Signs... 52

6 FIGURES Continued FIGURE 57. Sign...52 FIGURE 58. Airport Diagram and Sign...52 FIGURE 59. Taxiway Diagram and Sign...53 FIGURE 60. Two Signs...53 FIGURE 61. Sign...54 FIGURE 62. Sign...54 FIGURE 63. Sign and Intersection Diagram...54 FIGURE 64. Sign...55 FIGURE 65. Sign...55

7

8 AERODYNAMICS ANGLE OF ATTACK, LIFT, STALLS AN AIRCRAFT WING IS DESIGNED TO PRODUCE LIFT RESULTING FROM a difference in the higher air pressure below the wing's surface and lower air pressure above the wing's surface. (5201) THE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF A WING - directly controls the distribution of the pressures acting on the wing. (5199) BY CHANGING THE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF A WING - the pilot can control the airplane's lift, airspeed, and drag. (5198) AN INCREASE IN ANGLE OF ATTACK - will increase drag. (5167) IN STEADY, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT - there is a corresponding indicated airspeed required for every angle of attack to generate sufficient lift to maintain altitude. (5219) TO MAINTAIN ALTITUDE WHILE AIRSPEED IS BEING DECREASED - increase the angle of attack to compensate for the decreasing lift. (5229) DURING TRANSITION FROM STRAIGHT-AND- LEVEL FLIGHT TO A CLIMB - the angle of attack is increased and lift is momentarily increased. (5220) TO GENERATE THE SAME AMOUNT OF LIFT AS ALTITUDE IS INCREASED - an airplane must be flown at a higher true airspeed for any given angle of attack. (5223) THE ANGLE OF ATTACK AT WHICH A WING STALLS - remains constant regardless of weight, dynamic pressure, bank angle, pitch attitude, or attitude with relation to the horizon. (5204,5212) THE STALL SPEED OF AIRPLANES - is not a fixed value. STALL SPEED - is affected by weight, load factor, and power. It is most affected by variations in airplane loading. (5196,5211) TURBULENCE CAN CAUSE AN INCREASE IN STALL SPEED - and dictates the need to slow an aircraft below V A (maneuvering speed) in turbulent weather. (5160) FROST COVERING THE UPPER SURFACE OF AN AIRPLANE WING - will cause the airplane to stall at an angle of attack that is lower than normal. (5739) A RECTANGULAR WING - as compared to other wing planforms, has a tendency to stall first at the wing root, with the stall progression toward the wingtip. (5197) FLAPS ONE OF THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF FLAPS - during the approach and landing is to provide the same amount of lift at a slower airspeed. (5182) WHEN FLAPS ARE EXTENDED - both lift and drag are increased. (5282) THE RAISING OF FLAPS - during level turns, increases the stall speed. (5181) FORCES ON AN AIRCRAFT LIFT ON A WING IS DEFINED AS - the force acting perpendicular to the relative wind. (5158) LIFT ALSO ACTS PERPENDICULAR TO THE FLIGHT PATH - while the force of drag acts parallel to the flight path. (5202) IN STEADY-STATE LEVEL FLIGHT - the sum of opposing forces acting on an airplane are equal. (5203) IN A STEADY-STATE DESCENT - the sum of all forward forces is equal to the sum of all rearward forces. (5218) MAXIMUM RANGE AND MAXIMUM DISTANCE GLIDE - is characteristic of flight at maximum lift/drag ratio in a propeller-driven airplane. (5217) AS AIRSPEED DECREASES IN LEVEL FLIGHT - below that speed for maximum lift/drag ratio, the total drag of an airplane increases because of increased induced drag. (5162) INDUCED DRAG IS A BY-PRODUCT OF LIFT - and is greatly affected by changes in airspeed. (5280) 1 AERODYNAMICS - NOTES

9 IN THEORY, IF THE ANGLE OF ATTACK AND OTHER FACTORS REMAIN CONSTANT - and the airspeed is doubled while in level flight, both the lift and the parasite drag produced at the higher speed will be four times greater than at the lower speed. (5161,5200) EXAMPLE - Figure 1. What is the significance of the airspeed represented by points "A" and "B"? (In steady flight, an airplane will have its maximum L/D ratio and maximum glide range at this airspeed.) (5165,5166) AIRSPEED FOR MAXIMUM RANGE - decreases as weight decreases (because maximum range occurs at a specific angle of attack). (5505) EXAMPLES - Figure 3. The L/D ratio at a 2 angle of attack is approximately the same as the L/D ratio for what other angle of attack? (16.5 angle of attack.) (5215) If an airplane glides at an angle of attack of 10, how much altitude will it lose in 1 mile? (5213) Altitude Loss = 5280 ft. L/D = Altitude Loss = 480 feet How much altitude will this airplane lose in 3 miles of gliding at an angle of attack of 8? (5214) Altitude Loss = ( ft.) L/D = (3 5280) 12 Altitude Loss = 1,320 feet A PROPELLER ROTATING CLOCKWISE AS SEEN FROM THE REAR - creates a spiraling slipstream, along with torque effect, that tends to rotate the airplane to the left around the vertical axis, and to the left around the longitudinal axis. (5238) STABILITY LONGITUDINAL STABILITY INVOLVES - motion of the airplane about its lateral axis and is controlled by the elevator. (5228) POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY - is displayed if the airplane attitude initially tends to return to its original position after the elevator control is pressed forward and released. (5230) NEUTRAL LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY - is displayed if the airplane attitude remains in the new position after the elevator control is pressed forward and released. (5226) LONGITUDINAL DYNAMIC INSTABILITY - in an airplane can be identified by pitch oscillations becoming progressively steeper. (5227) STABILITY IS DETERMINED BY - the location of the center of gravity in relation to the center of pressure (lift). AN AIRPLANE LOADED TO THE REAR OF ITS CG RANGE - will tend to be unstable about its lateral axis. (5207) MOVING THE CENTER OF GRAVITY AFT IN ANY AIRPLANE makes stall recovery more difficult because the airplane has less pitch down control authority. (5206) IN LIGHT AIRPLANES, NORMAL RECOVERY FROM SPINS - may become difficult if the CG is too far rearward and rotation is around the CG. With an out-of-limits aft CG, there will be reduced pitch control and the airplane may go into a difficult-to-recover spin mode such as a flat spin. (In a spin, an airplane rotates about all three axes, not just the longitudinal axis.) (5205) TURNS BANKING AN AIRPLANE FOR A TURN - increases the stalling speed. EXAMPLES - Figure 2. Do power-on stalls occur at lower airspeed in shallower banks or in steeper banks? (shallower banks.) (5179) How many knots higher will the airplane stall in a power-on 60 bank with gear and flaps up than with gear and flaps down? (76-66 =10 knots higher.) (5180) AS THE ANGLE OF BANK IS INCREASED - the vertical component of lift decreases and the horizontal component of lift increases. (5225) TO MAINTAIN ALTITUDE DURING A TURN - increase angle of attack with increased back elevator pressure to compensate for the loss of the vertical component of lift. (5194,5195) IN A COORDINATED TURN AT A CONSTANT ALTITUDE - for a specific angle of bank and airspeed, the rate and radius of turn will not vary. (5193) AERODYNAMICS - NOTES 2

10 FOR ANY GIVEN BANK ANGLE - the faster the speed of the airplane, the greater the turn radius and the slower the turn rate. TO INCREASE THE RATE OF TURN AND AT THE SAME TIME DECREASE THE RADIUS increase the bank and decrease airspeed. (Maintaining the bank and decreasing airspeed will also increase the rate of turn and decrease the radius but not as efficiently.) (5192) TO MAINTAIN ALTITUDE IF AIRSPEED IS INCREASED DURING A LEVEL TURN - the angle of attack must be decreased or the angle of bank increased. (5210) LOAD FACTOR LOAD FACTOR - is the total airload imposed on the wing divided by the total weight of the aircraft. Load factor directly affects stall speed. (5151,5152) EXAMPLE - If an aircraft with a gross weight of 2,000 pounds were subjected to a 60 constant-altitude bank, what would be the total load? (5156) You need to know that in a 60 constant-altitude bank the load factor is 2.0 (see Figure 4). Total Load = Load Factor Weight Total Load = 2.0 2,000 lbs. Total Load = 4,000 pounds AIRPLANE WING LOADING - during a level coordinated turn in smooth air depends upon the angle of bank. (5154) FOR A GIVEN ANGLE OF BANK - the load factor imposed in a coordinated constant-altitude turn remains constant and the stall speed increases compared with wings-level flight. If the airspeed is increased at a constant bank angle, the load factor will remain constant, regardless of air density and the resultant lift vector, but the radius of turn will increase and the rate of turn will decrease. (5153,5157,5159) EXAMPLE - If the airspeed is increased from 90 knots to 135 knots during a level 60 banked turn, what is the effect on load factor and radius of turn? (The load factor will remain the same but the radius of turn will increase.) (5163) THE DESIGN LOAD FACTOR FOR NORMAL CATEGORY AIRPLANES - is 3.8 G's. EXAMPLE - Baggage weighing 90 pounds is placed in a normal category airplane's baggage compartment which is placarded at 100 pounds. If this airplane is subjected to a positive load factor of 3.5 G's, what would be the total load of the baggage and would it be excessive? (5164) Total Load = Load Factor Weight Total Load = 3.5 G's 90 lbs. Total Load = 315 pounds It would not be excessive since 3.5 G's is less than the design load factor of 3.8 G's. IN A RAPID RECOVERY FROM A DIVE - the effects of load factor would cause the stall speed to increase. (5155) BANKING AN AIRPLANE FOR A TURN - increases the load factor and the stalling speed. EXAMPLES - Figure 4. What is the stall speed of an airplane under a load factor of 2 G's if the unaccelerated stall speed is 60 knots? (5221) At 2 G's load factor, stall speed increase is 40% 60 knots 140% = 84 knots What increase in load factor would take place if the angle of bank were increased from 60 to 80? (5222) At 60 bank, load factor is 2.0 G's. At 80 bank, load factor is 5.8 G's. Increase in load factor is 3.8 G's. (Closest FAA answer is 4 G's) THE BEST TECHNIQUE FOR MINIMIZING THE WING-LOAD FACTOR - when flying in severe turbulence is to set power and trim to obtain an airspeed at or below maneuvering speed, maintain wings level, and accept variations of airspeed and altitude. (5741) AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS AN AIRSPEED LIMITATION NOT COLOR CODED ON AIRSPEED INDICATORS - is maneuvering speed. (5177) MANEUVERING SPEED - is the maximum speed at which full or abrupt control movements may be used. IF SEVERE TURBULENCE IS ENCOUNTERED DURING FLIGHT - the pilot should reduce the airspeed to design-maneuvering speed. (5670) 3 AERODYNAMICS - NOTES

11 IF ENTERING AN AREA WHERE SIGNIFICANT CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE HAS BEEN REPORTED - adjust airspeed to that recommended for rough air. (5669) MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL CRUISING SPEED, V NO - is the maximum speed at which an airplane can be operated during normal maneuvers (upper limit of the green arc). (5605) FLIGHT SPEEDS ABOVE NEVER-EXCEED SPEED - V NE (red radial line) should be avoided because design limit load factors may be exceeded if gusts are encountered. (5604) EXAMPLES - Figure 5. What does the horizontal dashed line from point C to point E represent? (The positive limit load factor.) (5231) The vertical line from point D to point G is represented how on the airspeed indicator? (The maximum speed limit of the green arc.) (5233) The vertical line from point E to point F is represented how on the airspeed indicator? (The upper limit of the yellow arc and the red radial line.) (5232) WINGTIP VORTICES THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE OF HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS - associated with the wake turbulence of large airplanes is tornado-like vortices generated by the wingtips. THE VORTEX STRENGTH IS GREATEST - when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow. (5756) THE PRIMARY HAZARD REGARDING WAKE TURBULENCE - is loss of control because of induced roll. (5750) TO MINIMIZE THE HAZARDS OF WINGTIP VORTICES IF CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF BEHIND A DEPARTING LARGE JET AIRPLANE - be airborne prior to reaching the jet's flightpath until able to turn clear of its wake. (5751) IF A LARGE JET AIRCRAFT HAS JUST LANDED PRIOR TO YOUR TAKEOFF - avoid possible wake turbulence by planning to become airborne past the point where the jet touched down. (5753) WHEN LANDING BEHIND A LARGE JET AIRCRAFT - for vortex avoidance stay above its final approach flightpath all the way to touchdown and land beyond the jet's touchdown point. (5754) IF A LARGE JET CROSSES YOUR COURSE - from left to right approximately 1 mile ahead and at your altitude, to avoid wake turbulence make sure you are slightly above the path of the jet. (5752) VORTEX CIRCULATION GENERATED BY HELICOPTERS - in forward flight trail behind in a manner similar to wingtip vortices generated by airplanes. (5755) GROUND EFFECT AN AIRPLANE LEAVING GROUND EFFECT - will experience an increase in induced drag and require more thrust. (5209) IF THE SAME ANGLE OF ATTACK IS MAINTAINED IN GROUND EFFECT AS WHEN OUT OF GROUND EFFECT - lift will increase, and induced drag will decrease. (5216) TO PRODUCE THE SAME LIFT WHILE IN GROUND EFFECT AS WHEN OUT OF GROUND EFFECT - the airplane requires a lower angle of attack. (5224) AERODYNAMICS - NOTES 4

12 SECTIONAL CHARTS CHART DETAILS THE MAXIMUM ELEVATION FIGURE - for a quadrangle is shown on the chart. EXAMPLE - Figure 53, Point 2. What do the numerals "16" indicate? (The maximum elevation figure for that quadrangle.) (5570) OBSTRUCTION ELEVATION DATA - is shown on the chart. EXAMPLE - Figure 52, Point 4. What is the height above ground of the highest obstruction with high intensity lighting within 10 NM of Lincoln Airport? (299 feet AGL.)(5581) EXAMPLE - Figure 52, Point 4. The terrain at the obstruction approximately 8 NM east southeast of the Lincoln Airport is approximately how much higher than the airport elevation? (5585) MSL elevation of obstruction Less obstruction height AGL Terrain height at obstruction Less field elevation Terrain height above field COURSES 1,254 feet feet 954 feet feet 835 feet TRUE COURSE - is the angle between the direction of intended flight and true north. TRUE COURSE MEASUREMENTS - on a Sectional Aeronautical Chart should be made at a meridian near the midpoint of the course because the angles formed by lines of longitude and the course line vary from point to point. (5479) WHEN DIVERTING TO AN ALTERNATE AIRPORT - because of an emergency, pilots should apply rule-of-thumb computations, estimates, and other appropriate shortcuts to divert to the new course as soon as possible.(5503) 5 SECTIONAL CHARTS - NOTES

13 AIRSPACE AND WEATHER MINIMUMS AIRSPACE SYSTEM CLASS MEMORY AID USE A ALTITUDE CONTROLLED B BIG CONTROLLED C CROWDED CONTROLLED D DIALOGUE CONTROLLED E ELSEWHERE CONTROLLED G GO FOR IT UNCONTROLLED CLASS E AIRSPACE A LOW ALTITUDE FEDERAL AIRWAY - is shown in blue. THE VERTICAL LIMITS - (excluding Hawaii) of the Federal Low Altitude airways extend from 1,200 feet AGL up to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL. (5043) EXAMPLES - Figure 52. Point 5. What is the floor of the Class E airspace over University Airport? (700 feet AGL). (5567) Point 8. What is the floor of the Class E airspace over the town of Auburn? (700 feet AGL). (5568) Point 7. What is the floor of the Class E airspace over the town of Woodland? (Both 700 feet and 1,200 feet AGL.) (5566) Point 1. What is the MSL floor of the Class E airspace above Georgetown Airport? (3,823 feet MSL; 1,200 feet above the airport elevation of 2,623 feet MSL.) (5565) WHEN OPERATING IN THE VICINITY OF AN AIRPORT WITH AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER in Class E airspace, two-way communications must be established prior to 4 NM from the airport and up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. (This rule was enacted to cover special events.) (5117) CLASS D AIRSPACE A DASHED BLUE CIRCLE SURROUNDING AN AIRPORT shows the boundary of Class D airspace. (5577) AIRSPACE WHEN APPROACHING TO LAND AT AN AIRPORT WITH AN ATC FACILITY IN CLASS D AIRSPACE communications must be established prior to 4 NM from the airport up to and including 2,500 feet AGL (or the Class D airspace boundary). (5118) WHEN THE CONTROL TOWER OF AN AIRPORT IN CLASS D AIRSPACE - is not in operation, that airspace then becomes Class E (or Class G if there is no weather reporting). (5009) EXAMPLE - Figure 54, Point 1. What minimum altitude is required to avoid the Livermore Airport Class D airspace? (2,901 feet MSL.) (5572) CLASS C AIRSPACE EXAMPLE - Figure 54, Point 6. What is the ceiling of the Class C airspace at Metropolitan Oakland International (OAK) which extends upward from the surface? (Both 2,100 feet MSL and 3,000 feet MSL.) (Note: The Class C ceilings are actually 2,099 feet MSL and 2,999 feet MSL. 2,100 and 3,000 are the floors of the two areas of Class B airspace overlying OAK and they take precedence.) (5587) WHEN OPERATING TO OR FROM A SATELLITE AIRPORT that is within Class C airspace: the aircraft must be equipped with an ATC transponder and altitude reporting equipment and, prior to entering you must establish and maintain communications with the ATC serving facility, On takeoff, contact the ATC serving facility as soon as practicable after takeoff. You are not required to contact them before. (ATC, such as the control tower at the primary airport, will not clear you to land at the satellite. You only have to contact them as soon as practicable after takeoff, not before. (5119,6003) AIRSPACE - NOTES 6

14 CLASS B AIRSPACE FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN CLASS B AIRSPACE: the pilot must hold at least a private pilot certificate or student pilot certificate with appropriate logbook endorsements; (An instrument rating is not required.) the pilot must receive an ATC clearance before operating an aircraft in that area the aircraft must be equipped with a 4096 code or Mode S transponder, and have Mode C or altitude reporting capability (5082,6001,6002,6005) CLASS A AIRSPACE FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN CLASS A AIRSPACE - must be conducted under instrument flight rules, and the aircraft must be equipped with ATC transponder and altitude reporting equipment. (DME is only required above 24,000 feet MSL.) (5120,6004) SPECIAL EQUIPMENT AN OPERABLE CODED TRANSPONDER WITH MODE C CAPABILITY - is required in Class A, Class B, and Class C airspace, and within 30 NM of a Class B primary airport. The same equipment is also required in all airspace at and above 10,000 feet MSL (excluding airspace at or below 2,500 feet AGL) in the contiguous United States. (5060,5061,5818) SPEED LIMITS BELOW 10,000 FEET MSL - the maximum indicated airspeed is 250 knots IAS unless otherwise authorized. THE MAXIMUM INDICATED AIRSPEED PERMITTED - when at or below 2,500 feet AGL within 4 NM of the primary airport within Class C or Class D airspace is 200 knots. (5078) IN THE AIRSPACE UNDERLYING CLASS B AIRSPACE - or in a VFR corridor designated through Class B airspace, the maximum indicated airspeed authorized is 200 knots. (5077) MINIMUM SAFE SPEED WHEN THE MINIMUM SAFE SPEED IS GREATER THAN THE MAXIMUM ALLOWED SPEED IN PART 91 you may operate at that minimum speed. (5112) AIRPORTS AIRPORT CHARTING SYMBOLS - indicate surface, runway length, lighting, control tower, services, and public use. TOWER-CONTROLLED AIRPORTS, WHICH UNDERLY CLASS B, CLASS C, CLASS D OR CLASS E AIRSPACE - are shown in blue on Sectional Aeronautical Charts. Uncontrolled airports (in Class E surface or Class G airspace) are shown in magenta. (5564) EXAMPLE - Figure 52, Point 6. What does the letter "R" in the airport symbol for Mosier Airport indicate? (A non-public use airport.) (5583) SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE ALERT AREAS ALERT AREAS - are depicted on charts. EXAMPLE - Figure 52, Point 9. What type of activities might be expected in the airspace depicted within the blue lines? (A high volume of pilot training activities or other unusual type of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to aircraft as long as all pilots are particularly alert when flying in these areas.) (5575) MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES - are indicated on charts. EXAMPLE - Figure 53, Point 1. What is the thin, black shaded line? (A military training route.) (5569) 7 AIRSPACE - NOTES

15 BASIC VFR WEATHER MINIMUMS WEATHER MINIMUMS Class E Class G-Night Class G-Day Class B Vis. 5 mi. 1,000' Vis. 5 mi. Visibility 3 miles 1mi. 1,000' 10,000' MSL 1mi. Clear of Clouds Vis. 3 mi. 1,000' Vis. 1 mi. Surface 2,000' 2,000' ClassB,C,D,&ESurfaceArea 1,200' 500' AGL Visibility 3 miles Vis. 3 mi. 1,000' Vis. 1 mi. 2,000' 500' Surface Clear of Clouds 1,000' Ceiling Surface 2,000' Class C and Class D Visibility 3 miles 1,000' 500' Surface THE MINIMUM FLIGHT VISIBILITY FOR VFR FLIGHT - increases to 5 statute miles beginning at an altitude of 10,000 feet MSL if above 1,200 feet AGL in Class G airspace. (In Class E airspace at and above 10,000 feet MSL, the AGL altitude is not relevant.) (5083) EXAMPLE - What is the minimum flight visibility and proximity to cloud requirements for VFR flight, at 6,500 feet MSL, in Class C, D, and E airspace? (3 miles visibility; 1,000 feet above and 500 feet below.) (5085) AIRSPACE - NOTES 8

16 EXAMPLE - Figure 53. At 3 p.m. local time, you are approaching Madera Airport for landing from a position 7 NM north at 1,000 AGL. The flight visibility is 1 SM. What procedure would you follow to land at Madera Airport? (You are required to descend to below 700 feet AGL to remain clear of Class E airspace and may continue for landing.) (5588) SPECIAL VFR WHEN LANDING OR TAKING OFF AN AIRPLANE UNDER SPECIAL VFR WITHIN CLASS D AIRSPACE - you are required to remain clear of clouds, and the ground visibility must be at least 1 SM. (5088) AT SOME AIRPORTS IN CLASS D AIRSPACE WHERE GROUND VISIBILITY IS NOT REPORTED - takeoffs and landings under special VFR are authorized by ATC if the flight visibility is at least 1 SM. (5089) TO OPERATE AN AIRPLANE UNDER SPECIAL VFR IN CLASS D AIRSPACE AT NIGHT - the pilot must hold an instrument pilot rating and the airplane must be equipped for instrument flight. (5090) WHEN FIXED-WING SPECIAL VFR IS PROHIBITED AT AN AIRPORT - the sectional aeronautical chart will state "NO SVFR" near the airport symbol. 9 AIRSPACE - NOTES

17 RADIO NAVIGATION AND FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS ADF NAVIGATION HOMING TO A RADIO STATION - when using ADF during crosswind conditions results in a curved path that leads to the station. (5490) WHEN USING AN ADF DURING CROSSWIND CONDITIONS - on the desired track outbound with the proper drift correction established, the ADF pointer will be deflected to the windward side of the tail position. (5491) TO DETERMINE THE MAGNETIC BEARING TO THE RADIO BEACON - add the magnetic heading and relative bearing together. If the answer comes to more than 360, subtract 360. Use the formula: MB TO = MH + RB DRAWING A PICTURE - is sometimes the best way to solve an ADF problem. EXAMPLE - If the MH is 040 and the RB is 290, what is the MB TO the station? (5495) MB TO = MH + RB = MB TO = 330 EXAMPLE - If the MH is 355 and the RB is 045, what is the MB TO the station? (5496) MB TO = MH + RB = = MB TO = 040 EXAMPLE - If the MH is 350 and the RB is 240, what is the MB TO the station? (5494) MB TO = MH + RB = = MB TO = 230 TO DETERMINE THE MAGNETIC BEARING FROM THE RADIO BEACON - first find the magnetic bearing TO the station, then find the reciprocal by adding or subtracting 180. If the answer comes to more than 360, subtract 360. Use the formula: MB FROM = Reciprocal of MB TO EXAMPLE - If the MH is 315 and the RB is 140, what is the MB FROM the station? (5493) MB FROM = Reciprocal of MB TO MB TO = MH + RB = = MB TO = 095 MB FROM = 275 EXAMPLE - If the MH is 265 and the RB is 065, what is the MB FROM the station? (5492) MB FROM = Reciprocal of MB TO MB TO = MH + RB = MB TO = 330 MB FROM = 150 TO DETERMINE THE RELATIVE BEARING - take the magnetic bearing TO the station and subtract the magnetic heading. Use the formula: RB = MB TO - MH EXAMPLE - Figure 16, Group 1. What would be the relative bearing if the aircraft were turned to a magnetic heading of 090? (5497,5498) MB TO = MH + RB = MB TO = 340 RB = MB TO - MH = RB = 250 EXAMPLE - Figure 18. If the airplane continues to fly on the heading as shown, what magnetic bearing FROM the station would be intercepted at a 035 angle outbound? (5512) The station is to the left. Intercepting a magnetic bearing FROM at a 35 angle outbound would be a relative bearing of = 215. MB FROM = Reciprocal of MB TO MB TO = MH + RB = MB TO = 250 MB FROM = 070 EXAMPLE - Figure 19. If the airplane continues to fly on the magnetic heading as illustrated, what magnetic bearing FROM the station would be intercepted at a 30 angle? (5513,5514) RADIO NAVIGATION - NOTES 10

18 The station is to the right. Intercepting a magnetic bearing FROM at a 30 angle outbound would be a relative bearing of = 150. MB FROM = Reciprocal of MB TO MB TO MB TO = 130 MB FROM = 310 = MH + RB = = EXAMPLE - Figure 16, Group 1. To intercept the 330 magnetic bearing TO the NDB at a 30 angle, the aircraft should be turned in which direction how many degrees? (5499) To intercept the 330 bearing TO, the airplane would have to be heading generally northbound toward the station with the station to the left. The relative bearing would be = 330. MH = MB TO - RB = MH = 0, or 360 Since the aircraft is now on a heading of 300, it would have to make a right turn of = 60 to a magnetic heading of 360. EXAMPLE - Figure 18. To intercept a magnetic bearing of 240 FROM at a 030 angle while outbound, the airplane should be turned in which direction and how many degrees? (5511) To intercept the 240 bearing FROM, the airplane would have to be heading generally westbound away from the station with the station to the right. The relative bearing would be = 150. MB TO = Reciprocal of MB FROM MB TO = = 060 MH = MB TO - RB = = ( ) = MH = 270 Since the aircraft is now on a heading of 35, it would have to make a left turn of = 125 to a magnetic heading of 270. VOR NAVIGATION THE COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR - in most VOR receivers is so calibrated that a full-scale deflection is approximately 10 from the selected bearing. A 1, OR 1/10, DEFLECTION OF THE CDI - for an aircraft 60 miles from a VOR indicates the aircraft is 1 mile to the side of the selected course centerline. EXAMPLE - An aircraft 60 miles from a VOR station has a CDI indication of one-fifth deflection. This represents how many miles off the course centerline? (2 miles.) (5533) WHEN CHECKING THE COURSE SENSITIVITY OF A VOR RECEIVER - to move the CDI from the center to the last dot on either side the OBS should be rotated 10 to 12. (5532) WHEN USING A VOT - to make a VOR receiver check, the CDI should be centered and the OBS should indicate that the aircraft is on the 360 radial. (5552) WHEN USING A VOT - the maximum tolerance allowed for an operational VOR equipment check is plus or minus 4. (5062) WHEN USING A DESIGNATED VOR CHECKPOINT - on the airport surface, set the OBS on the designated radial. The CDI must center within plus or minus 4 of that radial with a FROM indication. (5551) WHEN USING AN AIRBORNE VOR CHECKPOINT - the OBS should read within 6 of the selected radial. (5553) TO USE A VOR FOR TRACKING A COURSE - set a bearing in the OBS equal to the course desired. FLYING A HEADING THAT IS RECIPROCAL - to the bearing selected on the OBS results in reverse sensing of a VOR receiver. (5500) TO TRACK OUTBOUND ON THE 180 RADIAL - the recommended procedure is to set the OBS to 180 and make heading corrections toward the CDI needle. (5501) TO TRACK INBOUND ON THE 215 RADIAL - the recommended procedure is to set the OBS to 035 (the reciprocal: = 035 ) and make heading corrections toward the CDI needle. (5502) 11 RADIO NAVIGATION - NOTES

19 RMI YOU CAN USE THE VOR ORIENTATION DIAGRAM - (back of book) to draw and solve position location problems. EXAMPLES - Figure 20. Which instrument(s) show(s) that the aircraft is getting farther from the selected VORTAC? (Instrument 4.) (5538) Which instrument shows the aircraft to be northwest of the VORTAC? (Instrument 2 shows the aircraft is northwest of the VORTAC on the 310 radial.) (5537) Which instrument shows the aircraft in a position where a 180 turn would result in the aircraft intercepting the 150 radial at a 30 angle? (Instrument 4 shows the aircraft is northeast of the VOR on the 015 radial flying on a heading of 360. A 180 turn would result in the aircraft intercepting the 150 radial at a 30 angle.) (5535) Which instrument shows the aircraft in a position where a straight course after a 90 left turn would result in intercepting the 180 radial? (Instrument 1 shows the aircraft is southeast of the VOR on the 160 radial flying on a heading of 290. Instrument 3 shows the aircraft is also southeast of the VOR on the 135 radial flying on a heading of 300. A 90 left turn by either aircraft would result in intercepting the 180 radial. Only the latter is given by the FAA as a correct answer choice.) (5536) If an aircraft has the indications shown in instrument 3, then makes a 180 turn to the left and continues straight ahead, which radial - 135, 270, or will it intercept? (Instrument 3 shows the aircraft is southeast of the VOR on the 135 radial flying on a heading of 300. If the aircraft makes a 180 turn to the left it will intercept the 135 radial but not the 270 or 360 radial.) (5534) HSI A HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR - combines VOR and heading indications to give a pictorial plan view of the aircraft location in regard to a radial. EXAMPLES - Figure 17. Which illustration indicates that the airplane should be turned 150 left to intercept the 360 radial at a 60 angle inbound? (HSI 1 shows the aircraft is east of the 360 radial flying northeast. If the aircraft turned left 150 it would intercept the 360 radial at a 60 angle inbound.) (5509) Which illustration indicates that the airplane will intercept the 060 radial at a 60 angle inbound if the present heading is maintained? (HSI 6 shows the aircraft is southeast of the 060 radial flying northwest. On this heading the aircraft will intercept the 060 radial inbound at a 60 angle.) (Note that all three illustration choices, 4, 5, and 6 have the 060 radial selected.) (5506) If the present heading in illustration 4 is maintained, the airplane will cross the 180 radial at what angle? (The aircraft is southeast of the 060 radial southwest bound on a heading of 255. On this heading the aircraft will cross the 180 radial at a 75 angle.) (5510) Which illustration indicates that the airplane will intercept the 060 radial at a 75 angle outbound if the present heading is maintained? (HSI 5 shows the aircraft is southeast of the 060 radial northbound. The aircraft will intercept the 060 radial at a 75 angle outbound if the present heading is maintained.) (5508) If the present heading in illustration 2 is maintained, the airplane will cross what radial at a 45 angle? (The airplane will intercept the 180 radial at approximately a 45 angle outbound.) (5507) RADIO NAVIGATION - NOTES 12

20 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS A TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR - indicates rate of turn and coordination. (5268) A TURN COORDINATOR - indicates roll rate, rate of turn, and coordination. (5268) THE ELECTRIC TURN COORDINATOR - has the advantage of providing a backup in case of vacuum system failure if the airplane has a vacuum system for other gyroscopic instruments. (5269) IF A STANDARD RATE TURN IS MAINTAINED - it would take 2 minutes to turn 360. (5270) MAGNETIC DEVIATION - of a compass varies for different headings of the same aircraft. (5178) 13 RADIO NAVIGATION - NOTES

21 FLIGHT OPERATIONS FLYING BASICS THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS - involved in maneuvering an aircraft are straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. (5191) IN THE EVENT OF A COMPLETE ENGINE FAILURE - after becoming airborne on takeoff, a pilot's most immediate and vital concern is maintaining a safe airspeed. (5663) COLD WEATHER OPERATION DURING PREFLIGHT IN COLD WEATHER - crankcase breather lines should receive special attention because they are susceptible to being clogged by ice from crankcase vapors that have condensed and subsequently frozen. (5766) WHEN PREHEATING AN AIRCRAFT DURING COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS - the cabin area as well as the engine should be preheated. (5767) IF NECESSARY TO TAKEOFF FROM A SLUSHY RUNWAY - the freezing of landing gear mechanisms can be minimized by recycling the gear. (5768) NIGHT FLYING DURING YOUR NIGHT CROSS COUNTRY FLIGHT PLANNING you should check the status and availability of lights both enroute and at your destination. (This information is easily obtained from charts, the Airport/Facility Directory and NOTAMs.) (5133,6026) LIGHT BEACONS PRODUCING RED FLASHES identify obstructions or areas (such as TV towers and supports for power or telephone lines) that are considered hazardous to aerial navigation. (5134) (Runway end warning lights and specific light gun signals are not beacons.) WHEN YOU RE FLYING VFR AT NIGHT the first indication that you re flying into restricted visibility conditions like haze or smoke, is usually a gradual disappearance of lights on the ground. (5135) PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN EMERGENCY LANDING AT NIGHT include: planning the approach and landing to an unlighted area if you re familiar with the terrain, selecting a landing area close to public access, if possible. (5136,5137) (Switches would be turned off after landing, not before. Use of flaps is not a primary consideration. Landing on a road or highway even if lighted has inherent hazards like power lines or wires and bridges.) LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS (LAHSO) LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS (LAHSO) - is an air traffic control procedure that increases an airport s capacity and reduce ground delays by having a pilot land and then hold short of an intersecting runway or taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway. MINIMUM VISIBILITY AND CEILING REQUIREMENTS must be at least basic VFR of 3 SM visibility and 1,000 feet ceiling for you to receive (be offered) a LAHSO clearance. (This allows you to maintain visual contact with other aircraft and ground vehicles.) (5140) AS PILOT IN COMMAND - you have the authority to accept or decline a LAHSO clearance. (5138) A PILOT SHOULD ALWAYS DECLINE A LAHSO CLEARANCE anytime he or she believes that safety will be compromised. (5139) (Runway surface condition is only one of many safety factors to consider before accepting or declining LAHSO.) UNLESS AN EMERGENCY OCCURS OR YOU RECEIVE AN AMENDED CLEARANCE you must adhere to the LAHSO clearance just like any other ATC clearance. (6043) TAXIWAY SIGNS TAXIWAY SIGNS ARE DESIGNED AND PLACED to control access to runways, other taxiways and roads. The various signs are distinctive for both symbols and color. FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES 14

22 EXAMPLES - Figure 51. With respect to the middle symbol, when would the pilot call ground control after landing? (When the aircraft is completely clear of the runway and is past the solid-line side of the middle symbol.) (5657) Where would the red symbol at the top most likely be found? (At an intersection where a roadway might be mistaken for a taxiway.) (5658) While clearing an active runway or taxiing up to an active runway, when are you most likely clear of the ILS critical area? (When you have passed the bottom yellow symbol.)(5659,5991) Which symbol does not directly address runway incursion with other aircraft? (The top red symbol.) (5660) EXAMPLES Figures 59, 60 & 65 (Refer to figures 59 and 60.) Taxiway F is a new taxiway leading off of which taxiway? (Taxiway A.) (6027) (Refer to Figures 60 & 65.) Sign "1" in figure 60 and figure 65 are indications that the taxiway does not continue. (6035) EXAMPLES Figure 56. Sign 1 indicates what? (That the taxiway leads to runway 22.) (6037) Sign 2 means that you have reached the holding position at the beginning of takeoff runway 4. (6038) EXAMPLE Figure 57. This sign means what? (Runways 10 and 21 are straight ahead. (6039) EXAMPLE Figures 58 or 64. At which locations on the airport diagram would you see the sign in Figure 58? (6040) EXAMPLE Figure 62. According to this sign, what taxiway are you on? (Need more information than is presented on the sign.) (6036) EXAMPLE Figure 63. Which diagram is in agreement with the sign? (Diagram 2.) (6042) TAXIING IN THE WIND WHEN TAXIING DURING STRONG QUARTERING TAILWINDS - the aileron should be down on the side from which the wind is blowing. (5655) WHEN TAXIING DURING STRONG QUARTERING TAILWINDS IN A LIGHT, HIGH- WING AIRPLANE - the aileron control should be positioned opposite the direction from which the wind is blowing. (5656) TAKEOFF AND LANDING IN WIND FOR CROSSWIND CORRECTION ON TAKEOFF - a pilot should use rudder as required to maintain directional control, aileron pressure into the wind, and higher than normal lift-off airspeed in both conventional- and nosewheeltype airplanes. (5661) WHEN TURBULENCE IS ENCOUNTERED DURING THE APPROACH TO A LANDING - increase the airspeed slightly above normal approach speed to attain more positive control. (5662) DURING GUSTY WIND CONDITIONS - a power-on approach and power-on landing is recommended. (5664) A PROPER CROSSWIND LANDING ON A RUNWAY - requires that, at the moment of touchdown, the direction of motion of the airplane and its longitudinal axis be parallel to the runway. (5665) WIND SHEAR DURING AN APPROACH - the most important and most easily recognized means of being alerted to possible wind shear is monitoring the power and vertical velocity required to remain on the proper glidepath. (5358) DURING DEPARTURE - under conditions of suspected low-level wind shear, a sudden decrease in headwind will cause a loss in airspeed equal to the decrease in wind velocity. (5359) TURBULENCE LIGHT TURBULENCE - would be reported by a pilot when turbulence causes slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude. (5444) MODERATE TURBULENCE - would be reported by a pilot when turbulence causes changes in altitude and/or attitude but aircraft control remains positive. (5445) AVOIDING MIDAIRS PILOTS ARE ENCOURAGED TO TURN ON THE AIRCRAFT ROTATING BEACON - anytime an engine is in operation. (5748) 15 FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES

23 TO SCAN PROPERLY FOR TRAFFIC - a pilot should use a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky Into the central visual field. (Eyes can only focus on a narrow viewing area of about 10.) (5758) WHEN ANOTHER AIRCRAFT IS ON A COLLISION COURSE - with your aircraft, there will be no apparent relative motion between your aircraft and the other aircraft. (5272) WHEN IN THE VICINITY OF A VOR - which is being used for navigation on VFR flights, it is important to exercise sustained vigilance to avoid other aircraft that may be converging on the VOR from other directions. (5749) ENGINES DETONATION - occurs in a reciprocating aircraft engine at high-power settings when the fuel mixture (unburned charge) in the cylinders instantaneously ignites instead of burning progressively and evenly (normally). (5185,5190) USING A TOO LOW GRADE OF FUEL - is a factor that can lead to detonation. It occurs when the pressure and temperature of the fuel inside the cylinder exceeds the critical pressure and temperature for the grade of fuel. (5994) PRE-IGNITION - is the uncontrolled firing of the fuel/air charge in advance of normal spark ignition. (5186) DETUNING OF ENGINE CRANKSHAFT COUNTERWEIGHTS - is a source of overstress that may be caused by rapid opening and closing of the throttle. (5271) FOR INTERNAL COOLING - reciprocating aircraft engines are especially dependent on the circulation of lubricating oil. (5175) OIL LEVEL BEING TOO LOW - may result in an abnormally high engine oil temperature indication. (5607) ENGINE IGNITION SYSTEMS A BROKEN MAGNETO GROUND WIRE - is the probable reason an engine continues to run after the ignition switch has been turned off. This should not normally happen and indicates a magneto not grounding in OFF position. (5169,5171,5173) IF THE GROUND WIRE BECOMES DISCONNECTED - between the magneto and the ignition switch, the engine could accidentally start if the propeller is moved with fuel in the cylinder. (5174) MIXTURE FUEL/AIR RATIO - is the ratio between the weight of the fuel and the weight of the air entering the cylinder. (5187) THE PILOT CONTROLS THE AIR/FUEL RATIO - with the mixture control. (5176) THE MIXTURE CONTROL - can be adjusted which prevents the fuel/air combination from becoming too rich at higher altitudes. (5188) IF NO LEANING IS MADE - with the mixture control as the flight altitude increases, the density of air entering the carburetor decreases and the amount of fuel remains constant. (5608) UNLESS ADJUSTED - the fuel/air mixture becomes richer with an increase in altitude because the amount of fuel remains constant while the density of air decreases. (5609) THE BASIC PURPOSE OF ADJUSTING THE FUEL/AIR MIXTURE CONTROL AT ALTITUDE - is to decrease the fuel flow in order to compensate for decreased air density. (5610) THE BEST POWER MIXTURE - is that fuel/air ratio at which the most power can be obtained for any given throttle setting. (5298) AT HIGH ALTITUDES AN EXCESSIVELY RICH MIXTURE - will cause fouling of the spark plugs if the aircraft gains altitude with no mixture adjustment. (5172,5611) CARBURETOR HEAT APPLYING CARBURETOR HEAT - reduces the density of the air entering the carburetor thus enriches the fuel/air mixture. (5189,5606) LEAVING THE CARBURETOR HEAT ON WHILE TAKING OFF - will increase the ground roll because of reduced engine power. (5170) PROPELLERS PROPELLER EFFICIENCY - is the ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower. (5235) THE REASON FOR VARIATIONS IN GEOMETRIC PITCH (TWISTING) - along a propeller blade is it permits a relatively constant angle of attack along its length when in cruising flight. (5237) FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES 16

24 A FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER - is designed for best efficiency only at a given combination of airspeed and RPM. (5236) THE OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF A CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER - is that the propeller control regulates propeller blade angle which regulates engine RPM and in turn the propeller RPM. (5183) TO DEVELOP MAXIMUM POWER AND THRUST - (as in during takeoff) the blade angle of a controllable-pitch or constant-speed propeller should be set to produce a small angle of attack and high RPM. (5667,5668) IN AIRCRAFT EQUIPPED WITH CONSTANT- SPEED PROPELLERS - and normally aspirated engines, to avoid placing undue stress on the engine components when power is being increased, increase the RPM before increasing the manifold pressure. (5184) TO ESTABLISH A CLIMB AFTER TAKEOFF - in an aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller, the output of the engine is reduced to climb power by decreasing manifold pressure and then decreasing RPM by increasing propeller blade angle. (5654) VHF/DF STEER TO USE VHF/DF FACILITIES - for assistance in locating your position, you must have an operative VHF transmitter and receiver. (5504) NOTAMS INFORMATION ABOUT A NAVIGATIONAL FACILITY - will be located in NOTAM (D) distribution and have the prefix NAV. A NOTAM (D) about a taxiway closure would have TWY as a prefix. (6044,6055) (FDC NOTAMS disseminate information that is regulatory in nature.) AEROMEDICAL FACTORS HYPERVENTILATION INSUFFICIENT CARBON DIOXIDE - would most likely result in hyperventilation. (5760) AS HYPERVENTILATION PROGRESSES - a pilot can experience symptoms of suffocation and drowsiness. (5757,5759) TO OVERCOME THE SYMPTOMS OF HYPERVENTILATION - a pilot should slow the breathing rate. (5762) HYPOXIA HYPOXIA - is the result of insufficient oxygen reaching the brain. (5761) HYPOXIA SUSCEPTIBILITY - due to inhalation of carbon monoxide increases as altitude increases. (5764) CARBON MONOXIDE FREQUENT INSPECTIONS - of aircraft exhaust manifold-type heating systems should be made to minimize the possibility of exhaust gases leaking into the cockpit. (5653) SPATIAL DISORIENTATION TO BEST OVERCOME THE EFFECTS OF SPATIAL DISORIENTATION - a pilot should rely on aircraft instrument indications. (5765) ALCOHOL ALCOHOL - present within the human body in even small amounts adversely affects judgment and decision-making abilities. (5763) ONE ALCOHOLIC DRINK - can be detected in the breath and blood for at least 3 hours. (6034) (One alcoholic drink is defined as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine.) NIGHT ADAPTATION WHEN THE ROD CELLS IN YOUR EYES have become adjusted to darkness in about 30 minutes, you can expect the best night vision. (5130) (While the pupils and the cone cells adapt more quickly, sensitivity to darkness is best after 30 minutes.) AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING FAULTY DECISIONS AND JUDGMENT have played a role in most aircraft mishaps. AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM) TRAINING was developed to help pilots make good decisions. DEFINITIONS AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM) - can be defined as a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. (5942) RISK MANAGEMENT - as a part of the aeronautical decision making process, relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight. (5941) 17 FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES

25 JUDGMENT is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and making a timely decision on which action to take. THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL RISK ELEMENTS - in the aeronautical decision making (ADM) process that comprise any given aviation situation are: Pilot Aircraft EnVironment, and External Pressures (Mission). CLASSIC BEHAVIORAL TRAPS EXAMPLES OF CLASSIC BEHAVIORAL TRAPS - that experienced pilots may fall into are trying to: Complete a flight as planned, Please passengers, Meet schedules, and Demonstrate they have the right stuff. (Promoting situational awareness and assuming responsibility are not traps they re good things.) (5944) MANY EXPERIENCED PILOTS - have fallen prey to dangerous tendencies or behavior problems one time or another. A PILOT FALLING INTO THE SHOWING THAT I HAVE THE RIGHT STUFF TRAP may unrealistically assess his or her skills during stressful conditions. This false sense can generate tendencies that lead to dangerous, often illegal practices and possible mishaps. (Demonstrating the right stuff does not necessarily lead to a total disregard for any alternative course of action.) (5945) SOME DANGEROUS TENDENCIES OR BEHAVIOR PATTERNS - which must be identified and eliminated include: Peer pressure, Get-there-itis, Loss of positional or situational awareness, and Operating with inadequate fuel reserves. (Not deficiencies in instrument skills or fatigue or illness.) (5946) HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES ONE OF THE EARLY STEPS IN THE AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS - is to identify personal attitudes which are hazardous to safe flight. (Making a rational evaluation of the required actions is a step in judgment not a part of ADM.) (5943) A PILOT WORKING ON GOOD AERONAUTICAL DECSION MAKING - should take a Self-Assessment Hazardous Attitude Inventory Test early in the process to identify hazardous personal attitudes. (Obtaining flight instruction is not listed as a step in ADM.) (5947) HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES OCCUR TO EVERY PILOT - to some degree at some time. The five hazardous attitudes and their associated hazardous thoughts addressed by ADM are: Antiauthority (don t tell me!), Impulsivity (do something quickly!), Invulnerability (it won t happen to me.), Macho (I can do it.), and Resignation (what s the use?). (5949) HAZARDOUS ATTITUDE EXAMPLES PASSENGERS FOR A CHARTER FLIGHT have arrived almost an hour late for a flight that requires a reservation. An illustration of an ANTIAUTHORITY reaction by the pilot would be those reservation rules do not apply to this flight. Antiauthority is a don t tell me attitude. (5955) THE PILOT AND PASSENGERS ARE ANXIOUS to get to their destination for a business presentation. Level IV thunderstorms are reported in a line across the intended route. An illustration of an IMPULSIVITY reaction is hurry and get going, before things get worse. Impulsivity is a do something quickly attitude. (5957) ON AN IFR FLIGHT, A PILOT COMES OUT OF A CLOUD and finds a helicopter 300 feet away. This pilot would display a MACHO reaction by flying a little closer, just to show him. Macho is I can do it attitude. (5958) A PILOT AND FRIENDS ARE FLYING to an out-of-town football game. The pilot calculates that they will be over max gross weight. The RESIGNATION reaction would be illustrated by well, nobody told him about the extra weight. The Resignation attitude is what s the use? (5960) THE PILOT DISCOVERS THAT THE PRESSURIZATION RATE CONTROL FEATURE is inoperative. He disregards the discrepancy and plans to manually control the cabin pressure. An illustration of the INVULNERABILITY reaction is what s the worst that could happen? FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES 18

26 The Invulnerability attitude is it won t happen to me. (5956) NEUTRALIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES IN THE AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS - the first step in neutralizing a hazardous attitude is recognizing hazardous thoughts. (5951) HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO POOR PILOT JUDGMENT - can be effectively counteracted by redirecting that hazardous attitude so an appropriate action can be taken. (Early recognition of the hazardous thought is important, but alone, it does not neutralize the hazardous attitude.) (5948) WHEN A PILOT RECOGNIZES A THOUGHT AS HAZARDOUS - the pilot should label that thought as hazardous, then correct that thought by stating the corresponding antidote. (You can t avoid developing hazardous thoughts, you must correct them.) (5952) COUNTERACT HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES - with the appropriate antidote: Antiauthority: Don t tell me. Follow the rules. They are usually right. Impulsivity: Do something quickly. Not so fast. Think first. Invulnerability: It won t happen to me. It could happen to me. Macho: I can do it. Taking chances is foolish. Resignation: What s the use? I m not helpless. I can make a difference. (5950,5959) STRESS MANAGEMENT STRESS IS A TERM USED TO DESCRIBE - the body s nonspecific response to demands placed on it, whether these demands are pleasant or unpleasant in nature. SUCCESS IN REDUCING STRESS - associated with a crisis in the cockpit begins with managing stress areas in one s personal life. (Can t eliminate stress.) (Stress comes from general not specific causes.) (5954) TO HELP MANAGE COCKPIT STRESS - a pilot should try to relax and think rationally at the first sign of stress. (Stress management techniques practiced for life stress management often aren't practical in flight.) (5953) DECIDE MODEL THE DECIDE MODEL - consists of six elements to help provide a pilot a logical way of approaching aeronautical decision making. These elements are to: Detect - a change Estimate - need to react Choose - desirable outcome Identify - actions needed Do - actions Evaluate - the effect (5961,5962,5963) 19 FLIGHT OPERATIONS - NOTES

27 WEATHER STANDARD TEMPERATURES STANDARD PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE - at sea level are inches Hg ( millibars) and 15 C (59 F). (5305) THE STANDARD TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE - is 2 C per 1,000 feet of altitude. EXAMPLE - At 10,000 feet, what is the standard temperature? (-5 C.) (5302) (-2 10) C + 15 C = -5 C EXAMPLE - At 20,000 feet, what is the standard temperature?(-25 C.) (5303) (-2 20) C + 15 C = -25 C AT THE TROPOPAUSE - there is an abrupt change in the temperature lapse rate. (The lapse rate becomes zero.) (5381) CIRCULATION EVERY PHYSICAL PROCESS OF WEATHER - is accompanied by, or is the result of, a heat exchange. (5301) WIND IS CAUSED BY - pressure differences (which are caused by unequal heating of the Earth's surface). (5310) CORIOLIS FORCE - prevents the air from flowing directly from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. (5315) CORIOLIS FORCE - causes the wind to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. (5311) CORIOLIS FORCE - tends to counterbalance the horizontal pressure gradient, creating a tendency for the wind to flow parallel to the isobars above the friction level. (5312) THE WIND SYSTEM - associated with a lowpressure area in the Northern Hemisphere is a cyclone and is caused by Coriolis force. (5313) A HIGH PRESSURE AREA - or ridge is an area of descending air. (5317) THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF AIR - associated with a high-pressure area in the Northern Hemisphere is downward, outward, and clockwise. (5321) A LOW-PRESSURE AREA - or trough is an area of rising air. (5318) WHEN FLYING INTO A LOW-PRESSURE AREA - (an area of generally unfavorable weather conditions) in the Northern Hemisphere, the wind direction will be from the left and the velocity will be increasing. (5316,5319) CONVECTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONVECTIVE CIRCULATION - cool air must sink to force the warm air upward. (5388) CONVECTIVE CURRENTS - are most active on warm summer afternoons when winds are light. (5356) CONVECTIVE CIRCULATION PATTERNS ASSOCIATED WITH SEA BREEZES - are caused by the land absorbing and radiating heat faster than the water. (5392) MOISTURE AND STABILITY THE TYPE OF CLOUDS - which will form as a result of air being forced to ascend (predominately stratiform or cumuliform) is dependent upon the stability of the air before lifting occurs. (5330,5340) STABILITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE CAN BE DETERMINED - by measurement of the ambient lapse rate. (5334) WARMING FROM BELOW - will decrease the stability of an air mass. (5333) COOLING FROM BELOW - will increase the stability of an air mass. (5336) MOISTURE IS ADDED - to a parcel of air by evaporation and sublimation. (5323) WEATHER - NOTES 20

28 UNSTABLE MOIST AIR, VERY WARM SURFACE TEMPERATURES, AND LIFTING - (including orographic lifting) result in cumuliform-type (cumulus or cumulonimbus) clouds, good visibility, showery rain, strong updrafts, and possible clear icing in the clouds. (5335,5341,5343,5349) CONDITIONALLY UNSTABLE, MOIST AIR AND VERY WARM SURFACE TEMPERATURE - result in strong updrafts and cumulonimbus clouds.(5327) TOWERING CUMULUS CLOUDS - indicate convective turbulence. (5338) A COLD AIR MASS MOVING OVER A WARM SURFACE - will result in cumuliform clouds, turbulence, and good visibility. (5348) THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY - for the formation of stratiform clouds are a lifting action and stable, moist air. (5337) STABLE, MOIST AIR FORCED TO ASCEND - a mountain slope will result in stratus type clouds with little vertical development and little or no turbulence. (5329) CHARACTERISTICS OF STABLE AIR - are continuous or steady (not showery) precipitation, stratus or stratiform clouds, poor visibility with smoke, dust, and haze at the lower levels. (5332,5342,5344,5345,5346) FOG CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR THE FORMATION - of a surface based temperature inversion are clear, cool nights with calm or light wind. (5304) RADIATION FOG - is restricted to land areas. (5379) STEAM FOG - forms over a water surface. (5379) ADVECTION FOG - is common along coastal areas when an air mass moves inland from the coastline during the winter. (5376,5379) ADVECTION FOG CAN APPEAR - suddenly during day or night, and is more persistent than radiation fog. (5380) SURFACE WINDS OF 15 KNOTS OR STRONGER - can dissipate advection fog or lift it into low stratus clouds. (5377,5378) PRECIPITATION-INDUCED FOG - is most commonly associated with warm fronts. (5374) FOG PRODUCED BY FRONTAL ACTIVITY - is a result of saturation due to evaporation of precipitation. (5350) FREEZING RAIN AND ICE IN A COLD FRONT OCCLUSION - the air ahead of the warm front is warmer than the air behind the overtaking cold front. (5347) WARM FRONTS AND OCCLUSIONS - often result in freezing rain or ice pellets. FREEZING PRECIPITATION - results from rain falling from air which has a temperature of more than 32 F into air having a temperature of 32 F or less. (5360) ICE PELLETS - encountered during flight (say at 8,000 feet) indicate freezing rain exists at a higher altitude. (5325,5326) ICE PELLETS ENCOUNTERED DURING FLIGHT - normally are evidence that a warm front is about to pass. (5324) THUNDERSTORMS CONTINUOUS UPDRAFTS - characterize the cumulus stage of a thunderstorm. (5371) THE BEGINNING OF RAIN AT THE EARTH'S SURFACE - indicates the mature stage of a thunderstorm. (5368,5370) PREDOMINATE DOWNDRAFTS - characterize the dissipating stage of a thunderstorm. (5372) SQUALL LINES - produce the most severe weather conditions such as destructive winds, heavy hail, and tornadoes. (5363) SQUALL LINES - are nonfrontal and often contain severe steady-state thunderstorms which offer the most intense weather hazards to aircraft. (5366,5367) EXTREME TURBULENCE IN THUNDER- STORMS - is indicated by cumulonimbus clouds, very frequent lightning, and roll clouds. (5369) OUTSIDE THE CLOUD - shear turbulence can be encountered 20 miles laterally from a severe thunderstorm. (5364) HAIL - is an in-flight hazard which is most likely to be associated with cumulonimbus clouds. (5362) HAILSTONES - may be encountered in clear air several miles from a thunderstorm. (5361) 21 WEATHER - NOTES

29 WEATHER RADAR AIRBORNE WEATHER-AVOIDANCE RADAR - provides no assurance of avoiding instrument weather conditions. (5375) 20 MILES - is the distance to avoid a thunderstorm with extremely intense echoes. (5365) 40 MILES - is the minimum distance that should exist between intense radar echoes before any attempt is made to fly between these thunderstorms. (5373) WIND SHEAR AND TURBULENCE LOW-LEVEL WIND SHEAR - can best be described as a change in wind direction and/or speed within a very short distance above the airport. (5449) WIND SHEAR CAN BE PRESENT - at any level and can exist in both a horizontal and vertical direction. (5351) HAZARDOUS WIND SHEAR - is commonly encountered in areas of temperature inversion and near thunderstorms. (5352) LOW-LEVEL WIND SHEAR - may occur when there is a low-level temperature inversion with strong winds above the inversion. (5353) A STRONG TEMPERATURE INVERSION - creates a potential hazard immediately after takeoff or during approach to a landing due to wind shear. (5354) EXAMPLE - Given 30 knot winds at 3,000 feet AGL and calm winds at the surface. While approaching for landing under clear skies with convective turbulence a few hours after sunrise, what precaution should you take? (You should allow a margin of approach airspeed above normal to avoid stalling if wind shear is encountered.) (5355) TURBULENT AIR CURRENTS - will usually be encountered when flying low over hilly terrain, ridges, or mountain ranges. The greatest potential danger is when flying on the leeward side into the wind. (5357) MOUNTAIN WAVES CONDITIONS MOST FAVORABLE TO WAVE FORMATION OVER MOUNTAINOUS AREAS - are a layer of stable air at mountaintop altitude and a wind of at least 20 knots blowing across the ridge. (5393) VERY STRONG TURBULENCE - is indicated by the presence of standing lenticular altocumulus clouds. (5339) ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS FEATURES OF MOUNTAIN WAVES - is the turbulent areas in and below rotor clouds. (5450) JET STREAM CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE - is turbulence that is encountered above 15,000 feet AGL and is not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms. (5446) A COMMON LOCATION OF CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE - is in an upper trough on the polar side of a jet stream. (5382) THE GREATEST JET STREAM TURBULENCE - is caused by a curving jet stream associated with a deep low-pressure trough. (5447) STRONG WIND SHEAR - can be expected on the low-pressure side of a jet stream core where the speed at the core is stronger than 110 knots. (5448) DURING THE WINTER MONTHS - in the middle latitudes, the jet stream shifts toward the south and the speed increases. (5384) IN THE SUMMER - the jet stream is normally weaker and farther north. (5385) 6 KNOTS PER 1,000 FEET - is the minimum vertical wind-shear value critical for probable moderate or greater turbulence. (5443) LONG STREAKS OF CIRRUS CLOUDS - sometimes visually identify the jet stream and associated clear air turbulence. (5383) OBTAINING WEATHER INFORMATION THE MOST CURRENT EN ROUTE AND DESTINATION - weather information for an instrument flight should be obtained from the FSS or AFSS (Automated Flight Service Station). (5399) WEATHER - NOTES 22

30 THE WEATHER FORECAST OFFICE (WFO) - is the best means of obtaining weather report forecasts which are not routinely available at the local service outlet, normally an Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS). The WFO would be the source for non-aviation forecasts. (5398) (Any weather forecasts reported by a Pilot s Automatic Telephone Weather Answering System or an Air Route Traffic Control Center would have the same routine information available to a Flight Service Station.) TIBS THE TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING SYSTEM (TIBS) - is a continuous recording of meteorological and/or aeronautical (i.e. NOTAM) information provided by Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS) accessible by phone. (Note: TIBS is available by telephone, not over the radio and may cover an extensive area well beyond 50 NM.) (5401) TWEB's A CONTINUOUS TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BRIEFING - including winds aloft and route forecasts for a cross-country flight can be obtained from a TWEB on a low-frequency radio receiver (or VOR receiver). (5421) THE TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST (TWEB) PROVIDES - specific information concerning expected sky cover, cloud tops, visibility, weather, and obstructions to vision in a route format. (5420) SURFACE OBSERVATION REPORTS VIRGA - is the term used to describe streamers of precipitation trailing beneath clouds which evaporate before reaching the ground. (5322) IF SQUALLS - are reported at your destination, you should expect sudden increases in windspeed of at least 15 knots to a sustained speed of 20 knots or more for at least 1 minute. (5405) SURFACE OBSERVATION REPORTS - are either METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Reports) or SPECI (Special Aviation Weather Reports). EXAMPLE - What weather is reported in this special (SPECI) report for KBOI? (5403) SPECI KBOI Z 32005KT 1 1/2SM RA BR OVC007 17/16 A2990 RMK RAB12 Rain and mist are obstructing the visibility and the rain began at 1812Z. EXAMPLE - The remarks of a METAR are coded as follows. What do they mean? (5402) RMK FZDZB42WSHFT 30 FROPA Wind shift at 30 (minutes past the hour) due to frontal passage. (The 42 in FZDZB42 means that freezing drizzle began at 42 past the hour and is not a height of cloud bases.) EXAMPLE - The station originating the following METAR observation has a field elevation of 3,500 feet MSL. If the sky cover is one continuous layer, what is the thickness of the cloud layer? (Top of the overcast reported at 7,500 feet MSL.) (5404) METAR KHOB Z 17006KT 4SM OVC005 13/11 A2998 Field Elevation 3,500 feet MSL Overcast +500 feet AGL Base of overcast 4,000 feet MSL Top of overcast 7,500 feet MSL Base of overcast -4,000 feet MSL Depth of overcast 3,500 feet thick THE TEMPERATURE AND DEWPOINT/TEMP- ERATURE SPREAD - decreases as the relative humidity increases. (5320) BASES OF CUMULUS CLOUDS - can be estimated by dividing the spread between temperature and dewpoint by 2.5 C and multiplying by 1,000. EXAMPLE - Given the following excerpt from a surface weather report: KABI KT 4SM HZ 26/04 A2995 RMK RAE36 At approximately what altitude AGL should bases of convective-type cumuliform clouds be expected? (5331) 26 C - 04 C = 22 C = ,000 = 8,800 feet AGL EXAMPLE - What is the approximate MSL base of the cumulus clouds if the temperature at 2,000 feet MSL is 10 C and the dewpoint is 1 C? (5328) 23 WEATHER - NOTES

31 10 C - 1 C = 09 C = ,000 = 3,600 feet AGL 2,000 ft. MSL +3,600 ft. AGL 5,600 ft. MSL (approx. 6,000 ft. MSL) PILOT REPORTS IN PIREPS - cloud layers are separated by a "/". Bases are shown before the sky cover contractions. Tops are shown after the sky cover contractions. EXAMPLE - What significant cloud coverage is reported by this pilot report? (5406) KMOB UA/OV 15NW MOB 1340Z/SK OVC 025/045 OVC 090 The top of the lower overcast is 2,500 feet. Base and top of the second overcast layer are 4,500 and 9,000 feet, respectively. TO BEST DETERMINE OBSERVED WEATHER CONDITIONS BETWEEN REPORTING STATIONS - the pilot should refer to pilot reports. (5407) EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE (EFAS) EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE - is the central collection and distribution point for pilot reported weather (PIREPs). It also provides timely and meaningful weather advisories relating to type of flight, route, and altitude. To receive this information contact Flight Watch on MHz below 17,500 feet MSL use: The name of the ARTCCs facility in the area Aircraft identification Name of the nearest VOR to your location (5559) TERMINAL FORECASTS TERMINAL AERODROME FORECASTS (TAF) ARE ISSUED - four times a day (at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z) and are usually valid for 24 hours. (5413) (Note: large-airport TAF forecasts are valid for longer than 24 hours, the valid date is included as well as the time of the forecast. In addition, all 24 hour TAFs will also include the valid date associated with any time/hour element.) EXAMPLE - What is true about the following Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)? (5411) TAF KMEM Z 0915/ KT 5SM HZ BKN060 FM VRB04KT P6SM SKC After Z, SKC means a clear sky and the absence of precipitation and obstructions to visibility mean no significant weather. (Note: Valid period should be 6 digits, the first 2 for date and the remaining 4 indicating the beginning and end of the period.) VRB IN A TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) - means that the wind direction is variable. (5410) P6SM IN A TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) - implies that the surface visibility is expected to be more than 6 statute miles. (5412) THE TERM "PROB TSRA - in a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast indicates that there is a 40% chance of thunderstorms and heavy rain between 2100Z and 0200Z. (5409) AREA FORECASTS AREA FORECASTS (FA's) - are prepared for the contiguous United States by the Aviation Weather Center 3 times each day. (5419) AREA FORECASTS (FA) HAVE FOUR SECTIONS Communications and product header Precautionary statement SYNOPSIS VFR CLOUDS/WX (5414) THE VFR CLOUDS AND WEATHER SECTION: Sky condition Cloud heights Visibility (6 SM or less) Precipitation Surface winds (sustained 20 KT or greater) (5415) INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORIES - advise en route aircraft of potentially hazardous weather that may not have been forecast at the time of a preflight briefing. (5416,5418) SIGMETs Convective SIGMETs AIRMETs Center Weather Advisories Severe Weather Forecast Alert WEATHER - NOTES 24

32 SIGMETs SIGMETs are issued as a warning of weather conditions hazardous to all aircraft. It will include: Severe or extreme turbulence or CAT not associated with thunderstorms Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms Duststorms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash Volcanic eruption (5418,5422) CONVECTIVE SIGMETs These consist of either an observation and a forecast or just a forecast for: Tornadoes Significant thunderstorm activity Hail greater than or equal to 3/4 inch in diameter Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots Embedded thunderstorms Lines of thunderstorms Thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP Level 4 affecting 40% or more of a 3,000 sq. mi. area (5423) AIRMETs AIRMETs - are issued for less intense conditions. AIRMETs will include information regarding: Possible moderate icing Moderate turbulence Sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more Ceiling less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 miles over 50% of the area Extensive mountain obscurement (5417) Note: AIRMETs contain the same information as Center Weather Advisories. INFLIGHT WEATHER BROADCASTS THESE INCLUDE: Weather Advisory Broadcasts (live) Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) (recorded) WEATHER ADVISORY BROADCASTS THESE ARE PROVIDED BY ARTCCS - and broadcast once on all frequencies, except emergency, when any part of the area included in the Advisories is within 150 miles of the airspace under their control. (5560) Weather Advisory Broadcasts will include: Severe Weather Forecast Alerts Convective SIGMETs SIGMETs Center Weather Advisories HIWAS HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORY SERVICE (HIWAS) - is a continuous broadcast over selected VORs of recorded information. The broadcast will include: Convective SIGMETs SIGMETs AIRMETs Urgent PIREPs Center Weather Advisories Severe Weather Forecast Alerts (5400) RADAR SUMMARY CHART THE RADAR SUMMARY CHART - shows lines and cells of hazardous thunderstorms that are not shown on other weather charts. (5432) RADAR REPORTS RADAR REPORTS (RAREPS) - give teletype reports of radar echoes by direction and distance from the station. EXAMPLE - What is true concerning the cell tops in this radar weather report for OKC? KOKC 1934 LN 8TRW++/+ 86/40 164/60 199/115 15W L2425 MT 570 AT 159/65 2 INCH HAIL RPRTD THIS CELL (5408) The maximum top of the cells is 57,000 feet located 65 NM southeast (159 ) of the station. STABILITY CHART LIFTED INDEX - is the difference found by subtracting the temperature of a parcel of air theoretically lifted from the surface to 500 MB from the existing temperature at 500 MB. (5439) A FREEZING LEVEL PANEL - of the Composite Moisture Stability Chart is an analysis of observed freezing level data from upper air observations. (5438) 25 WEATHER - NOTES

33 SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART THE SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART DEPICTS - actual frontal positions, pressure patterns, temperature, dewpoint, wind, weather, and obstructions to vision at the valid time of the chart. (It does not show cloud heights, tops, or coverage.) (5429) THE SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART PROVIDES - a ready means of locating observed frontal positions and pressure centers. (5427) ISOBARS - are solid lines on a Surface Analysis Chart that depict sea level pressure patterns. (5425) WHEN THE ISOBARS ARE CLOSE TOGETHER - the pressure gradient force is greater and the wind velocities are stronger (strong pressure gradient). (5314,5428) DASHED LINES - on a Surface Analysis Chart, if depicted, indicate the pressure gradient is weak. (5426) CONSTANT PRESSURE CHARTS CONSTANT PRESSURE ANALYSIS CHARTS - depict observed winds and temperatures aloft and temperature/dewpoint spreads determined at a specified altitude. (5441,5442) HATCHING ON A CONSTANT PRESSURE ANALYSIS CHART - indicates windspeed 70 knots to 110 knots. (5440) WINDS ALOFT VALUES USED FOR WINDS ALOFT FORE- CASTS - (and observations) are true direction and knots. (5424) WEATHER DEPICTION CHART THE WEATHER DEPICTION CHART PROVIDES - a graphic display of both VFR and IFR weather. (5430) WHEN THE TOTAL SKY COVER - is few or scattered, the height shown on the Weather Depiction Chart is the base of the lowest layer. (5431) SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROG CHARTS THE 12-HOUR SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHART - depicts conditions forecast to exist at a specific time in the future. (5433) THE UPPER LIMIT- of the Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart is 24,000 feet. (5436) THE U.S. HIGH-LEVEL SIGNIFICANT WEATHER PROGNOSTIC CHART - forecasts significant weather from 24,000 feet to 63,000 feet. (5435) SMALL SCALLOPED LINES - on a U.S. High- Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart enclose a forecast area of cumulonimbus clouds, icing, and moderate or greater turbulence. (5434) WEATHER - NOTES 26

34 FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS PILOT DOCUMENTS REQUIRED 61.3 A CURRENT AND APPROPRIATE PILOT CERTIFICATE - is required in your personal possession anytime you are acting as pilot in command or as a required flight crewmember. (5018) A VALID PHOTO ID is also required to be in your physical possession. THE TRANSPORTATION SECURITY ADMINISTRATION (in addition to the FAA, NTSB, and law enforcement officials) may inspect your license and medical certificate at any time. 1.1 CATEGORY - with respect to airmen certification, ratings, privileges, and limitations, refers to airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-than-air. AIRCRAFT CLASS RATINGS - refer to singleengine land, multiengine land, single-engine sea, and multiengine sea. (5019) THE PILOT IN COMMAND IS REQUIRED TO HOLD - a category and class rating appropriate to the aircraft being flown for compensation or hire. (5022) A TYPE RATING - is required for the pilot in command of an aircraft having a maximum certificated takeoff weight of more than 12,500 pounds. (5023) COMMERCIAL PILOT CERTIFICATES - are issued without an expiration date. (5020) A COMMERCIAL PILOT EXERCISING THE PRIVILEGES MUST HAVE - a Second-Class Medical Certificate. A Second-Class Medical Certificate is good until the end of the 12th calendar month. EXAMPLES A second-class medical certificate issued to a commercial pilot on April 10, this year, permits the pilot to exercise commercial pilot privileges through what date? (April 30, next year.) (5021) A Third-Class Medical Certificate is issued to a 36-year-old Commercial pilot on August 10, this year. To exercise the privileges of a Private Pilot Certificate, the medical certificate will be valid until midnight on what date? (August 31, 5 years later.) (6046) For private pilot operations, a First-Class Medical Certificate issued to a 23-year-old pilot on October 21, this year, will expire at midnight on what date? (October 31, 5 years later.)(6047) AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION CATEGORIES STANDARD AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATES INCLUDE THESE CATEGORIES Normal Utility Acrobatic Commuter Transport 23.3 A UTILITY CATEGORY AIRPLANE may be used for limited acrobatics, including spins if that particular airplane type is certificated for spins. (5017) , , , SPECIAL AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATES INCLUDE THESE CATEGORIES * PRIMARY (small, private use airplanes certificated under simplified rules) * RESTRICTED (special purpose ex-military converted to fire bombers, agricultural sprayers) * LIMITED (some warbirds B17F) PROVISIONAL (issued when building a new aircraft) SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMITS (ferrying aircraft) *EXPERIMENTAL (home-builts, test aircraft) *CARRYING PASSENGERS AND PROPERTY FOR HIRE is not permitted in these aircraft (even with a Commercial Pilot Certificate). (5069,5129,6012,6013) 27 FARS - NOTES

35 RESPONSIBILITIES AND RESTRICTIONS 91.3 THE PILOT IN COMMAND - is directly responsible for and is the final authority regarding the operation of an aircraft. (The Airplane Owner/operator and the Certificate Holder [for example an airline company or charter company] responsibilities do not override the PIC s decision making responsibility during a flight.) (5109) A PILOT MAY NOT DEVIATE FROM AN ATC CLEARANCE unless he or she receives an amended clearance or must deviate to deal with an emergency. (5115) TO BE PILOT IN COMMAND OF AN AIRCRAFT FOR COMPENSATION OR HIRE you must not only meet the Commercial Pilot Certificate requirements of Part 61, but you must also be qualified under any other Part in the regulations that apply to the type of operation that flight falls under (i.e. Part 135). (5126,6017) (Holding the appropriate category, class ratings, meeting recent flight experience requirements, and passing a competency check may not meet all of the qualifications required for that operation.) A NEWLY CERTIFICATED COMMERCIAL AIRPLANE PILOT WITHOUT AN INSTRUMENT RATING - is limited to 50 NM while carrying passengers for hire on cross-country flights, and may not carry passengers for hire at night. (5039) TO PRACTICE INSTRUMENT FLIGHT IN SIMULATED CONDITIONS the other control seat must be occupied by a safety pilot with at least a private pilot certificate and who is also appropriately rated in category and class. (5111) RECENCY, CHECKS, AND EXPERIENCE THE ONLY FLIGHT TIME THAT MUST BE SHOWN IN A RELIABLE RECORD - by a pilot exercising the privileges of a commercial pilot certificate, is the flight time showing aeronautical training and experience to meet requirements for a certificate or rating (or recent flight experience). (5026) TO SERVE AS PILOT IN COMMAND OF AN AIRPLANE THAT IS CERTIFIED FOR MORE THAN ONE PILOT IN A PART 91 OPERATION you must complete a pilot-in-command proficiency check within the preceding 12 calendar months in an airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot. (5107) TO SERVE AS SECOND IN COMMAND OF AN AIRPLANE REQUIRING MORE THAN ONE PILOT IN PART 91 OPERATION you must within the last 12 months become familiar with the required information (systems, procedures, and limitations) and perform and log pilot time in that type of airplane. (5108) SECOND IN COMMAND TIME - may be logged for all flight time when qualified and occupying a crewmember station in an aircraft requiring more than one pilot. (5025) TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND - of an aircraft under Part 91, a commercial pilot must have satisfactorily accomplished a flight review or completed a proficiency check within the preceding 24 calendar months. (5031) PRIOR TO CARRYING PASSENGERS AS PILOT IN COMMAND - you must have the required takeoffs and landings (3 within the last 90 days, if at night to a full stop) in the same category, class, and type of aircraft (if a type rating is required). (5028) NIGHT IS FROM - 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise (as published in the American Air Almanac). EXAMPLE - If a pilot does not meet the recency of experience requirements for night flight and official sunset is 1900 CST, what is the latest time passengers should be carried? (1959 CST.) (5027) TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND OF A COMPLEX AIRPLANE - ONE WITH A RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR, FLAPS, AND CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROP - you must receive and log ground and flight training in a complex airplane and obtain a logbook endorsement of proficiency. (Unless you have logged pilot-in-command time in a complex airplane prior to August 4, 1997.) (5024) FARS - NOTES 28

36 TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND OF A HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRPLANE - ONE WITH MORE THAN 200 HORSEPOWER you are required to receive and log ground and flight training in such an airplane from an authorized instructor (and receive an endorsement certifying your proficiency). (5106) TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND OF A TAILWHEEL AIRPLANE you must receive and log flight training from an authorized instructor and receive an endorsement certifying your proficiency. (This training is not required if you have logged pilot-in-command time in a tailwheel airplane before April 15, 1991.) (Ground training is not required.) (5128) TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND OF AN AIRPLANE TOWING A GLIDER - the tow pilot is required to have a pilot certificate and have received and logged ground and flight instruction in gliders, and be familiar with the techniques and procedures essential for safe towing of gliders. (5033,5034) PREFLIGHT ACTION BEFORE BEGINNING ANY FLIGHT - the pilot in command must become familiar with: all available information concerning that flight and, the runway lengths at airports of intended use (5050,6009) IN ADDITION, FOR FLIGHTS UNDER IFR OR NOT IN THE VICINITY OF AN AIRPORT - the pilot in command must also be familiar with: weather forecasts and reports, fuel requirements, and the alternatives available if the flight cannot be completed as planned. (5049,6008) 91.9 A CURRENT, APPROVED FLIGHT MANUAL MUST BE AVAILABLE - in an airplane before it is flown. (Light airplanes - 6,000 pounds or less - manufactured before March 1, 1979 are not required to have an approved flight manual and operating limitations may be shown by markings and placards. Note: A manufacture's Operations Manual and an Owners Manual are not official requirements.) (5046) MAINTENANCE 91.7 THE PILOT IN COMMAND - is solely responsible for determining is the aircraft is in condition for safe flight. (Neither a certified aircraft mechanic nor the owner or operator are responsible for a particular flight.) (5045) THE OWNER OR OPERATOR - of an aircraft is primarily responsible for maintaining that aircraft in airworthy condition. (5093) A STANDARD AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE REMAINS IN EFFECT as long as the aircraft receives required maintenance and inspections. (5096) AFTER AN ANNUAL INSPECTION - has been completed and the aircraft has been returned to service, an appropriate notation should be made in the aircraft maintenance records. (5095) AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE RECORDS MUST INCLUDE - the current status of life-limited parts of each airframe, engine, propeller, rotor, and appliance. (5102) A RECORD OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE - when accomplished by a pilot, must be entered in the aircraft maintenance records. (5098) AN AIRCRAFT IN AN OPERATION REQUIRING A 100-HOUR INSPECTION - (such as carrying passengers for hire) may be operated beyond 100 hours without a new inspection by not more than 10 hours if necessary to reach a place at which the inspection can be done. (5099) AN ANNUAL INSPECTION - may be substituted for a 100-hour inspection (but not vice versa). (5100) IF AN ALTERATION OR REPAIR - substantially affects an aircraft's operation in flight, the aircraft documents must show that it was test flown and approved for return to service by an appropriately rated pilot prior to being operated with passengers aboard. (5097) 29 FARS - NOTES

37 AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES ASSURING COMPLIANCE WITH AIRWORTHI- NESS DIRECTIVES - is the responsibility of the owner or operator of that aircraft. (5094) 39.3 NONCOMPLIANCE WITH AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES (AD's) - renders an aircraft unairworthy. (5103) A NEW MAINTENANCE RECORD - being used for an aircraft engine rebuilt by the manufacturer must include previous changes as required by Airworthiness Directives. (5104) RIGHT-OF-WAY RULES WHEN TWO AIRCRAFT OF THE SAME CATEGORY ARE APPROACHING - an airport for landing, the right-of-way belongs to the aircraft at the lower altitude, but the pilot shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of or to overtake the other aircraft. (5075) IF ONE AIRCRAFT IS OVERTAKING ANOTHER - the overtaken aircraft has right of way and should expect to be passed on the right. EXAMPLES If airplane "A" is overtaking airplane "B", which airplane has the right-of-way? (Airplane "B" and the pilot should expect to be passed on the right.) (5076) An airplane is overtaking a helicopter. Which aircraft has the right-of-way? (The helicopter; the pilot should expect to be passed on the right.) (6016) WHEN AIRPLANES CONVERGE AT AN ANGLE - the airplane on the right has right-of-way. EXAMPLE - A pilot flying a single-engine airplane observes a multiengine airplane approaching on a collision course from the left. Which pilot should give way and why? (The pilot of the multiengine airplane should give way because the single-engine airplane is to its right.) (5993) AIRPLANES AND HELICOPTERS ARE EQUAL - for right-of-way purposes. EXAMPLE - While in flight a helicopter and an airplane are converging at a 90 angle, and the helicopter is located to the right of the airplane. Which aircraft has right-of-way and why? (The helicopter has the right-of-way because it is to the right of the airplane.) (5074) POSITION LIGHTS FOR VFR NIGHT FLIGHTS - in powered aircraft an anticollision light system is required. (5065) IF NOT EQUIPPED WITH REQUIRED POSITION LIGHTS OR ANTICOLLISION LIGHTS - an aircraft must terminate flight at sunset. (5080,5990) AIRCRAFT LIGHTS - are arranged so that you can tell your relative position at night: RIGHT WINGTIP - green light LEFT WINGTIP - red light TAIL - white light BELLY OR TOP - flashing red light EXAMPLE - If during a night flight you observe a steady white light and a rotating red light ahead and at your altitude, what is the general direction of movement of the other aircraft? (The other aircraft is headed away from you.) (5666) EXAMPLE - During a night operation, the pilot of aircraft "1" sees only the green light of aircraft "2". If the aircraft are converging, which pilot has the right-of-way? (The pilot of aircraft "1" has the right-of-way because aircraft "1" is to the right of aircraft "2".) (5992) ABNORMALLY HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE WHEN AN ABNORMALLY HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE EXISTS OR WILL BE ABOVE 31.00" Hg you may expect that NOTAMs will issue temporary flight restrictions. (5121) COLLISION AVOIDANCE VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES - are required to be maintained when flying more than 3,000 feet AGL, based on magnetic course. (5091) WHEN APPROACHING TO LAND AT AN AIRPORT WITHOUT AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER you should make all turns to the left, unless there are light signals or visual markings that indicate otherwise. (5116) FARS - NOTES 30

38 FLYING THE FLIGHT LEVELS THE ALTIMETER SETTING WHEN OPERATING AT 18,000 FEET MSL is 29.92" Hg. (5114) FLIGHT RULE DEVIATION 91.3 IN AN EMERGENCY - the PIC can break the rules in 14 CFR Part 91 and the pilot in command must submit a written report to the FAA only if requested to do so. (You don't have to advise ATC.) (5044) SAFETY BELTS DURING MOVEMENT ON THE SURFACE, TAKEOFFS AND LANDINGS - safety belts and shoulder harnesses, if installed, must be used by each person on board over the age of two. (5052,5110) REQUIRED FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS - must keep their safety belts fastened while they are at their stations. They must also keep their shoulder harnesses fastened during take off and landing when at their station unless they would be unable to perform their duties. (5051,6010) OXYGEN (PART 91) ABOVE 12,500 FEET MSL - up to and including 14,000 feet MSL cabin pressure altitude, supplemental oxygen must be used by the required minimum flightcrew for that time exceeding 30 minutes. (5063) EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTERS MINUTES IS THE MAXIMUM CUMULATIVE TIME - that an emergency locator transmitter may be operated before the rechargeable battery must be recharged. (5070) ACROBATIC FLIGHT FOR ACROBATIC FLIGHT - the minimum altitude and flight visibility required is 1,500 feet AGL and 3 miles. (5079) DROPPING OBJECTS A PIC MAY NOT ALLOW ANY OBJECT TO BE DROPPED - from an aircraft in flight if it creates a hazard to persons or property. (Permission from property owner is not required.) (5047) TRANSPONDER REQUIREMENTS AN ATC TRANSPONDER IS NOT PERMITTED TO BE USED - unless within the preceding 24 calendar months it has been tested, inspected, and found to comply with regulations. (5101,5105) ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT NOTIFICATION NTSB IMMEDIATE NOTIFICATION MUST BE MADE TO THE NTSB FOR: Accidents with substantial damage which adversely affects structural strength or flight characteristics even if there were no injuries. If there were injuries they become reportable after being hospitalized more than 48 hours that begin within 7 days after the injury date. And these incident s: In-flight fires. Any required flight crewmember being unable to perform flight duties because of illness. Flight control system malfunction or failure. (5001,5002,5003,5005,5006,6006,6028) NTSB A REPORT MUST BE FILED WITH THE NTSB FOR: Accidents - within 10 days. Incidents - only if requested to do so. (5007,5008) EXAMPLES Is a notification or report required for a fire while taxiing? (No. Notification is only required if the fire occurs in flight.) (5004) While taxiing on the parking ramp, the landing gear, wheel and tire are damaged by striking ground equipment. Is a notification or report required? (No. On the ground, notification is only required if the damage to property, not including the aircraft, is estimated to be more than $25,000. The question does not say that the ground equipment was damaged, so we presume it was not. Additionally, this scenario is only an incident because damage to the landing gear is not considered to be "substantial damage" and there is no stipulation that there was intention of flight. These conditions could make this situation into an accident and then it would be reportable.) (6007) 31 FARS - NOTES

39 DRUGS AND ALCOHOL IF A PILOT IS CONVICTED OF A MOTOR VEHICLE OFFENSE involving alcohol or drugs (whether intoxicated or impaired by, or under the influence of), a written report for each action is required to the FAA Civil Aviation Security Division (AMC-700) within 60 days of the conviction. (For the purposes of this regulation, a conviction is considered to be an action.) (5141, 5142) A PILOT CONVICTION UNDER FEDERAL OR STATE STATUTES that relate to processing, manufacturing, transporting, distributing or selling of narcotic drugs is grounds for the suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating, or authorization issued under Part 61. (5143) (Requirements for written reports apply to motor vehicle convictions.) A CONVICTION FOR OPERATING AN AIRCRAFT WHILE UNDER THE INFLUENCE of alcohol, or of using drugs that affect a person s faculties, is grounds for a denial of an application for an FAA certificate or rating. (5144) MAILING ADDRESS CHANGE PILOTS WHO CHANGE THEIR PERMANENT MAILING ADDRESS - and fail to notify the FAA Airmen Certification Branch of this change, are entitled to exercise the privileges of their pilot certificate for a period of only 30 days. (5032) ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 1.2 "V S " - is stalling speed or minimum steady state flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. "V S1 " is stalling speed or minimum steady state flight speed in a specified configuration. "V F " is design flap speed. "V LE " is maximum landing gear extended speed. "V NE " is never-exceed speed. "V Y " is best rate of climb speed. V NO - is maximum structural cruising speed. (5013,5014,5015,5016,6022,6023,6025,6033) COMMERCIAL OPERATOR IF YOU RE GOING TO CARRY PASSENGERS for property for hire or operate an air carrier-sized aircraft, the operation you work for must have an air carrier or commercial operator s certificate. 1.1 THE COMMERCIAL OPERATOR - is the person who, for compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by aircraft in air commerce of persons or property, other than as an air carrier. (5010) TO "OPERATE" - refers to that person who causes the aircraft to be used or authorizes its use. (5011) OPERATIONAL CONTROL - of a flight means exercising authority over initiating, conducting, or terminating a flight. (5012) SOME OPERATIONS ARE EXEMPT - from having a Part 121 or Part 135 operating certificate and when they are operating under part 119, a commercial pilot may still receive compensation. Among them include: Carrying passengers nonstop for intentional parachute jumps within 25 statute miles of the takeoff airport, Carrying passengers nonstop for sightseeing flights that begin and end at the same airport within 25 statute miles of the airport. Crop dusting, Spraying, Bird chasing, Carrying the candidates in a Federal election, and Student instruction. (6029,6030) COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS TO OPERATE AN AIRCRAFT TOWING AN ADVERTISING BANNER - a certificate of waiver issued by the Administrator is required. (5055) PORTABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICES - which may cause interference with navigation or communication systems may not be operated on aircraft being flown under IFR or in air carrier operations. (5056,6011) (Among the devices you are allowed to use that don't interfere with the navigation or communication systems are: portable voice recorders hearing aids heart pacemakers electric shavers devices the operator has determined will not cause interference) FARS - NOTES 32

40 FORMATION FLIGHTS ARE ONLY AUTHORIZED through the arrangement of the pilot in command of each aircraft. (6015) AIRCRAFT OPERATING NEAR EACH OTHER IN FLIGHT are not authorized to do so when they are so close that they create a collision hazard. (6014) FORMATION FLIGHTS WHILE CARRYING PASSENGERS FOR HIRE - are not authorized. (5073) DURING VFR NIGHT FLIGHTS FOR HIRE - in powered aircraft a landing light is required. (5066) BEYOND POWER-OFF GLIDING DISTANCE FROM SHORE - in aircraft being flown for hire over water, approved flotation gear readily available to each occupant is required. (5067) A LARGE CIVIL U.S. AIRCRAFT SUBJECT TO A LEASE - may not be operated unless the lessee has mailed a copy of the lease to the FAA Aircraft Registration Branch, Technical Section, Oklahoma City, OK within 24 hours of its execution. (5071) 33 FARS - NOTES

41 CROSS COUNTRY PLANNING FUEL CONSUMPTION CALCULATIONS EXAMPLE - If an airplane is consuming 95 pounds of fuel per hour at a cruising altitude of 6,500 feet and the groundspeed is 173 knots, how much fuel is required to travel 450 NM? (5469,5470,5471,5472,5473,5474) 450 NM at 173 knots = 2 hours 36 minutes 2 hrs. 36 min. at 95 PPH = 248 pounds WIND CALCULATIONS EXAMPLE - An airplane descends to an airport under the following conditions: Cruising altitude... 6,500 ft. Airport elevation ft. Descends to ft. AGL Rate of descent ft./min. Average true airspeed knots True course Average wind velocity at 15 kts. Variation... 3 W Deviation...+2 Average fuel consumption gal./hr. What is the approximate time, compass heading, distance, and fuel consumed during the descent? (5466,5467,5468,5481,5488,5489) TIME: 700 feet F.E feet AGL = 1,500 feet; 6,500 feet - 1,500 feet = 5,000 feet to lose; 5,000 feet at 500 feet/ minute = 10 minutes COMPASS HEADING: TC ± WCA = TH TH ± VAR = MH MH ± DEV = CH 335 TC + 8 WCA = 343 TH 343 TH + 3 Var. = 346 MH 346 MH + 2 Dev. = 348 CH DISTANCE: Groundspeed = 108 knots. 108 knots for 10 minutes = 18 NM FUEL: 8.5 gallon/hour for 10 minutes = 1.4 gallons EXAMPLE - Given: True course True heading True airspeed...95 knots Groundspeed...87 knots What is the wind direction and speed? (5475,5476) WCA = 105 TC TH = 20 Left On wind side of flight computer set: TC = 105 under True Index, Grommet over 87 knots groundspeed. Now make a wind "X" at 95 knots true airspeed and 20 left wind correction angle. Rotate the wind "X" to under the True Index. Read a wind direction of 020 at 32 knots. TIME AND DISTANCE TO THE STATION Time to Station = 60 Time Between Bearings Bearing Change in Degrees DRAWING A PICTURE - is sometimes the best way to solve a problem. EXAMPLE - While maintaining a magnetic heading of 270 and a true airspeed of 120 knots, the 360 radial of a VOR is crossed at 1237 and the 350 radial is crossed at What are the approximate time and distance to this station? (5515,5516,5517,5518,5519,5520,5521,5522, 5523,5539) 60 Time Between Bearings Time to Station = Bearing Change in Degrees ( ) = o o = 60 7 minutes o 10 = 420 minutes o 10 Time to Station = 42 minutes 42 minutes at 120 knots = 84NM X-C PLANNING - NOTES 34

42 EXAMPLE - Given: Wingtip bearing change 15 Time between bearing change 7.5 min. True airspeed 85 knots Rate of fuel consumption 9.6 gal./hr. What are the time, distance, and fuel required to fly to the station? (5524,5525,5526,5527) 60 Time Between Bearings Time to Station = Bearing Change in Degrees minutes = o = o 15 Time to Station = 30 minutes 30 minutes at 85 knots = 42.5 NM 30 minutes at 9.6 GPH = 4.8 gallons Angle To Parallel = ANGLE TO CONVERGE Angle To Converge = 60 Distance Off Course Distance Flown 60 Distance Off Course DistanceYet To Fly EXAMPLE - If you have flown 52 miles, are 6 miles off course, and have 118 miles yet to fly, what is the total correction angle to converge on your destination? (5477,5478) Angle To Parallel = 60 Distance Off Course Distance Flown Angle To Parallel = 60 6 mi. = 7 52 mi. o ISOSCELES TRIANGLES Since the angles adjacent to the legs are equal, the leg lengths must also be equal. EXAMPLE - Figure 23. If the time flown between aircraft positions "2" and "3" is 13 minutes, what is the estimated time to the station? (5540,5541,5542,5543,5544,5545,5546,5547) Since the angles adjacent to legs "2"-"3" and "3"- "Destination" are equal (20 ), the leg lengths must also be equal. If leg "2"-"3" is 13 minutes, then leg "3"-"Destination" must also be 13 minutes. EXAMPLE - If while maintaining a constant heading, a relative bearing of 10 doubles in 5 minutes, and the true airspeed is 105 knots, what are the approximate time and distance to the station being used? (5528,5531) The flight pattern produces an isosceles triangle with equal legs adjacent to 10 angles. The time to the station would be equal to the first leg time of 5 minutes. 5 minutes at 105 knots = 8.7 NM EXAMPLE - While cruising at 135 knots and on a constant heading, the ADF needle decreases from a relative bearing of 315 to 270 in 7 minutes. What is the approximate time and distance to the station being used? (5529,5530) The flight pattern produces an isosceles triangle with equal legs adjacent to 45 angles. The time to the station would be equal to the first leg time of 7 minutes. 7 minutes at 135 knots = 16 NM Angle To Converge = 60 Distance Off Course DistanceYet To Fly Angle To Converge = 60 6 mi. = mi. Total Angle = = 10 o 35 X-C PLANNING - NOTES

43 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE PRESSURE AND DENSITY ALTITUDE TO DETERMINE PRESSURE ALTITUDE - the altimeter should be set to 29.92" Hg and the altimeter indication noted. (5740) PERFORMANCE TABLES - for takeoff and climb are based on pressure/density altitude. (5234) TO DETERMINE DENSITY ALTITUDE - correct pressure altitude for non-standard temperature. EXAMPLE - For a pressure altitude of 12,000 feet and a true air temperature of +50 F, what is the approximate density altitude? (5306,5307,5308,5309) Using the temperature conversion on the calculator side of your flight computer, convert +50 F true air temperature to +10 C. In the True Airspeed and Density Altitude window of your flight computer, set +10 C over 12,000 feet pressure altitude and read a density altitude of approximately 14,000 feet. DENSITY ALTITUDE AND TURBINE ENGINES THE EFFECT THAT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - or air density has on gas turbine engine performance is that as temperature increases, thrust decreases. (5300) CALIBRATED AIRSPEED is indicated airspeed corrected for installation and instrument error. (5601) TRUE AIRSPEED is calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and non-standard temperature. (5602) OBSTACLE TAKE-OFF UPHILL RUNWAY SLOPE - increases takeoff distance. (5614) EXAMPLE - Figure 32. GIVEN: Temperature F Pressure Altitude...4,000 ft. Weight...3,200 lbs. Wind... Calm What is the ground roll required for takeoff over a 50 foot obstacle? (5619,5620,5621,5622) Total takeoff distance = 1,850 feet. Ground roll = 1,850 ft. 73% = 1,350 feet. MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB EXAMPLE - Figure 33. With a weight of 3,700 pounds, pressure altitude of 22,000 feet, and temperature of -10 C, what is the maximum rate of climb? (5623,5624) Correction For Temperature: At 20,000 feet: = = = 535 feet/minute At 24,000 feet: = x 0.50 = = feet/minute Correction For Altitude: At 22,000 feet: = x 0.50 = = feet/minute TIME, FUEL, AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB EXAMPLE - Figure 13. With a weight of 3,400 pounds, airport pressure altitude of 6,000 feet, temperature at 6,000 feet of 10 C, and using maximum rate of climb, how much fuel would be used from engine start to a pressure altitude of 16,000 feet? (5482,5483,5484) Fuel Used To 6,000 feet: 6,000 feet is halfway between 4,000 feet and 8,000 feet: = = 14 pounds Fuel Used To 16,000 feet: 39 pounds Fuel Used From 6,000 feet To 16,000 feet: = 25 pounds Correction For Temperature: Standard temperature at 6,000 feet: (-2 6) C + 15 C = +3 C Degrees above standard: 10 C - 3 C = 7 C Fuel used at this temperature: 107% 25 = 27 pounds Plus engine start, taxi, and takeoff: ACFT PERFORMANCE - NOTES 36

44 = 43 pounds EXAMPLE - Figure 15. With an airport pressure altitude of 2,000 feet, airport temperature of 20 C, cruise pressure altitude of 10,000 feet, and cruise temperature of 0 C, what will be the fuel, time and distance required to climb to cruise altitude? (5485,5486,5487) 10,000 ft. 6 gal. 11 min. 16 NM 2,000 ft. -1 gal. -2 min. -3 NM 5 gal. 9 min. 13 NM EXAMPLE - Figure 9. Using a normal climb, with a weight of 3,800 pounds, airport pressure altitude of 4,000 feet, and a temperature of 26 C, how much fuel would be used from engine start to 12,000 feet pressure altitude? (5456,5457,5458,5459) Fuel Used: = 39 lbs. Correction For Temperature: Standard temperature at 4,000 feet: (-2 4) + 15 C -8 C + 15 C = +7 C Degrees above standard: 26 C - 7 C = 19 C Fuel used at this temperature: 119% x 39 = 46 pounds Plus engine start, taxi, and takeoff: = 58 pounds CRUISE PERFORMANCE EXAMPLE - Figure 34. With a pressure altitude of 6,000 feet, temperature of +13 C, power of 2500 RPM and 23" MP, and usable fuel available of 460 pounds, what is the maximum available flight time under the conditions stated? (5625,5626,5627) Correction for Temperature: = = = 88.5 pounds per hour 460 pounds at 88.5 PPH = 5 hr. 12 min. FUEL CONSUMPTION VS. BRAKE HORSEPOWER EXAMPLE - Figure 8. With 47 gallons fuel on board, approximately how much flight time would be available with a night VFR fuel reserve remaining at 55 percent power-cruise (lean)? (5451,5452,5453,5454,5455) Cruise (lean) at 55% power gives a fuel flow of 11.4 gallons per hour. 47 gallons at 11.4 gal/hr. = 4 hrs. 7 min. = 3 hrs. 67 min. Less reserve = - 45 min. Flight time = 3 hrs. 22 min. CRUISE AND RANGE PERFORMANCE EXAMPLE - Figure 11. What would be the endurance at an altitude of 7,500 feet, using 52 percent power with 48 gallons fuel - no reserve? (5460,5461,5462) Reading directly from Figure 11, the endurance is 7.7 hours. EXAMPLE - Figure 12. With pressure altitude of 18,000 feet, temperature of -41 C, power of 2,500 RPM and 26" MP at recommended lean mixture, and usable fuel of 318 pounds, what is the approximate flight time available after allowing for VFR night fuel reserve? (5463,5464,5465) Reading directly from Figure 12, fuel flow is 99 pounds per hour. 318 pounds at 99 PPH = 3 hrs. 13 min. = 2 hrs. 73 min. Less night VFR reserve = - 45 min. Flight time = 2 hrs. 28 min. WIND COMPONENT CHART EXAMPLE - Figure 31. If Runway 30 is being used for landing, the airplane's crosswind capability is 0.2 V SO, and V SO is 60 knots, which of the following surface winds would exceed the airplane's crosswind capability? 260 at 20 knots 275 at 25 knots 315 at 35 knots (5615,5616,5617,5618) Maximum crosswind = 0.2 x 60 kts. = 12 knots 260 (wind) (rwy) = 40 at 20 knots Crosswind = 13 knots 275 (wind) (rwy) = 25 at 25 knots Crosswind = 11 knots 315 (wind) (rwy) = 15 at 35 knots 37 ACFT PERFORMANCE - NOTES

45 Crosswind = 9 knots A wind of 260 at 20 knots exceeds the airplane's crosswind capability. NORMAL LANDING AT HIGHER ELEVATION AIRPORTS - the pilot should know that indicated airspeed will be unchanged, but groundspeed will be faster. (5208) EXAMPLE - Figure 35. With a temperature of 85 F, pressure altitude of 6,000 feet, weight of 2,800 pounds, and headwind of 14 knots, what is the approximate ground roll? (5628,5629,5630,5631) Total Landing Distance = 1,400 feet. Ground Roll = 1,400 ft. 53% = 742 feet. ACFT PERFORMANCE - NOTES 38

46 WEIGHT AND BALANCE WEIGHT AND BALANCE PRINCIPLES WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT WEIGHT = MOMENT ARM TOTAL MOMENT CG = TOTAL WEIGHT THE CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG) - of an aircraft can be determined by dividing total moments by total weight. (5634,5635) IF ALL INDEX UNITS ARE POSITIVE - when computing weight and balance, the location of the datum would be at the nose, or out in front of the airplane. (5633) THE BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT INCLUDES - the weight of the airframe, engine(s), all installed optional equipment, unusable fuel, full operating fluids (such as hydraulic fluid), and full oil. (5632) WHEN USING WEIGHT INFORMATION IN THE AIRCRAFT OWNER'S MANUAL FOR COMPUTING GROSS WEIGHT - if items have been installed in addition to original equipment, the allowable useful load is decreased. (5682) EXAMPLE - GIVEN: Weight "A" Weight "B" Weight "C" BASIC PROBLEMS 140 lb. at 17" aft of datum 120 lb. at 110" aft of datum 85 lb. at 210" aft of datum Based on this information, the CG would be located how far aft of datum? (5636,5637,5638,5639) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT ARM = MOMENT WEIGHT "A" ,380 WEIGHT "B" ,200 WEIGHT "C" ,850 TOTALS ,430 CG = CG = TOTAL MOMENT TOTAL WEIGHT 33, CG = inches AIRPLANE LOADING PROBLEMS EXAMPLE - Figure 38. GIVEN: Empty Weight... 1,271 pounds (Oil included) Empty Weight Moment (lb-in/1,000) Pilot And Copilot pounds Rear Seat Passengers pounds Cargo pounds Fuel gallons Is the airplane loaded within limits? (5650,5651,5652) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT MOMENT EMPTY 1, PILOT/COPILOT REAR SEAT PASS CARGO FUEL (37 6) TOTALS 2, Yes, the weight and moment fall within the center of gravity envelope and are within limits. EXAMPLE - GIVEN: Total Weight...4,137 lbs. CG location... Station 67.8 Fuel Consumption GPH Fuel CG... Station 68.0 After 1 hour 30 minutes of flight time, the CG would be located at what station? (5646,5649) SOLUTION: 1 hr. 30 min. at 13.7 GPH = gallons gallons 6 lbs./gal. = pounds 39 WEIGHT & BALANCE - NOTES

47 ITEM WEIGHT ARM = MOMENT TOTAL WT. 4, ,488.6 FUEL CON , , ,104.2 CG = TOTAL MOMENT TOTAL WEIGHT CG = ,. 2 4, CG = inches WEIGHT SHIFT PROBLEMS EXAMPLE - An airplane is loaded to a gross weight of 4,800 pounds, with three pieces of luggage in the rear baggage compartment. The CG is located 98 inches aft of datum, which is 1 inch aft of limits. If luggage which weighs 90 pounds is moved from the rear baggage compartment (145 inches aft of datum) to the front compartment (45 inches aft of datum), what is the new CG? (5648) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT ARM = MOMENT AIRPLANE 4, ,400 REAR BAG ,050 FWD. BAG ,050 TOTALS 4, ,400 CG = TOTAL MOMENT TOTAL WEIGHT = , 4800, CG = inches aft of datum EXAMPLE - Given an aircraft loaded with a ramp weight of 3,650 pounds and having a CG of 94.0, approximately how much baggage would have to be moved from the rear baggage area at station 180 to the forward baggage area at station 40 in order to move the CG to 92.0? (5647) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT ARM = MOMENT RAMP WT. 3, ,100 NEW CG 3, ,800 BAG CHANGE? 140* 7,300 *Change in baggage arm = = 140 in. WEIGHT = MOMENT ARM WEIGHT = 7, WEIGHT = pounds WEIGHT & BALANCE - NOTES 40

48 HELICOPTER INTRODUCTION This section contains the King Commercial Pilot Helicopter course notes for the helicopter specific questions of the FAA Commercial Pilot - Helicopter Knowledge Test. It accompanies the Helicopter video tape and complements the King Commercial Pilot Knowledge Test Course. Much of the FAA Knowledge Test is generic to both rotorcraft and airplanes, and the nonhelicopter specific information is contained in the King Commercial Pilot course notes and the other four video tapes. The full Commercial Pilot Course, however, does contain information specific to fixed wing aircraft, and you do not need to study those portions. Here are the chapters and sections you, as a Commercial Pilot - Helicopter Knowledge Test applicant, need to study and those which you may ignore. NEED TO STUDY Sectional Charts Airspace and Weather Minimums except: Speed Limits Special VFR Radio Navigation and Flight Instruments except: HSIs Flight Operations except: Taxiing in the wind Takeoff and Landing in the Wind Propellers LAHSO Weather except: Jet Stream Federal Aviation Regulations except: Oxygen (Part 91) Acrobatic Flight Cross Country Planning Weight and Balance except: Airplane Loading Problems Weight Shift Problems MAY IGNORE Aerodynamics Performance except: Pressure and Density Altitude Density Altitude and Turbine Engines DON'T TUNE OUT Many helicopter pilots tune out as soon as the word "airplane" is mentioned. Don't miss anything in those sections just because we've said "airplane". It's important for you to know that information. 41 HELICOPTER - NOTES

49 HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS AND DESIGN HELICOPTER FLIGHT AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON A HELICOPTER - are thrust, lift, drag, and weight. ALL OPPOSING FORCES ARE EQUAL - when in a hover, constant speed horizontal flight, or a constant rate climb or descent. LIFT IS DEVELOPED BY THE ROTOR SYSTEM - which also produces thrust for horizontal flight. HELICOPTER ROTOR BLADES ARE AIRFOILS - the same as the wings of an airplane. THE SWISS MATHEMATICIAN, BERNOULLI - discovered that when you move a fluid through a restriction (venturi type) its speed increases and its pressure decreases. AN AIRFOIL CREATES THE SAME VENTURI EFFECT - when the air moves over the top of the wing. THE AREA ABOVE - becomes a relatively lower pressure compared to the area below and an upward force results from the differential. LIFT IS ALSO A RESULT - of the downward deflection of air flowing on the underside of the airfoil. NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION - says that for every action there is an equal an opposite reaction. Thus the downward flow of air gives an upward force which is a component of lift. RELATIVE WIND - is direction of the airflow that impacts the rotor blade. THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE RELATIVE WIND AND THE CHORD LINE - of the rotor blade airfoil is called the angle of attack. RELATIVE WIND WILL BE AFFECTED - by the rotation of the blade, the horizontal movement of the helicopter, wind, and flapping of the blade. THE AMOUNT OF LIFT PRODUCED - is related to the speed of the air impacting the rotor blade and its angle of attack. ROTOR BLADES - are usually made with a symmetrical airfoil. WHEN THE ANGLE OF ATTACK OF A SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL IS INCREASED - the center of pressure will have very limited movement. (5239) HELICOPTER EFFECTS AND DESIGN TORQUE NEWTON'S THIRD LAW AGAIN COMES INTO PLAY - with the rotation of a helicopter rotor system by causing a tendency for the helicopter fuselage to rotate the opposite direction. This is called "torque." THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF THE TAIL ROTOR SYSTEM - is to counteract the torque effect of the main rotor. This requires thrust to the right. (5251) THE TAIL ROTOR - however, can produce thrust to the left. This is necessary to counteract the drag of the transmission during autorotation. (5252) ROTOR SYSTEMS THE MAIN ROTOR BLADES OF A SEMIRIGID ROTOR SYSTEM - (two-bladed) can flap as a unit. (5257) THE MAIN ROTOR BLADES OF A FULLY- ARTICULATED ROTOR SYSTEM - (three or more rotor blades) can flap, drag, and feather independently. (5253) CONING THE ROTOR BLADES OF A HELICOPTER BEND UPWARD - when they are producing lift. This is resisted by centrifugal force and, in a semirigid rotor, the stiffness of the blade. CONING IS CAUSED - by the combined forces of lift and centrifugal force. (5240) CORIOLIS EFFECT AS EACH BLADE FLAPS UP AND DOWN - it produces a shift of the center of its mass. When the blade flaps up, the CG moves closer to its axis of rotation, giving that blade a tendency to accelerate its rotational velocity. This tendency is known as Coriolis effect. THE PURPOSE OF LEAD-LAG (DRAG) HINGES - in a three-bladed, fully articulated helicopter rotor system is to compensate for Coriolis effect. (5243) HELICOPTER - NOTES 42

50 DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT - is the unequal lift across the rotor disc that occurs in horizontal flight as a result of the difference in velocity of the air passing over the advancing half of the disc area and the air passing over the retreating half of the disc area. (5245,5246) THE FORWARD SPEED OF A ROTORCRAFT - is restricted primarily by dissymmetry of lift. (5241) TRANSLATING TENDENCY WHEN HOVERING - a helicopter tends to move in the direction of tail rotor thrust (to the right). This movement is called translating tendency. (5242,5244) THE MAST OR CYCLIC PITCH SYSTEM - of most helicopters is rigged to the left to overcome the tendency of a helicopter to drift right when hovering in a no-wind condition. (5247) HELICOPTER CONTROLS COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL - simultaneously changes the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades. THE COLLECTIVE LEVER - is located at the pilot's left side, and movement up and down increases or decreases the pitch angle. CHANGING THE PITCH ANGLE - changes the angle of attack, which changes the lift. CYCLIC PITCH CONTROL - changes the pitch angles of the blades at different points of the rotor path to tilt the tip-path plane. GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION - is a characteristic of all rotating bodies. When a force is applied to the periphery of a rotating body parallel to its axis of rotation, the rotating body will tilt in the direction THE FUNCTION OF THE CONTROLS DURING SURFACE TAXI COLLECTIVE PITCH - is used to control: Starting Taxi speed Stopping HELICOPTER OPERATIONS CYCLIC PITCH - is used to control: Ground track Drift during crosswind (5710,5711) of the applied force 90 later in the plane of rotation. EXAMPLE - Cyclic control pressure is applied during flight that results in a maximum increase in main rotor blade pitch angle at the "3-o'clock" position. Which way will the rotor disc tilt? (Aft.) (5249) EXAMPLE - Cyclic control pressure is applied during flight that results in a maximum decrease in pitch angle of the rotor blades at the "12-o'clock" position. Which way will the rotor disc tilt? (Left.) (5250) TILTING THE ROTOR - divides the rotor lift-thrust into vertical and horizontal components. WHEN A ROTORCRAFT TRANSITIONS FROM STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT - into a 30 bank while maintaining a constant altitude, the total lift force must increase and the load factor will increase. (5248) ANTI-TORQUE PEDALS - control the pitch of the tail rotor, which changes the amount and direction of the tail rotor thrust. CLUTCH THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF THE CLUTCH - is to allow the engine to be started without driving the main rotor system. (5255) FREEWHEELING UNIT THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF THE FREE- WHEELING UNIT - is to provide disengagement of the engine from the rotor system for autorotation purposes. (5256) EXAMPLE - To taxi on the surface in a safe and efficient manner, helicopter pilots should use which lever to control starting, taxi speed, and stopping? (Collective pitch.) (5709) DURING A NORMAL APPROACH TO A HOVER THE COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL - is used primarily to control the angle of descent. THE CYCLIC PITCH - is used primarily to control the rate of closure. (5725,5726) 43 HELICOPTER - NOTES

51 IN FLIGHT COLLECTIVE PITCH-THROTTLE COORDINATION PROBLEM SOLUTION RPM MAP Collective Throttle low low increase low high lower high high decrease high low raise EXAMPLE - During level flight, if the RPM is low and the manifold pressure is high, what is the initial corrective action? (Lower the collective pitch.) (5673,5675) EXAMPLE - During climbing flight, if the RPM is high and the manifold pressure is low, what is the initial corrective action? (Raise the collective pitch.) (5674) HOVERING HOVERING IN GROUND EFFECT - requires less power than out of ground effect. MORE POWER WILL BE REQUIRED - to hover over high grass than over a solid surface. (5707) IF YOU ARE HOVERING DURING CALM WIND CONDITIONS - and decide to make a right-pedal turn, in most helicopters equipped with reciprocating engines, the engine RPM will tend to increase. (5720) A LEFT-PEDAL TURN WHILE HOVERING DURING A CALM WIND - will require more power. The RPM will decrease because more engine power is absorbed by the tail rotor. (5712,5721) UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS THE MOST UNFAVORABLE COMBINATION OF CONDITIONS FOR ROTORCRAFT PERFORMANCE - is high density altitude, high gross weight, and calm wind. (5259) HIGH DENSITY ALTITUDE - reduces engine and rotor efficiency. (5260) THE FLIGHT TECHNIQUE RECOMMENDED - for use during takeoff in hot weather is to accelerate slowly into forward flight. (5708) RUNNING TAKEOFF A RUNNING TAKEOFF MAY BE POSSIBLE - when gross weight or density altitude prevents a sustained hover at normal hovering altitude. (5728) RETREATING BLADE STALL WHEN OPERATING AT HIGH FORWARD AIRSPEED - anything that increases the angle of attack of the retreating blade will make blade stall more likely, such as: high airspeed...turbulent air high density altitude. steep or abrupt turns low rotor RPM...high gross weight (5704) THE MAJOR INDICATIONS OF AN INCIPIENT RETREATING BLADE STALL SITUATION - in order of occurrence are: low-frequency vibration, pitchup of the nose, and a tendency for the helicopter to roll. (5705) THE PILOT'S REACTION AT THE ONSET OF RETREATING BLADE STALL - should be to reduce collective pitch, increase rotor RPM, and reduce forward airspeed. (5706) NEVER-EXCEED SPEED, V NE AS ALTITUDE INCREASES - the V NE of a helicopter will decrease. (5686) VORTEX CIRCULATION THE VORTEX STRENGTH IS GREATEST - when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow. (5756) VORTEX CIRCULATION GENERATED BY HELICOPTERS - in forward flight trail behind in a manner similar to wingtip vortices generated by airplanes. (5755) PUSHING OVER AFTER A CLIMB PUSHING OVER OUT OF A STEEP CLIMB - will cause a greater decrease in rotor RPM than vertical descents either with or without power. (5672) QUICK STOP THE PROPER ACTION - to initiate a quick stop is to apply aft cyclic while lowering the collective and applying right antitorque pedal. (5267) DURING ENTRY INTO A QUICK STOP - the collective pitch control should be lowered as necessary to prevent ballooning. (5724) HELICOPTER - NOTES 44

52 PINNACLE OPERATIONS DURING A PINNACLE APPROACH - under conditions of high wind and turbulence, the pilot should make a steeper- than-normal approach, maintaining the desired angle of descent with collective applications. (5730,5731,5732) SLOPE OPERATIONS WHEN PLANNING SLOPE OPERATIONS - only slopes of 5 gradient or less should be considered, primarily because most helicopters are not designed for operations on slopes of steeper gradient. (5716) THE PROCEDURE FOR A SLOPE LANDING - is when parallel to the slope, slowly lower the upslope skid to the ground prior to lowering the downslope skid. (5719) WHEN MAKING A SLOPE LANDING - the cyclic pitch control should be used to hold the upslope skid against the slope. (5717) TAKEOFF FROM A SLOPE - is normally accomplished by bringing the helicopter to a level attitude before completely leaving the ground. (5718) RUNNING LANDING DURING A RUNNING LANDING - normal RPM should be maintained primarily to ensure adequate directional control until the helicopter stops. (5727) CONFINED AREA WHEN CONDUCTING A CONFINED AREA- TYPE OPERATION - the primary purpose of the high reconnaissance is to determine the suitability of the area for landing. (5729) SETTLING WITH POWER A SETTLING WITH POWER CONDITION - can be caused during a near-vertical power approach into a confined area with the airspeed near zero. (5699,5702) AN EXCESSIVELY STEEP APPROACH ANGLE - and abnormally slow closure rate should be avoided during an approach to a hover, primarily because a settling with power situation could develop, particularly during termination. (5698) THE PROCEDURE WHICH WILL RESULT IN RECOVERY FROM SETTLING WITH POWER - is to increase forward speed and partially lower collective pitch. (5700) THE ADDITION OF POWER IN A SETTLING WITH POWER SITUATION - produces an even greater rate of descent. (5701) DURING RECOVERY FROM AN ACCIDENTAL SETTLING WITH POWER SITUATION - since the inboard portions of the main rotor blades are stalled, cyclic control effectiveness will be reduced during the initial portion of the recovery. (5703) CARBURETOR ICING A RECIPROCATING ENGINE IN A HELICOPTER - is more likely to stop due to in-flight carburetor icing than the same type engine in an airplane. This is because the freewheeling unit will not allow windmilling (flywheel) effect to be exerted on a helicopter engine. (5254) THE CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE GAUGE - has a green arc for the desired operating temperature, a yellow arc for temperatures where you should use caution since icing is possible, and a red line for maximum operating temperature limit. Sometimes a red arc is used to represent the most dangerous range in which carburetor ice can be anticipated. WHEN OPERATING A HELICOPTER IN CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR CARBURETOR ICING - the carburetor heat should be OFF for takeoff and then adjusted to keep the carburetor air temperature gauge indicating in the green arc at all other times. (5676) ABNORMAL VIBRATIONS THE HIGHEST FREQUENCY VIBRATIONS - come from the item with the highest RPM: High frequency... Engine/transmission Medium frequency...tail rotor Low frequency...main rotor (5261,5262,5263,5264,5265) GROUND RESONANCE GROUND RESONANCE - is less likely to occur with helicopters that are equipped with fully articulated rotor systems. (5266) 45 HELICOPTER - NOTES

53 GROUND RESONANCE - can occur during takeoff but is more likely to occur landing. (5697) ANTITORQUE (TAIL) ROTOR FAILURE IF ANTITORQUE FAILURE OCCURS DURING CRUISING FLIGHT - to help straighten out a left yaw prior to touchdown apply available throttle to swing the nose to the right just prior to touchdown. To help straighten out a right yaw, decrease the throttle. (5695,5696) POWER FAILURE AT ALTITUDE IF COMPLETE POWER FAILURE SHOULD OCCUR WHILE CRUISING AT ALTITUDE - the pilot should lower the collective pitch as necessary to maintain proper rotor RPM and apply right pedal to correct for the yaw. (5722) TURNS DURING AUTOROTATION DURING AN AUTOROTATIVE DESCENT - generally only the cyclic control is used to make turns. (5713) DURING AN AUTOROTATIVE DESCENT - the use of pedal to assist a turn may result in: a change in rotor RPM, pitchdown of the nose, increase in sink rate decrease in indicated airspeed. EXAMPLE - What actions may result from using right pedal to assist a right turn during an autorotative descent? (An increase in rotor RPM, nose pitchdown, increase in sink rate, and decrease in indicated airspeed.) (5714) EXAMPLE - What might be expected if left pedal is used to assist a left turn in a autorotative descent? (A decrease in rotor RPM and nose pitchdown.) (5715) FLARE DURING AUTOROTATION DURING THE FULL FLARE PORTION OF A POWER-OFF LANDING - the rotor RPM tends to increase initially as the pilot inclines the rotor disc rearward to cause the flare. (5671) AUTOROTATION TO TOUCHDOWN WHEN MAKING AN AUTOROTATION TO TOUCHDOWN - the skids should be in a longitudinally level attitude at touchdown. (5723) HEIGHT VELOCITY DIAGRAM THE PRINCIPAL REASON THE SHADED AREA OF A HEIGHT VS. VELOCITY CHART SHOULD BE AVOIDED - is insufficient airspeed would be available to ensure a safe landing in case of an engine failure. (5736) HELICOPTER REGULATIONS FUEL RESERVE TO BEGIN A FLIGHT IN A ROTORCRAFT UNDER VFR (day or night) there must be enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing and, assuming normal cruise speed, to fly thereafter for at least 20 minutes. (5058) VFR VISIBILITY/CLOUD MINIMUMS FOR HELICOPTERS , PART 91 - Helicopters are exempted from the minimum visibility and distance from clouds requirements in Class G airspace 1,200 feet AGL and below and under Special VFR within Class B, C, D, or E airspace, if they are operated at a speed that allows the pilot to see air traffic or obstructions in time to avoid collisions. Otherwise, the visibility and distance from cloud requirements are the same for airplanes and helicopters. EXAMPLE - During the day, a VFR helicopter flying in Class G airspace at 3,500 feet MSL over terrain with an elevation of 1,900 feet MSL requires what minimum flight visibility and distance from clouds? (Altitude is 1,600 feet AGL: 1 mile; 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontally.) (5086) EXAMPLE - What is the basic VFR weather visibility minimum for operating a helicopter within Class D airspace? (3 miles.) (5087) TRANSPONDER REQUIREMENTS , A TRANSPONDER - with 4096 code and Mode C capability is required for helicopter operations within Class B airspace. (5072) HELICOPTER - NOTES 46

54 EXAMPLE Figure 54, Point 1. What are the requirements for a helicopter flight over Livermore Airport (LVK) at 3,000 feet MSL? (The flight requires a transponder but ATC communications are not necessary.) (5574) MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDES MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE RULES ALLOW HELICOPTER PILOTS lower minimum altitudes than other aircraft. They are allowed to fly less than 500 feet AGL provided that: they do not create a hazard to persons or property on the ground, and that in all cases they comply with the routes and altitudes prescribed by the FAA. (5113,6019) COLLISION AVOIDANCE WHEN APPROACHING TO LAND AT AN AIRPORT WITHOUT AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER in Class G airspace, you should avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft. (6018) SAFETY BELTS EACH PERSON ON BOARD A HELICOPTER MUST HAVE A SAFETY BELT (seat belt) and a shoulder harness (if installed) properly secured during movement on the surface, takeoff and landing. (6020) OVER WATER OPERATION WHEN A HELICOPTER OPERATES FOR HIRE BEYOND POWER OFF GLIDING DISTANCE FROM SHORE - it must have approved flotation gear readily available to each occupant. (6021) RESTRICTED CATEGORY A RESTRICTED CATEGORY HELICOPTER may not be used in carrying property or passengers for compensation or hire. (5068) COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS PART 119 OPERATIONS - are those in which helicopter pilots may receive compensation for a flight with no more than two passengers that stays within 25 statute miles of the takeoff heliport or airport, and is conducted in day, VFR conditions. (6031) , YOU MAY ACCEPT COMPENSATION for carrying candidates in a Federal election. This operation is not regulated under Part 119 but is under Part 91. (6032) HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE DENSITY ALTITUDE TO DETERMINE DENSITY ALTITUDE - correct pressure altitude for non-standard temperature. EXAMPLE - For a pressure altitude of 12,000 feet and a true air temperature of +50 F, what is the approximate density altitude? (5306,5307,5308,5309) SOLUTION: Using the temperature conversion scale on the calculator side of your flight computer, convert +50 F true air temperature to +10 C. In the True Airspeed and Density Altitude window of your flight computer, set +10 C over 12,000 feet pressure altitude and read a density altitude of approximately 14,000 feet. HOVERING CEILING CHART EXAMPLE - Figure 41. What is the in-ground effect hover ceiling under the following conditions? GIVEN: Helicopter gross weight... 1,225 lbs. Ambient temperature F (5683,5685) SOLUTION: Convert temperature in F to C using the OAT conversion on Figure 41. Since the ambient temperature of 77 F is halfway between 68 F and 86 F, the OAT is halfway between +20 C and +30 C, or +25 C. Enter the "In Ground Effect" chart (left chart) at 1,225 pounds gross weight. Move vertically upward to intersect the estimated +25 C line. 47 HELICOPTER - NOTES

55 Move horizontally left to read the in-ground effect hover ceiling: 6,750 feet. EXAMPLE - Figure 41. What is the out-ofground effect hover ceiling under the following conditions? (5684) GIVEN: Helicopter gross weight... 1,175 lbs. Ambient temperature F SOLUTION: Convert temperature in F to C using the OAT conversion on Figure 41. Since the ambient temperature of 95 F is halfway between 86 F and 104 F, the OAT is halfway between +30 C and +40 C, or +35 C. Enter "Out Of Ground Effect" chart (right chart) at 1,175 pounds gross weight. Move vertically upward to intersect the estimated +35 C line. Move horizontally left to read the out-of-ground effect hover ceiling: 5,500 feet. (Closest answer: 5,250 feet.) RATE OF CLIMB ROTORCRAFT CLIMB PERFORMANCE - is most adversely affected by higher than standard temperature and high relative humidity. (5258) EXAMPLE - Figure 42. Departure is planned from a heliport that has a reported pressure altitude of 4,100 feet. What rate of climb could be expected in this helicopter if the ambient temperature is 90 F? (5687,5688) SOLUTION: Enter the chart on the left side at 4,100 feet pressure altitude. Move horizontally right to intersect the estimated 90 F temperature line. Move vertically down to read rate of climb of 240 ft./min. (Closest answer: 250 ft./min.) CENTER OF GRAVITY A HELICOPTER IS LOADED IN SUCH A MANNER - that the CG is located aft of the aft allowable CG limit. This is a hazardous situation since if the helicopter should pitchup due to gusty winds during high-speed flight, there may not be sufficient forward cyclic control available to lower the nose. (5680) A HELICOPTER IS LOADED IN SUCH A MANNER - that the CG is located forward of the forward allowable CG limit. This is a hazardous situation since in case of engine failure and the resulting autorotation, sufficient cyclic control may not be available to flare properly to land. (5681) EXAMPLE - What is the longitudinal and lateral CG of the helicopter? GIVEN: LONG LONG LAT LAT WT ARM MOM ARM MOM Empty ? Fuel? 110.0? - - (75 gal at 6.8 lb/gal) Oil ? - - Pilot ? +12.5? (right seat) Pass ? -13.3? (left seat) (5679) SOLUTION: WEIGHT AND BALANCE LONG LONG ITEM WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT Empty 1, ,370 Fuel (75 6.8) ,100 Oil ,148 Pilot ,375 Passenger ,280 TOTALS 2, ,273 Long. CG = TOTAL MOMENT TOTAL WEIGHT Longitudinal CG = inches 287, 273 = 2592, LAT LAT ITEM WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT Empty 1, Fuel Oil Pilot ,188 (right seat) Passenger ,594 (left seat) TOTALS 2, Lateral CG = TOTAL MOMENT TOTAL WEIGHT = 66 2, 592 Lateral CG = inches EXAMPLE - Figure 40. Where would the CG be located under the following conditions? HELICOPTER - NOTES 48

56 GIVEN: Basic weight (oil is included) lbs. Basic weight mom (1,000/in-lb) Pilot weight lbs. Passenger weight lbs. Fuel 19.2 gal. (5678) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT ARM = MOM/1000 Empty Pilot Passenger Fuel (19.2 6) TOTALS 1, The CG is located well aft of the aft CG limit. EXAMPLE - Figure 39. Based on the following weights and moment arms, where is the center of gravity located with respect to the datum line (datum line is at station 0)? GIVEN: MOMENT WEIGHT ARM-IN IN-LBS Empty 1, ,200 Pilot ? Oil (8 qt.)? +1.0? Fuel (50 gal.)? +2.0? Baggage ? (5677) SOLUTION: ITEM WEIGHT x ARM = MOMENT Empty 1, ,200 Pilot ,200 Oil (2 7.5) Fuel (50 x 6) Baggage TOTALS 2,245 +3,685 TOTAL MOMENT CG = TOTAL WEIGHT = 3685, 2, 245 CG = 1.64 inches aft of datum. 49 HELICOPTER - NOTES

57 MILITARY COMPETENCY - AIRPLANE INTRODUCTION The FAA recognizes through FAR that the rated military pilot already satisfies the skill and experience requirements for civilian flying. The military pilot, however, may not have knowledge of the regulations necessary for him to operate in the civilian air traffic system. FAR 61.73(b) states, in part, "A rated military pilot must pass a knowledge test on pilot privileges and limitations, air traffic and general operating rules, and accident reporting rules." In other words, you need to know the civilian regulations. The following list the chapter and sections you, as a Military Competency - Airplane applicant, need to study and those that you may ignore. In addition, the instrument regulation questions shown below are also the responsibility of the instrument rated civilian pilot. NEED TO STUDY Airspace and Weather Minimums Federal Aviation Regulations except: Abbreviations and Symbols MAY IGNORE The balance of the Commercial Pilot Course Notes INSTRUMENT REGULATIONS VOR OPERATIONAL CHECK A VOR OPERATIONAL CHECK MUST BE DONE WITHIN THE PRECEDING 30 DAYS before you fly an aircraft under IFR. (The check can be by VOT, on the ground or in the air.) (5122) THE DATA THAT MUST BE RECORDED IN THE AIRCRAFT LOGBOOK (or other record) when making a VOR operational check are: Date Place Bearing error Signature of person making the check. (5985) VOR FLIGHT PLANNING AIM WHEN FLYING IFR OFF ESTABLISHED AIRWAYS - the VOR navigational aids shown in the ROUTE OF FLIGHT portion of your flight plan, should be no more than 80 miles apart. At this distance you are assured adequate signal coverage and frequency protection. (5555) ALTERNATE MINIMUMS TO LIST AN AIRPORT AS AN ALTERNATE ON AN IFR FLIGHT PLAN the forecast weather conditions for the time of arrival for the alternate must be: Airport with a precision approach ceiling of 600 feet and visibility of 2 SM (not NM) Airport with a nonprecision approach ceiling of 800 feet and visibility of 2 SM (not NM) Airport with no instrument approach ceiling and visibility that allows for a descent from the MEA, approach and landing under basic VFR (5123,5986) WHEN OPERATING UNDER IFR IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE BUT NOT IN RADAR CONTACT make position reports as soon as possible after passing designated reporting points. (If in radar contact, make position reports only if requested to do so.) (5125) WHEN ANY NAVIGATIONAL, APPROACH OR COMMUNICATION EQUIPEMENT FAILS DURING AN IFR FLIGHT report to ATC as soon as practical the equipment affected, how it impairs your IFR capability, and what ATC assistance is needed. (5989) MILITARY COMP - NOTES 50

58 PROCEDURE TURN WHEN YOU ARE RECEIVING A RADAR VECTOR TO A FINAL APPROACH COURSE FIX you are not authorized to execute the published procedure turn unless you are specifically cleared by ATC to do so. (ATC will not be expecting you to do the procedure turn, and flying one may interrupt traffic or create a collision hazard.) (5988) DESCENT BELOW DH OR MDA ON AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH, YOU MAY NOT DESCEND OR CONTINUE AN APPROACH BELOW THE APPLICABLE DH OR MDA - unless the aircraft is continuously in a position to make a normal descent to a normal landing, on the intended runway. (The flight visibility must also be not less than the approach procedure requires, but the reported ceiling is not relevant. Only one of the required visual references needs to be visible, not several.) (5987) YOU MAY NOT LAND FROM AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH unless the flight visibility is at or exceeds the visibility prescribed in the approach procedure. (5124) RECENCY THE INSTRUMENT RECENCY REQUIREMENTS TO ACT AS PILOT IN COMMAND - of an aircraft under IFR or conditions that are less than VFR minimums are: with in the past 6 months, performed and logged under actual or simulated conditions, and appropriate to the aircraft category, at least, six instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting and tracking courses, or pass an instrument proficiency check. (5030) 51 MILITARY COMP - NOTES

59 NOTES 52

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