Basic Air Operations S-270

Transcription

1 Basic Air Operations S-270 NFES 2034 Student Workbook MARCH, 2003

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4 Description of the Performance Based System The NWCG Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualifications System is a performance-based qualifications system. In this system, the primary criterion for qualification is individual performance as observed by an evaluator using approved standards. This system differs from previous wildland fire qualifications systems which have been training based. Training based systems use the completion of training courses or a passing score on an examination as a primary criteria for qualification. A performance-based system has two advantages over a training based system: Qualification is based upon real performance, as measured on the job, versus perceived performance, as measured by an examination or classroom activities. Personnel who have learned skills from sources outside wildland fire suppression, such as agency specific training programs or training and work in prescribed fire, structural fire, law enforcement, search and rescue, etc., may not be required to complete specific courses in order to qualify in a wildfire position. 1. The components of the wildland fire qualifications system are as follows: a. Position Task Books (PTB) contain all critical tasks which are required to perform the job. PTBs have been designed in a format which will allow documentation of a trainee s ability to perform each task. Successful completion of all tasks required of the position, as determined by an evaluator, will be the basis for recommending certification. IMPORTANT NOTE: Training requirements include completion of all required training courses prior to obtaining a PTB. Use of the suggested training courses or job aids is recommended to prepare the employee to perform in the position. b. Training courses and job aids provide the specific skills and knowledge required to perform tasks as prescribed in the PTB. c. Agency Certification is issued in the form of an incident qualification card certifying that the individual is qualified to perform in a specified position. 2. Responsibilities The local office is responsible for selecting trainees, proper use of task books, and certification of trainees, see appendix A of the NWCG Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualification System Guide, PMS 310-1, for further information.

5 Basic Air Operations S-270 Student Workbook MARCH, 2003 NFES 2034 Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Training Working Team Comments regarding the content of this publication should be directed to: National Interagency Fire Center, National Fire Training Support Group, 3833 S. Development Ave., Boise, Idaho Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from National Interagency Fire Center, ATTN: Great Basin Cache Supply Office, 3833 South Development Avenue, Boise, Idaho Order NFES 2034.

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7 PREFACE S-270 Basic Air Operations is additional training which supports development of knowledge and skills for the single resource boss positions (crew, dozer, felling, firing, engine, tractor/plow, helicopter), incident commander Type 4, and support dispatcher as identified in the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG), Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualification System Guide (PMS 310-1). This course was developed by an interagency group of experts with direction and guidance from the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), Fire Training. The primary participants in this development effort were: Joseph (Tony) Duprey, U.S. Forest Service, Sequoia National Forest James A. Johnson, Bureau of Land Management, Casper Field Office Mindy Stevenson, U.S. Forest Service, Eastern Great Basin Coordination Center Tim Stubbs, National Park Service, Carlsbad Cavern National Park Jennifer Croft, U.S. Forest Service, Kootenai National Forest The NWCG appreciates the efforts of these personnel and all those who have contributed to the develoment of this training course. 1

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9 INTRODUCTION S-270 Basic Air Operations is a 16 hour course designed to provide basic aviation safety training. The course covers aircraft types and capabilities, aviation management and safety, tactical and logistical uses of aircraft, and requirements for helicopter take-off and landing areas. This student workbook is designed to provide a maximum of student involvement in the classroom by integrating note taking and exercises into the framework of the instructional units. You may use the space provided for notes and comment. This will aid you in preparing for the exercises and final examination. The unit objectives will be presented at the beginning of each unit and reviewed at the end of each unit. Objectives will be met by class discussion, exercises, and student participation. Successful completion of the course will be determined on a pass-fail basis. To pass the course students must achieve a minimum average score of 70 percent on the written tests. The Office of Aircraft Services (OAS) website ( and U.S. Forest Service Fire and Aviation website ( are good locations to obtain current aviation policy, regulations, and information for both instructors and students. The Interagency Aviation Training website ( offers other online aviation training that is useful or may be of interest for the students. 3

10 COURSE OBJECTIVES The following are the course objectives for S-270 Basic Air Operations. Upon successful completion of this course the student will: 1. Describe the ICS criteria for typing aircraft. 2. Describe safety procedures to be followed while flying in or working with agency aircraft. 3. Describe how density altitude, ground effect, and translational lift affect aircraft performance. 4. Describe pilot and aircraft certification procedures. 5. Describe the importance of flight planning and flight following. 6. Describe correct procedures for loading cargo, transporting passengers, and emergency landing. 7. Describe correct procedures for reporting aviation mishaps. 8. Describe tactical and logistical uses of aircraft. 9. Describe safety procedures to be followed by ground personnel during water and retardant drops. 10. Describe standard target description techniques for directing pilots and indicators of effective water and retardant drops. 11. Describe specifications and safety requirements for locating and constructing helispots. 4

11 UNIT 1 AIRCRAFT TYPES AND CAPABILITIES UNIT OBJECTIVES 1. Define general categories of aircraft used in fire suppression. 2. List the four (4) ICS types of air tankers and the criteria that make up each type. 3. List the three (3) ICS types of helicopters and the criteria that make up each type. 4. Define density altitude, ground effect, translational lift and describe how these factors affect aircraft performance. 5. Calculate density altitude from a density altitude chart when given temperature and pressure altitude. 1.1

12 I. AIRCRAFT USE IN FIRE SUPPRESSION The use of aircraft in fire suppression has increased tremendously in recent years. All personnel involved in fire suppression will at some time be in a situation where aircraft are used. A basic knowledge of aircraft classifications, models, and limitations is necessary to efficiently and effectively do the required job. A. Aircraft Categories The two major categories of aircraft used in fire suppression are airplanes or fixed wing and helicopters or rotor wing. B. Engine Types and Fuel Another factor used in classifying aircraft is engine type and fuel required. There are two basic kinds of aircraft engines currently in use. 1. Reciprocating engines Reciprocating (recip) engines have back and forth motion of pistons and rods which drive a shaft. The shaft turns the propeller of an airplane or rotor of a helicopter. Recip engines may have pistons arranged horizontally opposed (flat) or radially arranged in a circle. Some recip engines are modified with a supercharger or turbocharger which compresses the air used for combustion and increases engine performance at higher altitudes. These engines use aviation grade fuel (100LL) which is blue in color. 1.2

13 2. Turbine engines C. Air Tankers Turbine engines use fans for compressing and producing a circular motion of air. The circular motion of air drives a shaft that turns the propeller on an airplane or rotor of a helicopter or produces thrust by a jet stream of air. When the turbine engine on an aircraft drives a shaft which turns a propeller, it is normally referred to as a turbo prop. When the turbine engine drives a stream of air to produce thrust, it is called a jet. Turbine engines use jet fuel that contains additives for different engine performance and cold weather starting. Some recip engine aircraft have been retrofitted with turbine engines which increases engine power and aircraft performance. Air tankers are used to drop water, foam or retardant on fires. In the Incident Command System (ICS), air tankers are classified by type according to the amount of retardant they carry. Type 1 is the largest and Type 4 is the smallest. All air tankers are restricted category aircraft and are not allowed to carry passengers. Type 1, 2, and 3 air tankers have a two digit number identifier as their call sign, e.g., air tanker 03, 81, etc. ICS AIR TANKER TYPES TYPE MINIMUM GALLONS RETARDANT 1 3,000 Gallons 2 1,800 Gallons Gallons Gallons 1.3

14 TYPE 1 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Lockheed P-3A Orion Gallons of Retardant: 3,000 Gates: Constant flow tank Range with Full Load: 1,000 miles Runway Required: 2,500 feet Cruise Speed: 290 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Lockheed P-3A Orion Make/Model: Lockheed C-130 Gallons of Retardant: 3,000 Gates: MAFFS Range with Full Load: N/A Runway Required: 5,300 feet Cruise Speed: 275 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Lockheed C-130 (military) Make/Model: Douglas DC-7 Gallons of Retardant: 3,000 Gates: 6-8 Range with Full Load: 950 miles Runway Required: 5,000 feet Cruise Speed: 260 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Douglas DC-7 1.4

15 TYPE 1 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Boeing KC-97 Gallons of Retardant: 4,000 Alaska 3,000 Lower 48 Gates: 16 Range with Full Load: 1,500 miles Runway Required: 5,000 feet Cruise Speed: 250 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Boeing KC

16 TYPE 2 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Douglas DC-4 Gallons of Retardant: 2,000 Gates: 4-8 Range with Full Load: 1,100 miles Runway Required: 5,000 feet Cruise Speed: 220 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Douglas DC-4 Make/Model: Douglas DC-6 Gallons of Retardant: 2,400 Gates: 6-8 Range with Full Load: 1,340 miles Runway Required: 5,000 feet Cruise Speed: 240 m.p.h. Engines: 4 Douglas DC-6 Make/Model: Lockheed P2V Gallons of Retardant: 2,450 Gates: 6 Range with Full Load: 1,100 miles Runway Required: 5,000 feet Cruise Speed: 240 m.p.h. Engines: 2 Reciprocating 2 Turbine Lockheed P2V 1.6

17 TYPE 2 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Lockheed SP-2H Gallons of Retardant: 2,000 Gates: Constant Flow Range with Full Load: 500 miles Runway Required: 4,500 feet Cruise Speed: 220 m.p.h. Engines: 2 Lockheed SP-2H 1.7

18 TYPE 3 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Grumman S-2F Tracker Gallons of Retardant: 800 Gates: 4 Range with Full Load: 360 miles Runway Required: 3,500 feet Cruise Speed: 180 m.p.h. Engines: 2 Grumman S-2F Tracker Make/Model: Grumman S-2T Turbo Tracker Gallons of Retardant: 1,200 Gates: 4 Range with Full Load: 400 Runway Required: 3,500 Cruise Speed: 190 m.p.h Engines: 2 Grumman S-2T Make/Model: Canadair CL-215T Gallons of Retardant: 1,400 Gates: NA Range with Full Load: 552 miles Runway Required: 2,500 feet Cruise Speed: 200 m.p.h. Engines: Canadair CL-215T

19 TYPE 3 - AIR TANKERS Make/Model: Consolidated PBY Gallons of Retardant: 1,400 Gates: NA Range with Full Load: 350 miles Runway Required: 3,500 Cruise Speed: 180 m.p.h. Engines: 2 Consolidated PBY 1.9

20 TYPE 4 - AIR TANKERS (SEATS) Make/Model: De Havilland Beaver Gallons of Retardant: Gates: 1 Range with Full Load: 180 miles Runway Required: NA Cruise Speed: 115 m.p.h. Engines: 1 Make/Model: Ayres Turbine Thrush (series) Gallons of Retardant: Gates: 1-2 Range with Full Load: 217 miles Runway Required: 2,000 feet Cruise Speed: 160 m.p.h. Engines: 1 De Havilland Beaver Ayres Turbine Thrush Make/Model: Pezetel Dromader M-18 Gallons of Retardant: Gates: 1-2 Range with Full Load: 190 miles Runway Required: 1,500 feet Cruise Speed: 100 m.p.h. Engines: 1 Dromader M

21 TYPE 4 - AIR TANKERS (SEATS) Make/Model: Air Tractor (series) Gallons of Retardant: Gates: Transland gate Range with Full Load: 190 miles(r) 225 miles (T) Runway Required: 1,500 feet Cruise Speed: 125 m.p.h. (R) 150 m.p.h. (T) Engines: 1 (R)-Reciprical (T)-Turbine engine Air Tractor 802 Some of the Single Engine Air Tankers (SEATs) such as the Air Tractor 802 can carry more than 800 gallons, but they are still considered a Type 4 by the National Air Tanker Board for contractual purposes. SEATs have a three digit identifier as their call sign. SEATs with numbers in the 100s have a National Air Tanker Board approved constant flow tank and gating system. SEATs with numbers in the 400s do not have constant flow tanking systems. SEATs don t need as long of a take-off and landing distance as other air tankers and they can use smaller airports. They can takeoff and land on unpaved surfaces such as dirt and gravel roads. With fuel, water supply, and a portable foam or retardant mixing system they can and should be operated close to a fire with short turn around times to make them efficient and effective. 1.11

22 D. Helicopters Helicopters are used to drop water, foam, or retardant on fires and to carry passengers and cargo. Most helicopters used in fire suppression have turbine engines. The U.S. Forest Service does not allow use of reciprocating engine helicopters for firefighting work. Under ICS helicopters are classified into three types depending on the number of passenger seats, payload, and retardant carrying capacity. Only one of the criteria must be met for each type. For example, most of the Type 1 helicopters are restricted category aircraft and are not allowed to carry passengers, but meet the retardant carrying capacity. ICS HELICOPTER TYPES Type Passenger Allowable Minimum Gallons Seats Payload* Retardant or Water ,000 lbs ,500 lbs ,200 lbs 100 *Allowable payload is determined at 59 degrees Fahrenheit at sea level. It is important to recognize that not all makes of helicopters are equal. A helicopter may have ten or twelve passenger seats, but that does not mean it can lift that much weight. Density altitude and other environmental factors can dramatically affect payload. Different models within the same series of helicopter may look the same, but newer models generally have increased performance. An example is the Bell 206 Long Ranger Series (L-1, L-3, L-4). The L-1, L-3, and L-4 look the same, but the L-4 has a bigger engine and better performance. Even within the same make and model some helicopters may have engine and/or rotor blade modifications that dramatically increase performance. If you don t know, ask the pilot. 1.12

23 TYPE 1 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Kaman K1200 K-MAX Bucket Gallons: 750 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 90/103 Passenger Seats: Restricted Fuel Type: Jet Kaman K1200 K-MAX Make/Model: Kaman H-43 Husky Bucket Gallons: 324 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 85/98 Passenger Seats: Restricted Fuel Type: Jet Kaman H-43 Husky Make/Model: Bell 214 B-1 Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 140/160 Passenger Seats: Fuel Type: Jet Bell 214 B

24 TYPE 1 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Sikorsky S-70 (UH-60 Military) Blackhawk Bucket Gallons: 660 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 145/167 Passenger Seats: Fuel Type: Jet Make/Model: Aerospatiale AS-332L Super Puma Bucket Gallons: 900 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: 26 Fuel Type: Jet Sikorsky S-70/UH-60 Blackhawk Make/Model: Boeing Vertol 107-II Bucket Gallons: 900-1,000 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: NA Fuel Type: Jet Aerospatiale AS-332L Super Puma Boeing Vertol 107-II 1.14

25 TYPE 1 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Boeing Vertol 234/ CH-47 Bucket Gallons: 3,000 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 135/155 Passenger Seats: 46 Fuel Type: Jet Make/Model: Sikorsky S-64 Sky Crane Bucket Gallons: 2,000 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 80/92 Passenger Seats: Restricted Fuel Type: Jet Boeing Vertol 234 (CH-47 Military) Sikorsky S-64 Sky Crane Make/Model: Sikorsky S-61 Bucket Gallons: 900 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: NA Fuel Type: Jet Sikorsky S

26 TYPE 2 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bell 204B Bucket Gallons: 180 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: 11 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 204B Make/Model: Bell 205A-1 Bucket Gallons: 324 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 90/104 Passenger Seats: 14 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 205A-1 Make/Model: Bell Super 205 Bucket Gallons: 324 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 96/110 Passenger Seats: 14 Fuel Type: Jet 1.16 Bell Super 205

27 TYPE 2 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bell 212 Bucket Gallons: 324 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 110/115 Passenger Seats: 13 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 212 Make/Model: Bell 412 Bucket Gallons: 420 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 110/127 Passenger Seats: 13 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 412 Make/Model: Sikorsky S-58T Bucket Gallons: 420 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 90/104 Passenger Seats: Fuel Type: Jet Sikorsky S-58T 1.17

28 TYPE 2 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Eurocopter BK-117 A-4 Bucket Gallons: 180 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: 11 Fuel Type: Jet Eurocopter BK-117 A

29 TYPE 3 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: 2 Fuel Type: Jet McDonnell Douglas MD 500D MD 500D Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 120/138 Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet McDonnell Douglas MD 500E MD 500E Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet McDonnell Douglas MD 530F 1.19 MD 530F

30 TYPE 3 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: 300 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 138/159 Passenger Seats: 7 Fuel Type: Jet McDonnell Douglas MD 900 NOTAR MD 900 NOTAR Make/Model: Bell 206 B-III Jet Ranger Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 97/112 Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 206 B-III Jet Ranger Make/Model: Bell 206 L-3 Long Ranger Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 110/127 Passenger Seats: 6 Fuel Type: Jet 1.20 Bell 206 L-3 Long Ranger

31 TYPE 3 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bell 407 Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 116/133 Passenger Seats: 6 Fuel Type: Jet Bell 407 Make/Model: Aerospatiale AS-350 Astar Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet Aerospatiale AS-350 Astar Make/Model: Aerospatiale AS-355 Twin Star Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 115/132 Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet Aerospatiale AS-355 Twin Star 1.21

32 TYPE 3 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: 180 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 80/92 Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet Aerospatiale SA-315B Lama Aerospatiale SA-315B Lama Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: 144 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 80/92 Passenger Seats: 6 Fuel Type: Jet Aerospatiale SA-316B Alouette III Make/Model: Bucket Gallons: 120 Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 110/127 Passenger Seats: 4 Fuel Type: Jet Eurocopter MBB BO-105 CB Aerospatiale SA-316B Alouette III Eurocopter MBB BO-105 CB 1.22

33 TYPE 3 - HELICOPTERS Make/Model: Bell 47G* Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 75/86 Passenger Seats: 2 Fuel Type: AvGas 80/87 Bell 47G Make/Model: Hiller 12D/E* Bucket Gallons: Cruise Speed (kts/mph): 78/90 Passenger Seats: 2 Fuel Type: AvGas 100/130 Hiller 12D/E *A Soloy conversion on Bell 47Gs and Hiller 12D/Es replaces the reciprocal engine with a turbine engine. Turbine engines increase aircraft performace and use jet fuel. 1.23

34 E. Summary ICS types of air tankers and helicopters are intended to provide a general classification of their capability. Aircraft dispatched to incidents are generally what is available. However, it is important for firefighters to know the general capabilities of the types of air tankers and helicopters to effectively and efficiently use aircraft assigned to an incident. II. FACTORS AFFECTING AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AND CAPABILITIES A. Density Altitude Density altitude refers to a theoretical air density which exists at a given altitude as compared to standard conditions. Standard conditions are sea level elevation, atmospheric pressure equals Hg (inches of mercury), and temperature equals 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius). By definition, density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature and humidity. It can have a profound effect on aircraft performance. Air, like other gases and liquids, is fluid. It flows and changes shape under pressure. Air is said to be thin at higher elevations. There are fewer air molecules per cubic foot at 10,000 feet elevation than at sea level. At lower elevations the rotor blade or propeller is cutting through more dense air which increases aircraft performance. There are three factors that affect air density in varying degrees; atmospheric pressure, temperature, and to some degree humidity. The lower the atmospheric pressure at a given elevation, the less dense the air. Aircraft performance is decreased. 1.24

35 The most dramatic influence on density altitude is temperature. The same volume of air contained in one cubic foot, at a low temperature, will expand two or three times as the temperature rises. There are fewer air molecules, because of expansion, in a given space so the air has become less dense. The rotor blade or propeller has less air to grab and performance is decreased. To compensate for loss of lift, power requirements must be increased, thus providing a limitation to aircraft performance. High density altitude reduces aircraft performance. Conditions associated with high density altitude (thin air) are high elevations, low atmospheric pressure, high temperatures, high humidity, or some combination thereof. It is the pilot s responsibility to determine the effect of density altitude on aircraft performance before and during every flight. However, students need to be aware of the process. One of the ways to determine density altitude is through the use of charts designed for that purpose. To determine density altitude from the chart on page 1.26 you will need to know the outside air temperature and pressure altitude. To determine the pressure altitude at a given location, use the altimeter in the aircraft. The pilot will adjust the altimeter to Hg, the standard sea level atmospheric pressure. The altimeter converts barometric pressure to pressure altitude. 1.25

36 Density Altitude Chart 1.26

37 Calculate density altitude for the following two examples: Example 1: 80 degrees Fahrenheit 5,000 feet pressure altitude Example 2: 30 degrees Fahrenheit 6,000 feet pressure altitude Effects of high density altitude: reduces fuel load (less flight time and aircraft range) reduces payload (cargo, passengers, retardant) increases takeoff and landing distances decreases climbing rates decreases maneuvering performance reduces mission efficiency 1.27

38 B. Ground Effect A condition of improved rotor system performance encountered when a helicopter is hovering near the ground. The apparent result is increased lift or decreased power requirements. This provides for a greater allowable payload. C. Hover-In-Ground-Effect (HIGE) HIGE is achieved when a helicopter is hovering approximately less than one-half the rotor diameter distance from the ground. In a hover, the rotor blades move large volumes of air from above the rotors down through the system. The ground interrupts the airflow under the helicopter which reduces downward velocity of the air and produces an outward airflow pattern and more lift. NOTE: HIGE DIMINISHES WHEN HOVERING OVER WATER OR TALL GRASS. In this example the helicopter is hovering at a height less than one-half the rotor diameter distance from the ground (HIGE). 1.28

39 D. Hover-Out-Of-Ground-Effect (HOGE) HOGE occurs when a helicopter exceeds approximately one-half the rotor diameter distance from the ground and the cushion of air disintegrates. To maintain a hover, the helicopter is now power dependent. This situation will occur when the terrain does not provide sufficient ground base, or when performing external load work. Maximum performance is required and payload may have to be reduced. Maximum performance take-offs and landings increase risk because a helicopter has no power reserve thus reducing safety margins. In this example the helicoper is hovering at a height greater than one-half the rotor diameter distance from the ground (HOGE). 1.29

40 E. Translational Lift EXERCISE Translational (additional) lift is gained as a helicopter moves from the turbulent air created from hovering to undisturbed clean air which moves through the rotor system as the helicopter increases airspeed. Translational lift occurs when a helicopter approaches 15 to 18 miles per hour (mph) indicated airspeed. Translational lift will also be produced when a helicopter is hovering in a 15 mph steady headwind. As a passenger on a helicopter you see that there are several seats not filled on each flight. From what we have discussed concerning aircraft performance factors, which of the following three scenarios would be your best course of action? 1. Find the person-in-charge and express your concerns about the inefficiency in the air operations. 2. Ask if you can take some extra things on the flight because there is so much room available. 3. The reason for the empty seats may be for various factors affecting helicopter performance. Loads and weights are being adjusted for each flight as a safety factor. 1.30

41 UNIT 2 AVIATION MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY UNIT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe federal agency pilot and aircraft certification procedures. 2. Describe the importance of flight planning and flight following for aircraft missions. 3. Specify correct aircraft loading and off-loading procedures for personnel and cargo. 4. List 10 hazardous situations involving aircraft and describe the corrective action for each. 5. Describe the procedure for reporting aviation mishaps. 2.1

42 I. AIRCRAFT AND PILOT REQUIREMENTS Accident prevention is of the greatest importance and this can be accomplished by THINKING and USING COMMON SENSE when around aircraft. As a passenger, you have not done everything correctly if you do not know if the aircraft and pilot are qualified for the mission. Especially, for non-fire missions. A. Federal agencies classify flights into three categories or missions: 1. Point to point or administrative (airport to airport) 2. High reconnaissance (flights more than 500 feet above ground level (AGL) to accomplish a project) 3. Special use activities (flights lower than 500 feet AGL to accomplish a project, e.g., firefighting, wildlife counts/inventory, etc.) B. Most aircraft used for missions by federal agencies come from the following sources: Agency owned (fleet) aircraft Agency contracted aircraft Agency Rental Aircraft (ARA) Call When Needed (CWN) aircraft Military/Cooperator aircraft 2.2

43 C. Aircraft and pilots used by federal agencies must meet all the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aircraft safety regulations and pilot qualifications. Aircraft and pilots used by federal agencies must also meet additional federal agency requirements, e.g., aircraft inspection; pilot proficiency training, flight hours, medical and physical requirements, etc. D. U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and Office of Aircraft Services (OAS) aviation specialists ensure that additional federal agency requirements are met by inspecting the aircraft and pilots. Approved aircraft are issued an Aircraft Data Card and approved pilots are issued a Pilot Qualification Card. Cards issued by either agency are valid. 1. Pilot Qualification Card The Pilot Qualification Card provides information about the types of aircraft and missions the pilot is approved to fly. For many missions the pilot must demonstrate the ability to perform to the satisfaction of a USFS or OAS pilot inspector. USFS and OAS use the same Pilot Qualification Card. The back of the card will display a list of special use missions. The pilot inspector will initial the card, identifying the missions the pilot is approved to perform. Pilots must keep the card in their possession at all times. Check the expiration date on the card for currency. If a type of mission has a slash through it and is not initialed, DO NOT FLY THAT MISSION! 2.3

44 Pilot Qualification Card (USFS and OAS use the same card) 2.4

45 2. Aircraft Data Card The Aircraft Data Card contains information about the aircraft and its authorized uses. A USFS or OAS aircraft inspector will inspect aircraft used for special use activities. The aircraft will be checked for special use needs and equipment. A helicopter data card with a red Interagency Fire stamp on it indicates that it has the necessary equipment required for interagency fire use. The card must be kept in the aircraft. Check the expiration date on the card for currency. USFS and OAS may issue their agency Aircraft Data Card, but either card is acceptable. If the mission on the card has a slash through it and is not initialed, DO NOT FLY THAT MISSION! Forest Service fleet aircraft are not carded. All Interior fleet aircraft are carded and must have an Aircraft Data Card in the aircraft. Airplanes not approved for special use missions are issued a separate card. The card will state Rental Only - Not For Special Use or Point-to-Point Use. These aircraft can be used only for point-to-point or administrative flights (airport to airport). If the Pilot Qualification Card or Aircraft Data Card has expired or is missing prior to the flight don t go. Report the situation to your dispatcher, immediate supervisor, or unit aviation specialist. 2.5

46 Airplane Data Card (OAS) Helicopter Data Card (OAS) 2.6

47 Airplane Data Card (USFS) Helicopter Data Card (USFS) 2.7

48 E. Cooperator Aircraft (state, private, military) Generally, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) is necessary for federal agencies to use cooperator aircraft and pilots. The USFS or OAS must approve all use of cooperator aircraft and pilots. The USFS or OAS will issue a letter stating which aircraft and pilots may be used. F. Single Pilot Flight and Duty Limitations 1. A pilot cannot fly more than 8 hours and cannot be on duty more than 14 hours during the day hours uninterrupted rest between days. 3. When a pilot acquires 36 or more flight hours (not to exceed 42) in a consecutive six-day period, the pilot shall be given the following 24-hour period of rest (off duty) and a new six-day cycle shall begin. 4. It is required that a pilot receives two days off in any fourteenday period. 2.8

49 II. MISSION PLANNING A. Flight Plans and Flight Following All aviation missions for USFS and Department of the Interior agencies, regardless of how simple or complex, are required to have a completed flight plan filed. This is a detailed outline of where, when, and how the mission will be flown. Good thorough flight planning leads to a safe mission, poor planning only increases the chances for problems or accidents. Either of the following is an acceptable flight plan. 1. FAA flight plan FAA flight plans shall be filed by the pilot prior to take-off whenever possible. 2. Agency flight following providing: a. Flight following will be accomplished under the agency s written flight following policy. b. Radio contact can be made at predetermined intervals not to exceed one hour. (Most agencies use predetermined intervals of less than one hour, e.g., 15 to 30 minutes). c. Position reports or amendments are communicated and recorded. d. Personnel tasked with flight following responsibility must monitor the communications radio at all times during the flight. e. Agency flight following must minimally include: aircraft type and identification ( N number) aircraft color pilot name(s) fuel on board passenger(s) name(s) passenger/cargo weight flight routes/destination estimated duration of mission check-in procedures 2.9

50 3. Search and rescue An FAA study on general aviation accidents found that the response time for search and rescue (SAR) units to arrive at the accident scene was significantly decreased when a flight plan was used. Filing a written flight plan may double your odds of surviving an aircraft mishap. a. The average time for a SAR response is about 30 minutes. b. Average time for SAR units to arrive on scene is about four hours. A written flight plan with no flight following dramatically increases the response time for SAR efforts. It may require more than five hours for individuals to check and confirm there is a missing aircraft. By the time SAR efforts locate the aircraft and arrive on scene, an average time of 38 hours has passed. What is the potential of surviving a trauma if it takes more than a day to get to you? Without a flight plan, in a downed aircraft, if you have even minor injuries, the chances of your survival are slim. It may take more than a day for someone to acknowledge that you re missing (FAA average of 35.5 hours). More than three days (FAA average of 82 hours) may pass before someone arrives at the scene of the accident. What are your chances for survival? Post-Crash Survival Time After an accident in a remote area, an injured person may survive for one day. An uninjured person may survive for three days. Always consider the environment that you will be flying in. Even on routine flights, remember to bring clothing and/or supplies commensurate with the conditions in the event you have a mishap. 2.10

51 C. Chief of Party/Flight Manager The USFS uses the term chief of party and some interior agencies use the term flight manager. A chief of party/flight manager should be assigned for each aircraft flight. This person, who may be the only passenger, is the agency s representative to ensure that the contractor meets their obligation. The chief of party/flight manager will ensure that the aircraft and pilot are approved for the mission. Helitack personnel will perform this function when transporting firefighters by helicopter during fire suppression operations. Dispatch or aviation managers will generally arrange and approve cross-country or extended flights and should provide the chief of party/flight manager with the following information: aircraft type and N number aircraft color pilot name fuel on board route of travel and any stops estimated time of departure estimated time of arrival names of all passengers check in procedures It is the chief of party s/flight manager s responsibility to confirm this information with dispatch and inform dispatch of any changes concerning the flight. D. Manifest All passengers, on both airplanes and helicopters, will be manifested prior to the flight. This is a listing of name and flight weight of each passenger, plus pilot s name, destination, etc. Airplane manifests are completed by the agency dispatcher or chief of party. Helicopter manifests are completed by helitack personnel prior to the flight. 2.11

52 2.12

53 E. Helicopter Load Calculation Form Qualified helitack personnel or a helicopter manager will oversee helicopter loading and passenger manifesting. A helicopter load calculation form must be completed by the pilot and checked by the helicopter manager prior to each helicopter flight. The form provides passenger names (manifest) and weight and weight of cargo. Density altitude for the elevation(s) the flight will incur is factored in to help ensure the aircraft is not overloaded. The form is another step to provide a safe flight. 2.13

54 III. THE FLIGHT After you are assured that the aircraft and pilot are approved for the mission, and planning and coordination for the mission is completed, you are ready for the flight. The pilot is in command of the aircraft. The chief of party/flight manager or passengers can terminate the flight if they have a safety concern. A. Preflight Inspection The first flight of any operational period must start with the pilot doing a preflight inspection. This inspection is to check the aircraft for oil or fuel leaks, drain water and sediment from fuel sump, proper tire inflation, control surfaces, any exterior damage, etc. A visual onceover of the aircraft s condition. B. Preflight Briefing A preflight briefing is required prior to each mission. The chief of party/flight manager is responsible for providing the pilot with a briefing specific to the mission. Prior to the flight the pilot should be provided or notified of: specifics of the mission manifest with accurate weights of passengers accurate weight of cargo all hazardous material to be transported radio frequencies flight following procedures other aircraft that may be in area reported turbulence snags and location of ground forces when flying over fire areas hazards in the flight area (review hazard map) 2.14

55 C. Hazard Map All federal agency field offices must have an aviation hazard map. The map displays hazards such as power lines, military aircraft training routes, towers, etc., that may be a hazard to the flight. Hazard maps must be updated annually or as hazards change. This map and the hazards must be discussed with the pilot prior to agency flights in these areas. If hazard maps are not available, call the unit dispatch office for information on hazards in the flight area. D. Transportation of Hazardous Material Definition: A substance or material which has been determined by the secretary of transportation to be capable of posing an unreasonable risk to health, safety and property when transported in commerce. 1. Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations do not allow the following hazardous materials on commercial airlines: fuel and oil containers gasoline fusees and other firing devices fireline explosives argon bottles chainsaws may not be allowed even with empty and purged fuel tanks The website ( provides a listing of prohibited items on commercial flights. 2. Federal agencies have applied for and received Grants of Exemption which allows carrying hazardous materials, e.g., fuel, fusees, fireline explosives, etc., on agency fire use aircraft (including contract aircraft). Hazardous materials must be in approved, properly labeled, and secured containers. The pilot can still refuse to carry any hazardous material that is determined to be unsafe for the flight. 2.15

56 E. Passenger Safety Briefing Before any flight, all passengers must receive a safety briefing from the pilot or helitack personnel. The briefing should include: approach and departure entering and exiting aircraft loading and storage of gear or cargo smoking rules in-flight rules seat belt use and seat back in upright position location and operation of emergency exits and passenger doors use of oxygen, if appropriate location and operation of fire extinguisher location of survival equipment/first aid kit location and operation of Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) EXERCISE 1 (30 MINUTES) The class will be divided into four groups and each group will assign a spokesperson. Each group will prepare their lists on flipchart paper and present their list to the class. Group 1 - List the safety procedures for loading, in flight, and unloading passengers and cargo on airplanes. Group 2 - List the hazardous and fragile components of airplanes that passengers need to be aware of and avoid. Group 3 - List the safety procedures for loading, in flight, and unloading passengers and cargo on helicopters. Group 4 - List the hazardous and fragile components of helicopters that passengers need to be aware of and avoid. 2.16

57 F. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Personal protective equipment is required for all special use flights. Collars should be turned up and sleeves rolled down on fire resistant clothing. For firefighting helicopter missions the following items will be worn: flight helmet hard hat with chin strap (fire crew transport only) fire resistant clothing leather or Nomex flight gloves leather boots non-synthetic undergarments eye and ear protection G. Aircraft Fueling no passengers on board no smoking within 50 feet engine off and props or rotors stopped (unless hot fueling is approved for helicopter) fuel container and aircraft bonded (static cable attached) fire extinguisher available 2.17

58 H. In-flight Emergency During flight, it is important to always be prepared for an emergency. If the pilot declares an emergency: collars should be turned up and sleeves rolled down on fire resistant clothing gloves on hardhat on with chinstrap in place visor down on flight helmet with visor adjustment knob in loose position seat restraints snug keep away from controls secure loose gear locate emergency exits assume the crash position Wait for all motion to stop before exiting unless there is a post-crash fire. The safest environment during a crash is in the aircraft. If there is a fire it is important to get away as soon as practical. Time may be required to help those in need. The fire extinguisher may buy added time to help others. I. Crash Positions Passengers should be briefed on the correct crash positions by the pilot or helitack personnel during the passenger safety briefing. 2.18

59 IV. ACCIDENT PREVENTION As an agency employee your responsibility as a passenger is more than sitting in the seat and taking up space. Recognizing and reporting unsafe situations is a dual responsibility of both pilots and passengers. A. Accident Prevention Responsibilities Question things you encounter that you consider unusual by being assertive. (Assertive should not be confused with aggressive.) Decline flights you feel are unsafe and report these to an aviation manager. Ensure the pilot is aware of any discrepancies you observe. Trust your senses and don t be intimidated by peers or superiors. If it doesn t feel right it probably isn t. Be professional, continue to learn, maintain situational awareness, and respond to challenging situations conservatively. Adhere to standard operating procedures. Never assume the pilot sees everything. As a passenger you are another set of eyes for the pilot. Look for and notify the pilot of other aircraft flying or taxiing in the area, power lines, environmental hazards, and other potentially hazardous situations. 2.19

60 B. Mishaps Mishap reporting is used to indicate trends in problems and causes, make changes in training and policy, and provide better/safer aircraft. Mishaps are classified as follows: 1. Aircraft accident An aircraft accident is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft, which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time all such persons have disembarked, and in which any person suffers death or serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives substantial damage. Example: Airplane crash with serious injuries or fatalities 2. Incident with potential An incident with potential is an incident that narrowly misses being an accident and which the circumstances indicate serious potential for damage or injury. Classification of incidents with potential is determined by the Office of Aircraft Services Safety Manager or the USDA Forest Service National Safety Officer. 2.20

61 3. Aircraft incident An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects, or could affect, the safety of operations or the mission. Some examples are: Failure to file a flight plan or flight following. Precautionary landing. A landing necessitated by apparent impending failure of engines, systems, or components, which makes continued flight unadvisable. Aircraft ground mishap. An aircraft mishap in which there is no intent to fly; however, the power plants and/or rotors are in operation and damage incurred requiring replacement or repair of rotors, propellers, wheels, tires, wing tips, flaps, etc., or an injury is incurred requiring first aid or other medical attention. Near midair collision. When an airborne aircraft encroaches within 500 feet of another aircraft. 2.21

62 4. Aviation hazard An aviation hazard is any condition, act or set of circumstances that compromises the safety of agency personnel. These hazards include inadequacies, deficiencies or unsafe practices pertaining to all aspects of aviation operations and activities. Some examples are: Unsafe actions by a pilot, mechanic, fuel handler/fuel truck driver, other support personnel, aviation user, or manager. Deviation from planned flight operations, such as from a general use activity to a special use activity without adequate mission planning and approval. Failure to use required personal protective equipment, or to conduct required load calculations or downloading. Deviation of any departmental or bureau/agency policy, directive or procedure. 5. Maintenance deficiency A maintenance deficiency report is any serious defect or failure causing mechanical difficulties encountered in aircraft operations and not specifically identified as an aircraft incident or aviation hazard. Example: Aircraft engine will not start 2.22

63 C. Reporting Aviation Mishaps The Safety Communique (SAFECOM) is a reporting form to report any condition, act, maintenance problem or circumstance, which has potential to cause an aviation related mishap. This form is an interagency form (FS /OAS-34) and may be faxed, mailed, or sent through the USDI-OAS or USDA-FS internet websites ( or These sites also allow viewing of past SAFECOM submissions. Reporting a mishap is intended for statistical analysis, to track trends, and to eliminate potential problems or make an on the spot correction of a deficiency before they become accidents. The intent is not to point fingers or place blame. There have been instances where persons were unaware of a problem and received the notification as a result of a SAFECOM. If you observe or experience an aviation mishap: Report it orally to your supervisor, dispatcher, or aviation manager as soon as possible or practical. Make factual notes leading up to the mishap and protect the site. Responsible aviation manager, user, pilot or dispatcher, shall document facts on appropriate form and file report as per agency policy. State agencies will use the appropriate agency form and reporting procedures. 2.23

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65 D. Overdue and Missing Aircraft 1. Overdue aircraft An aircraft normally will be initially considered overdue when it has not completed a required check-in (radio or telephone) within the time frame specified in the flight following request. When operating on an FAA (VFR) flight plan and the aircraft fails to arrive within 30 minutes past ETA, and its location cannot be established, it is considered overdue. 2. Missing aircraft An aircraft is officially missing when its fuel duration, as reported on its request for flight following or as reported on its FAA flight plan, has been exceeded and the aircraft s location is not known. 3. Report overdue and missing aircraft immediately to your supervisor, dispatcher, or aviation manager. 2.25

66 EXERCISE 2 The class will list hazardous situations involving aircraft. List as many as possible. After this list is completed, the class will be divided into groups. Each group will list the corrective action for each hazardous situation and the group spokesperson will present the corrective action to the class. 2.26

67 E. Summary SAFETY IS EVERYONE S RESPONSIBILITY. Five Steps to a Safe Flight 1. Pilot/Aircraft Data Card Approved and Current 2. Flight Plan/Flight Following Initiated 3. PPE in Use When Required 4. Pilot Briefed on Mission and Flight Hazards 5. Crew and Passenger Briefed Remember - To Report Any Mishap Call: ( MISHAP) Anyone can refuse or curtail a flight when an unsafe condition may exist. Never let undue pressure (expressed or implied) influence your judgment. Avoid mistakes and don t hurry. Never pressure the pilot to accomplish the mission. 2.27

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69 UNIT 3 AIRCRAFT MISSIONS UNIT OBJECTIVES 1. Define and describe tactical and logistical use of aircraft. 2. Describe safety procedures to be observed during water and retardant dropping operations. 3. Describe the proper procedure to follow if caught by surprise in a fire retardant drop area. 4. List six factors to consider before using retardant. 5. List six indicators of effective retardant use. 6. List six items of information needed prior to contacting an aircraft for water or retardant drops. 7. List three basic target references and three stages of pilot target orientation. 8. List three instances when radio silence with aircraft is maintained. 3.1

70 I. SELECTION OF AIRCRAFT FOR THE MISSION A. Aircraft Operational Requirements B. Payload C. Aircraft Speed D. Aircraft Range E. Aircraft Cost F. Mission Accomplishment G. Logistics H. Landing Site 3.2

71 II. TACTICAL AIRCRAFT MISSIONS Tactical aircraft missions are any aviation activities that result in suppression of the fire. A. Delivery of Fire Crews and Equipment Aircraft have the ability to rapidly deliver: 1. Firefighters, crews and their equipment. 2. Helitack a. Firefighters trained in the use of helicopters are called helitack crews. b. Advantages of helitack 1) Rapid delivery of firefighters to remote areas. 2) Self supporting for two shifts. c. Disadvantages of helitack 1) Dependent on natural or preestablished landing areas (unless rappelling). 2) Limited by aircraft size, airspeed and range. 3) Weather and daylight dependent. 3.3

72 3. Rappelling a. Rappelling is a method of delivering firefighters when the vegetation cover or terrain make it impossible or unsafe to land a helicopter. The firefighters descend down ropes from a hovering helicopter. b. Advantages of rappelling 1) Rapid delivery of firefighters to remote areas. 2) No landing area is required. 3) Self supporting for two shifts. 4) Rappel helicopter can be used to deliver firefighting supplies and equipment. c. Disadvantages of rappelling 1) Higher training and equipment cost. 2) Limited by aircraft size, airspeed and range. 3) Limited to 250 feet by rappel rope length. 4) Helicopter can t hover in high winds to insert rappellers. 5) Weather and daylight dependent. 3.4

73 4. Smokejumpers a. Smokejumpers are firefighters delivered to a fire by parachuting from airplanes. b. Advantages of smokejumpers 1) Rapid delivery of firefighters to remote areas. 2) No aircraft landing area is required. 3) Self supporting for two shifts. 4) Smokejumper aircraft can deliver firefighting supplies and equipment by paracargo. c. Disadvantages of smokejumpers 1) High training and equipment cost. 2) Can't jump in high winds. 3) Logistics of retrieval (pack out). 4) Weather and daylight dependent. 3.5

74 B. Dropping Water, Foam, and Retardant Both airplanes and helicopters are used to drop water and various chemicals to help suppress fires. 1. Air tankers Airplanes that can drop water, foam, or retardant on wildland fires are called air tankers. a. Air tankers usually require an air tanker base at an airport for mixing and loading the retardant in the aircraft. b. Some air tankers can reload from large lakes or rivers. c. Smaller single engine air tankers (SEAT)s have the capability and should be operated from remote or unimproved airstrips which are closer to the fire. d. Air tankers carry retardant in various tank configurations inside the aircraft. The pilot controls the sequential opening of doors to release the desired coverage level of retardant. Coverage level is the number of gallons of retardant that is needed to cover 100 square feet (10' x 10') of fuel on the ground. The air tactical group supervisor, air tanker coordinator, or retardant aircraft pilot will determine the coverage level based on drop capabilities of specific air tankers and input from ground forces. 3.6

75 Air tankers are capable of dispersing their load in different configurations. A lower coverage level will produce a long line of retardant (trail drop). A salvo drop is when the whole load is dropped at once. Or the load can be divided into two or more smaller split load drops to produce the desired coverage. Regardless of the kind of drop, retardant should fall to the ground as a light rain or mist. The minimum drop height for large air tankers is 200 feet above the fuel canopy while the minimum for SEATs is 40 feet above the fuel canopy. e. Advantages of air tankers 1) Large volumes 2) Several drop capability 3) Fast travel times 4) Good for initial attack f. Disadvantages of air tankers 1) Non-accessible terrain 2) Long turn around times 3) Less accurate than helicopters 4) Single purpose use 5) May interrupt other aircraft missions until retardant is dropped 3.7

76 2. Helicopters Helicopters use either a suspended bucket system or fixed tank system to drop water, foam, or retardant on fires. They may be used for initial attack or operate from helibases on larger fires. a. Bucket systems There are different models of bucket systems, ranging in size from 72 to 3,000 gallons, which are all suspended by cables from the helicopter cargo hook. Buckets restrict helicopter flying speed. 1) Collapsible Example: Bambi Bucket 2) Rigid hard sides Example: Simms 3) Semi-rigid Example: Griffith b. Fixed tank systems Fixed tanks can be inside the helicopter or attached directly underneath. The tank can be filled by a hose and pumping system on the ground, or an internal pump can draw water through an extended hose (snorkel) while the helicopter hovers over a water source. c. Internal mixing systems allow the addition of foam to the water in buckets and fixed tanks eliminating the need for an external mixing system on the ground. 3.8

77 d. A portable retardant base can be set up close to a fire that makes short turn around times for helicopters with buckets or tanks. e. In comparison to air tankers, helicopters have several advantages. 1) They can drop more gallons per hour of water, foam, or retardant if a close water source is available. 2) They can be used for other types of missions besides delivering water, foam, or retardant. 3) Helicopters can work (fill in the gap) in terrain where air tankers can't drop. Helicopters can make accurate drops near homes when fires occur in the wildland/urban interface. COMPLETE EXERCISE 1 ON PAGES 3.24 TO

78 C. Safety Procedures During Air Tanker and Helicopter Drops Ground personnel MUST move a safe distance away from water, foam, and retardant drops. 1. Air tankers are capable of dropping several tons of retardant which is most effective if it falls to the ground as a mist or light rain. However, if an air tanker drops too fast or too low the retardant may not disperse and a large volume may reach the ground which can result in critical injury to anyone caught within the drop area. If an ATGS is assigned this person will assure the drop zone is clear for air tankers to drop. If no ATGS is assigned either the air tanker coordinator (lead plane pilot) or the air tanker will make a low level pass or dry run over the target area prior to the actual drop. Even without ground to air radio communications this is a warning for ground personnel to move out of the drop area. 2. Type 1 helicopters can drop as large a volume as some air tankers and buckets have been accidentally dropped. Down wash from the rotor blades may blow over standing snags and suddenly spread the fire if the pilot gets the helicopter too low. 3.10

79 3. Firefighters must clear out of the drop area before drops are made by air tankers or helicopters. Clear the area by moving up or down the fireline or away at a right angle to the flight path. a. At least 200 feet. b. Move away 1-1/2 times the height of the tallest snag. c. Watch for rolling material if drop is made upslope from you. d. Foam and retardant are slippery when wet. Watch your footing when working in areas where drops have been made. 4. Safety procedures if caught by surprise in a retardant drop area. a. Lie on the ground face down with your head towards the approaching aircraft. b. Fasten the chin strap on your hard hat or hold onto it with one hand. c. Any tools should be held extended and downhill by the other hand. 3.11

80 D. Air Tanker and Helicopter Tactics On large fires air operations personnel with input from ground forces will determine tactics for air tanker and helicopter use. On initial attack or small fires you may be the incident commander (IC) making the decisions. If you are not sure how to accomplish your tactical objectives by using retardant, describe to the lead plane pilot, air tanker pilot, or helicopter pilot basically what you want to accomplish. They will be able to advise you on kinds of drops and retardant coverage levels. The use of retardant is basically another tool available to suppress or manage fires. The three methods of attack are: 1. Indirect attack Usually a large fire tactic where fireline is constructed a considerable distance away from the fire edge. Air tankers can be used to pretreat ridgelines or firelines. Indirect attack generally requires the use of foam or retardant because they coat the fuel and/or their chemical content inhibits burning for a longer period of time than water. 2. Direct attack Fireline is constructed or work is done directly on the fire edge. Both air tankers and helicopters can drop water, foam, or retardant on the fire edge to cool it down for ground forces to follow up. Helicopters can make pin point drops in areas that air tankers can t get to or tie in lines between air tanker drops. 3.12

81 3. Parallel attack Fireline is constructed a short distance away from the fire edge to take advantage of light fuels or barriers, and straighten ragged fire edge. Both air tankers and helicopters can pretreat or strengthen the fireline being built, help tie in firelines, or drop on the fire edge or hot spots to cool them down to allow time for the parallel fireline to be built. E. Aerial Ignition Systems Aerial ignition systems are generally used when ignition must be done quicker than ground igniting methods or when the location to be burned is inaccessible or unsafe for people on the ground to accomplish. 1. Helitorch a. A helitorch is an aerial ignition device suspended by cables below a helicopter which ignites and dispenses a gelled gas mixture. b. Never get under the flight path of a helicopter carrying a torch. The torch may accidentally be dropped or the pilot may drop burning gel on you. c. No passengers are allowed in the helicopter and only trained and qualified personnel shall assist with ground helitorch operations. 3.13

82 2. Plastic sphere (Ping Pong Ball) dispenser a. The plastic sphere dispenser is a machine which injects ethylene glycol (antifreeze) into a plastic sphere containing potassium permanganate thus causing an exothermic reaction. The injected plastic sphere is expelled from the helicopter and later ignites on the ground. b. Only trained and qualified personnel (operator and ignition specialist/firing boss) shall assist the pilot in plastic sphere dispenser operations. c. Stay out from underneath the aircraft. The spheres are unlikely to be ignited before hitting the ground, but they could hit you or become lodged in your clothing. d. If you find any unburned spheres, don t pick them up, they should be buried or burned. e. Typical circular burn patterns from ping pong balls. 3.14

83 III. LOGISTICAL AIRCRAFT MISSIONS Logistical aircraft missions are any aviation activities that support the suppression of the fire. A. Transportation of People and Supplies B. Detection and Reconnaissance C. Infrared Scanning and Mapping D. Aerial Photography and Videotaping E. Medical Aid and Rescue 3.15

84 IV. AIR TO GROUND COMMUNICATIONS There may be occasions when you act as the ground contact in directing the tactical and logistical use of aircraft. This is generally achieved by radio contact with the pilot, however, signal mirrors or other communication devices may be used. A. Use of Radios Normally, an air to ground frequency will be pre-designated and known by both ground personnel and pilots. This might be a discrete air to ground frequency or it might be an assigned tactical frequency for your division or fire. You should be sure that the assigned frequency(s) are programmed in your radio. 1. Preassigned initial attack frequencies (local frequencies) 2. Incident assigned air to ground 3. All aerial resources monitor the air guard frequency ( ). If unable to establish communications with aerial resources on the preassigned frequencies air guard can be used to establish initial contact. (Air guard is be used only for emergencies and to establish initial contact.) 3.16

85 B. Standard Target Description (STD) STD is a systematic technique for a ground contact to communicate target identification and location by radio, enabling the pilot to locate, identify and take action on the target in the shortest possible time. The purpose of STD is to have aircraft in the low and slow zone the shortest amount of time possible. 1. The ground contact may need to communicate with: a. Air tactical group supervisor (ATGS) b. Aerial Supervision Module 1 (ATGS and HLCO in same aircraft) c. Air tanker/fixed wing coordinator (ATCO) d. Helicopter coordinator (HLCO) e. Air tanker pilot f. Helicopter pilot Air Tactical Group Supervisor (ATGS) or Aerial Supervision Module (ASM1) Air Tanker Coordinator (ATCO) Lead Plane Pilot Helicopter Coordinator (HLCO) Air Tanker Pilot Helicopter Pilot 3.17

86 2. Before talking to aircraft the ground contact needs to know a. Hazards to aircraft b. Where you are c. Your call sign d. Your tactical objective (plan) e. Aircraft call sign f. Aircraft frequencies g. Primary and secondary targets h. Wind speed and direction 3. Where do you get this information? a. Helibase b. Incident Action Plan (IAP) c. Division/Group supervisor d. Personal observations e. Radio traffic f. Briefings 3.18

87 4. Operating Procedures a. Use the ICS position resources (ATGS, HLCO, ATCO) to coordinate drops b. Have and know the tactical plan Anchor and flank Hot spot Buy time Secure the edge c. Use standard fire terminology Head Heel Right flank Left flank Spot fire d. Use standard target orientation techniques Parts of the fire Clock orientation (from the aircraft s position) Right, left, nose, tail High, even, low Cardinal points (North, South, East, West). Only use compass directions if you and the pilot both agree on which way is North. This is the least desirable method. 3.19

88 e. Use easily identifiable target references To previous drop From your position To topographic or terrain features To human made features (cut areas, trails, roads, dozer line, vehicles, structures) Part of fire (heel, head, flanks) or fire activity, e.g., spot fire on right flank To cardinal points (agree with pilot which way is North) f. Describe target when pilot is in position to see target. g. Use clear text h. Be brief, clear and to the point i. Plan your transmission before you key the radio. Don t think out loud on the radio. 3.20

89 5. Stages of pilot orientation a. Long distance (Radio contact but no visual contact with aircraft) 1) Geographical/topographical reference points must be large and obvious. 2) GPS coordinates are useful if the air crew has time to enter the information. Relay lat/longs to helibase when initial order is made for aircraft allowing pilots to enter coordinates into GPS unit while still on ground. 3) Keep positive communication with aircraft until visual contact is established (both the ground contact and pilot). b. Medium distance (may or may not have visual contact with aircraft) 1) Reference points must be obvious 2) If aircraft is in sight use the clock orientation technique 3) Signaling devices are effective (mirrors, strobes, flares) 4) Keep positive communication with aircraft until visual contact is established (both the ground contact and pilot) 5) Relay aerial hazards to pilot 6) If appropriate, relay overall tactical plan to pilot 3.21

90 c. Short distance (visual contact with aircraft) 1) Reference points must be unique to your target area 2) Clock orientation techniques are effective 3) Signaling devices are effective (mirrors, strobes, flares, space blankets, flagging) 4) Describe targets/give tactical plan to pilot 5) Reemphasize aerial hazards If the aircraft is getting close and the pilot doesn t have the target location, communicate any aerial hazards. 6. Sterile cockpit procedures (maintain radio silence except in emergencies) when: a. Aircraft is taking off and landing b. Air tanker is on final approach c. Helicopter is dipping water d. Helicopter is inserting rappellers e. Airplane is deploying smokejumpers 7. Feedback a. Give honest, constructive evaluation concerning drops b. Early, late, uphill, downhill, on target, etc. c. If conditions allow, pilot will adjust based on your feedback. 3.22

91 C. ATGS Responsibilities When many aircraft are operating on a fire, there is a need to coordinate the activities of the aircraft for safety and efficiency reasons. The ATGS is responsible for coordinating all aircraft flights over an incident (tactical and logistical). This position is used to ensure efficient and effective use of aircraft and to provide aircraft separation over the incident. The ATGS coordinates aerial resources to support ground tactics particularly, when rotor and fixed wing aircraft are on the incident. The ATGS coordinates with other incident aviation personnel, e.g., AOBD, ASGS, pilots, and incident agency fire and aviation management personnel to determine if a Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR) needs to be requested. 1. Incident agency dispatch will make formal TFR request to Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 2. TFR includes: a. Center point identified by latitude and longitude. b. Radius (distance in miles) around the center point. c. Vertical height in feet above circumference of circle. 3. TFR can be: a. Circular (general for a single incident) b. Non-circular (to accommodate several incidents and avoid overlapping circular TFRs) 4. If approved FAA will issue notification of TFR and all unapproved aircraft must stay out of the area. 5. When TFR is no longer needed dispatch needs to request a cancellation through FAA. 3.23

92 EXERCISE 1 Read the following Basic Guide For Use of Aerial Retardant and answer the questions. 1. Define retardant. 2. Define suppressant. 3. List six factors to consider before using retardant. 4. List six indicators of effective retardant use. 3.24

93 Basic Guide For Use Of Aerial Retardant This guide is intended to provide you with some basic and fundamental information about retardant in order to facilitate your decision to use retardant and determine when it is being used effectively. This guide is not intended to be comprehensive, nor does it contain technical specifications, aircraft capabilities and limitations, but does give you some common sense questions and answers. You should always consult and obtain your agency s policy on the ordering, use and evaluation of retardant. In order to talk the same language we need to understand some basic terminology of the various chemicals used in fire suppression: 1. Suppressant A fire suppression chemical mixture or formulation, including water, when applied directly to a fire, usually at the base of the flames, is called a suppressant because the attempt is made to suppress the flames, not just to prevent their spread. 2. Retardant A fire suppression chemical mixture or formulation when applied ahead of a wildfire front to reduce rate of fire spread or intensity is called a retardant. 3. Wetting Agent or Surfactant a formulation when added to plain water in proper amounts will materially reduce the surface tension of the water and increase penetration and spreading capabilities. 4. Foam liquid concentrate forming tiny gas filled bubbles which provides for adhesion and penetration of fuels. Its intended action is to blanket the entire area cutting off oxygen, preventing formation of combustible gases, and cooling the flammable surface. Retardants and suppressants assist in the fire suppression effort by doing all or some of the following: 1. Fuel coating the fuel is coated by the liquid and breaks the fire triangle by removing fuel and oxygen. 2. Fuel cooling the ambient air temperature is reduced by the evaporation of the water, as well as reducing the temperature of the fuel making it harder to ignite. 3. Fuel modification the fuel is modified by the salts or other chemicals in the retardant. This modification inhibits combustion or causes a decrease in burning intensity. 3.25

94 Factors To Consider Before Using Retardant 1. Values at risk the decision to use, not use, or discontinue use of retardant should be based upon the protection of, by priority ranking, LIFE, PROPERTY and RESOURCES. 2. Availability of other suppression resources normally the use of retardant is in conjunction with other tactical assets on the fire. Retardant is used to buy time for ground forces providing them the opportunity to complete sections of line, tie in sections of line where line construction is difficult and slow, to cool off a section of line to allow ground forces to direct attack, or to strengthen and widen control lines which may be too narrow to contain the fire. a. Crews handline is the most time consuming method of line construction. The retardant can be used for cooling to allow access to the area by line crews, or to allow them the opportunity to complete a threatened section. b. Engines access to an area by mobile suppression equipment may necessitate the use of retardant to prevent escape of the fire and to buy time for the engines to tie into the retardant line or to reinforce engine line. c. Other dozer line, such as sharp corners caused by topography or heavy fuel loading directly adjacent to the line may need to be reinforced. 3. Fire behavior can the retardant be effective with the fire acting the way it is? a. Crowning difficult to get enough retardant to be effective. b. Spotting if spotting is widespread then the intensity is too severe for effective use of retardant. Retardant is very effective when used on isolated spots or slopovers. c. Creeping retardant can be very effective, but other tactical assets may be more cost effective to use if there is no threat of escape or sufficient ground forces are available. 3.26

95 d. Torching retardant can be effective if the torching is not widespread. Retardant can prevent torching from becoming a crown fire. e. Flame lengths retardant is inappropriate for direct attack when flame lengths exceed 8 to 12 feet. 4. Purpose of retardant use what will be the tactical use of retardant? a. Holding to allow time for crews to arrive. b. Delay to slow the advance so that the fire will hit barriers outside burning period, in front of highways, ridges and control lines. c. Control can the fire be controlled with retardant? d. Herding direct the fire head. e. Cooling reduce intensity of the fire so crews or equipment can work. f. Spot control keep the fire within the lines. g. Socio/Political make a show of force. 5. Availability of retardant and air tankers. a. Can an adequate volume or amount be delivered to the fire to be effective? (1) Are flight times too long to get enough retardant to do the job? (2) Are enough aircraft available to have a continuous volume delivered? b. If flight times and number of aircraft are not sufficient to be effective, then ground attack may be the only alternative unless a single load will provide protection for crews, threatened structures or improvements. c. When is retardant needed? Sporadic use continuous. Many people delay requests for retardant until the fire is going over the hill and ground suppression efforts are futile. d. Are you competing with other fires for aircraft? 3.27

96 6. Flight conditions. a. What are the winds? Retardant may be ineffective when wind speed exceeds 20 to 25 mph. b. Can the pilot see the fire? Smoke conditions may prevent the pilot from seeing the target. c. Can the air tanker make the drop and hit the target considering topography? d. Proper drop height is a function of retardant type, coverage level desired, tank flow rates, aircraft door combination, and type of drop desired (salvo or trail). Height may vary from 200 to 400 feet for Type 1-3 air tankers and 40 to 80 feet for SEATs. To assure aircraft safety in clearance of terrain features and protect ground personnel most agencies adhere to a 200 feet minimum above canopy drop height for large air tankers (Type 1-3) and 40 feet minimum above canopy drop height for (SEATs). 7. Retardant application tactics. a. Retardant is most effective when planned for and used early in the morning before the burning period. b. If you are not sure how to accomplish your tactical objectives by using retardant, describe to the air tanker pilot or air tactical group supervisor basically what you want to accomplish. The pilot or air tactical group supervisor will be able to advise you on aircraft needs, kinds of drops, and retardant coverage levels. 3.28

97 Ten Principles of Retardant Application 1. Determine tactics (direct or indirect), based on fire sizeup and resources available. 2. Establish an anchor point and work from it. 3. Use the proper drop height, which is approximately 150 to 200 feet. However, many factors such as topography, type of air tanker and gating system, wind direction and speed, type and height of fuel, etc., affect drop height. 4. Apply proper coverage levels. 5. Drop downhill and down-sun when feasible. 6. Drop into the wind for best accuracy. 7. Maintain honest evaluation and effective communication between you and the aircraft. 8. Use direct attack only when ground support is available or extinguishment is feasible. 9. Plan drops so that they can be extended or intersected effectively. 10. Monitor retardant effectiveness and adjust its use accordingly. 3.29

98 Safety Make sure that you adhere to the principles of safety whenever you are involved with ground forces and retardant or suppressant dropping operations. 1. Clear the area of the drop move back in as soon as the aircraft has left the area take advantage of the retardant or suppressant. 2. Caution your ground forces to watch their footing when working in the area of retardant drops as wet retardant is very slick. Wet tool handles are dangerous too; clean them off before using. 3. If the retardant has been dropped across a highway, wash it off or slow down the traffic, it makes cars slip and slide too. 4. If working in timbered areas, be alert for snags, tree tops or the possibility of other falling debris knocked loose by retardant or suppressants. 5. Be cautious of low drop heights by aircraft. The resulting retardant drop will pick up and move rocks, dirt, brush, logs, fire tools, engines, etc. The smaller airborne materials will travel at the drop speed of the retardant. 6. Don t try to cut line with retardant drops. It s hazardous to the aircraft and its crew and to personnel on the ground. 3.30

99 Effective Retardant Use Evaluation Criteria Evaluation of retardant effectiveness can be very complicated and subjective, however, there are some very simple and visible indicators to look for. 1. Did it stop, reduce or change the rate of spread or intensity of the fire? 2. Did it hit the target? Are you providing adequate and descriptive target identification to the pilot? 3. Did it allow you the opportunity to catch up, in other words, did it buy you the time you needed? 4. Did it penetrate the forest/fuel canopy? Dense brush or tree canopies restrict the penetration of retardant to the ground fuel. High canopies restrict penetration of retardant. 5. Did the retardant fall as a light rain or mist? If retardant is dropped too high it dissipates before reaching the ground. If it is dropped too low it doesn t adequately disperse and provide proper coverage. 6. Are ground forces available and able to take advantage of the cooling effect of retardant? 7. What is the turnaround time for air tankers? Can continuous dropping be made without long delays causing loss of line or are enough air tankers available to compensate for long turnaround time? 8. Remember that the overuse of retardant is also inappropriate, if one load will do, don t order two or three. If you do have a continuing need to use retardant, consider an air tanker coordinator (most of us call them lead planes), or an air attack group supervisor, but remember they work for you. Don t be timid when you feel that the retardant isn t helping you do your job, just bid them a fond farewell and a thank you. 3.31

100 Latitude and Longitude Procedures LATITUDE: The imaginary survey lines running east to west. From the equator, there are 90º North latitude and 90º South latitude, each degree being sixty minutes, each minute being one nautical mile (approximately 1.15 statute miles) for a constant distance apart of about 69 miles. LONGITUDE: The imaginary survey lines running south to north. There are 360º of longitude, each degree varying in width from about 69 miles wide at the equator to convergence at the North and South Poles. Latitude and longitude may be shown in three formats: A. Degrees Decimal Degree ºN (seldom used) ºW B. Degrees Decimal Minutes 48º 36.12'N (Degrees Minutes Decimal 114º 08.12'W Minutes or Degrees Minutes Tenths) C. Degrees Minutes Seconds 48º 36' 12"N (many maps) 114º 08' 12"W Table 1 There is also a new format specific to the National Mobilization Guide, for requesting TFRs, which is an exception to the above formats an example would be N/ W (uses no punctuation at all) It is CRITICAL that you use correct punctuation! Degrees: º (MS Word, hit Ctrl+Shift+@, then space for º symbol or use Insert, Symbol) Minutes: ' Seconds: " Note in A above, only the º is used. (said forty-eight point three six one two degrees. ) Note in B above, both º and ' are used. (said forty-eight degrees, thirty six point one two minutes. ) Note in C above, the º and ' and " are used. (said forty-eight degrees, thirty six minutes, and twelve seconds. ) Note in requesting a TFR no punctuation is used. (said forty-eight thirty six twelve North/one hundred and fourteen zero eight twelve west ) 3.32

101 Plotting the three formats will place the location in three different places. It is critical you use your agency or geographic area format. However, the National standard is format C. The common general aviation format used is degrees and decimal minutes. Most aircraft mounted GPS units are not easily changed from degrees decimal minutes format. Some aircraft GPS units (KLN 90 B) cannot be changed from the degrees and decimal minutes format. Most handheld GPS units and mapping software can be easily set up to do any of the formats. There are conversion charts, software programs, and formulas available. To convert degrees minutes seconds to degrees decimal minutes, divide seconds by 60. Example: 48º 20' 30" 30" 60 =.5' 48º 20.5' To convert degrees decimal minutes to degrees minutes seconds, multiply the decimal (e.g.,.5) by 60. Example: 48º 20.5'.5' x 60 = 30" 48º 20' 30" Important Etiquette Use ONLY ONE period/decimal point when writing a latitude or longitude. Do NOT use ANY periods/decimal points when writing a latitude or longitude in Degrees Minutes Seconds format (C). When requesting a TFR use the new format of ddmmssn/ddmmssw, (no periods, commas or spaces) Remember there can never be more than 60 seconds in degrees minutes seconds format (C). For clarity, insert a zero 0 in front of single digit minutes as many GPS units and map programs require two digits. Do NOT mix formats. 3.33

102 Degrees and whole minutes don t change with either B or C formats. Only seconds and decimal minutes change. A minute is broken into either 60 or 100 parts, depending on which format you want to use. For our purposes, we want to divide a minute into 100 parts: decimal minutes. So, how much error is there if you confuse latitude/longitude format? Here is a table of ground distance for latitude and longitude in the Sacramento, California area. Approximate Distance in Feet Latitude Longitude degree 363, ,600 minute 6,060 4,710 second Table 2 Let s look at 48 degrees minutes, more specifically the.58 minutes. Using the distance for a minute of latitude from the table, this location is 3,515 feet (.58 minutes X 6,060 feet/minute) north of the 48 degree 50 minute latitude line. If this latitude was meant to be 48 degrees, 50 minutes, 58 seconds, then this location is 5,858 feet (58 seconds X 101 feet/second) north of the 48 degree 50 minute latitude line. The distance error between these two locations is 2,343 feet (5,858 feet - 3,515 feet), which is almost one-half mile. If you have any doubt which latitude and longitude format ('?"?) you have been given, ASK!! You need to be sure. 3.34

103 UNIT 4 HELICOPTER TAKE-OFF AND LANDING AREAS UNIT OBJECTIVES 1. Define four types of take-off and landing areas used in helicopter operations. 2. Identify the critical elements of helicopter take-off and landing area location. 3. Identify the major components and approximate dimensions of helispots for Type 1-3 helicopters. 4. When shown slides of take-off and landing areas during a class discussion, demonstrate the ability to recognize good and bad areas, according to standards for planning, location, and construction. 5. (OPTIONAL) Locate in the field and describe how to construct a helispot for an ICS Type 3 helicopter to meet agency standards. 4.1

104 I. HELICOPTER TAKE-OFF AND LANDING AREAS Possibly the most important consideration in helicopter operations is the selection of take-off and landing areas. Fireline personnel need to be aware of considerations for safe take-off and landing area selection. A. Helispot Construction and Staffing Once a helispot has been constructed, the area should be approved by someone experienced in helicopter operations such as an air support group supervisor, helibase manager, helispot manager, or helicopter manager. The pilot makes the final decision to land on any helispot. The helispot must then be staffed and operated by a qualified manager and experienced helitack crew. B. Helicopter Take-off and Landing Area Definitions 1. Permanent helibase A permanent facility for helicopter operations. It is usually the home base of assigned helicopters and personnel. It should be large enough to accommodate at least two Type 2 helicopters, have adequate fueling facilities, reliable wind indicator, signs, fire extinguisher, paved pad, vehicle parking areas and reliable telephone and /or radio. 2. Helibase A temporary base to be activated intermittently as the need arises. The helibase should contain most of the facilities required for a permanent helibase. A helibase can be established for incidents or special projects. It should be located in the vicinity of the main project operations area. In a large operation such as a large incident, there may be two or more helibases. Facilities should include parking areas for refueling and maintenance trucks, rest areas for pilots and crews, reliable telephone and/or radio communications, and an operations coordination site. 4.2

105 3. Helispot A natural or improved take-off and landing area intended for temporary or occasional helicopter use. It may or may not have road access, but should have a wind indicator if possible. 4. Unimproved landing area An unimproved landing spot used only at the discretion of the pilot and no subsequent landings in this area are intended. If it is to be used again, improvements will be made. II. COMPONENTS OF HELICOPTER TAKE-OFF AND LANDING AREAS A. Safety Circle This is a safety zone that provides an obstruction free area on all sides of the take-off and landing area. B. Touchdown Pad That part of the take-off and landing area where it is preferred that a helicopter land (where the skids or wheels will come to rest). C. Approach and Departure Path A clear flight path selected for flight extending upward and outward from the touchdown pad and safety circle and into the prevailing wind. 4.3

106 III. SIZE OF HELICOPTER TAKE-OFF AND LANDING AREAS A. Helibase The helibase needs to be large enough to accommodate and have a surface which will support the type and amount of helicopters anticipated to be used on the incident. It is desirable to select a site that can be expanded if additional helicopters are needed. The helibase should be located so that take-offs and landings are not over the incident base or camps and far enough from the incident base and camps so that sleeping areas for night shift crews are not disturbed by the noise of the helibase operation. Helibases are normally selected by qualified helitack or air operations personnel. B. Helispot The following are minimum guidelines for helispot construction. ICS HELICOPTER ROTOR SAFETY CIRCLE TOUCHDOWN TYPE DIAMETER DIAMETER PAD 1 56' TO 75' 110' 30' X 30' 2 41' TO 55' 90' 20' X 20' 3 40' OR LESS 75' 15' X 15' 4.4

107 IV. CRITICAL ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER FOR HELISPOT LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION A. Approach and Departure path 1. An approach and departure path of 360 degrees for a helispot is an ideal situation. Helispots should at least have a separate approach and departure path (two-way helispot) into the wind. 2. The minimum width of the approach and departure path should be the same as the diameter of the corresponding safety circle. Safety may be improved if the approach and departure paths are widened 20 degrees from the safety circle for a distance of 300 feet. 3. The approach and departure path should be cleared of all obstacles higher than the touchdown pad and for a distance of 300 feet along the approach and departure path. 4.5

108 4. The approach and departure path should not overfly structures, inhabited areas, personnel, and vehicle parking areas. Routes for sling operations should never fly over these areas. B. Touchdown Pad and Safety Circle 1. The touchdown pad should be as level as possible and not exceed 10% slope. It should be large and firm enough to support the weight of the helicopter. a. No toe-in landings. b. No one skid landings. 2. Clear the safety circle for the touchdown pad. The rule of thumb is 1½ times the rotor diameter of the helicopter to be used. 3. Within the safety circle clear brush, trees, downed logs, and rocks to the ground surface level with as little as possible disturbance to the surface vegetation and soil. This will help to control dust. 4. Clear anything which might interfere with the helicopter landing gear or tail rotor. 5. Remove all cleared material from the helispot that could be blown into the main or tail rotor. 6. Mark any hazards that can t be removed and inform air operations personnel and pilots. 7. Make a final inspection of the area. 4.6

109 C. Amount of Construction Required to Make Helispot Suitable for Use 1. If a lot of work is required, consider another location. The time spent may not be worth it. 2. Areas that require less work will have less environmental damage. 3. Environmental constraints should be considered before construction begins. D. Locate Helispot so Take-offs and Landings can be Made into the Wind. 1. Changes in wind direction should be considered. 2. Wind socks or flagging should be put up to indicate wind direction. 3. Dirt can be thrown into the air to indicate wind direction, but not if the helicopter is close enough to get dirt into the engine. 4. Hand signals can be used to indicate wind direction for the pilot. E. Dust Abatement and Debris on Helispots is a Major Concern. 1. Visibility problems as well as aircraft engine and component damage can occur if helispots are poorly constructed or maintained. 2. If dust becomes a problem consider using commercially available dust abatement liquid. 3. Another option is to keep the landing area moist with water applied by a portable pump and hose, water tender, engine, or aerial application from a helicopter with a tank or bucket. 4. Avoid dozer constructed helispots and helispots located in burned over areas due to dust and ash. 4.7

110 F. Ground Effect and Translational Lift Keep in mind how ground effect and translational lift affect helicopter performance during take-offs and landings. A clear approach and departure path for helicopter take-offs and landings provides a greater margin of safety. 1. Helispots that require vertical take-offs and landings (maximum power) should be avoided. Most small helicopters must be at approximately 400 feet above ground level (AGL) at zero airspeed to execute a safe autorotation in the event of engine failure. 2. One-way helispots should be avoided. 3. Exposed knobs and ridge backs that provide a drop off in mountainous terrain make good helispots. The higher the elevation the more important the dropoff. 4. Turnouts in roads make good helispots. Need traffic control on roads. 5. Large flat areas without vertical obstructions are the best helispots. 4.8

111 G. Other Considerations 1. Be aware of meadows with high grass. High grass dissipates ground cushion effect and can hide logs, rocks, and other debris. 2. Avoid tundra and boggy areas if possible. If these locations can t be avoided a log pad to support the helicopter may be necessary. The pad should be placed so that the logs will be perpendicular to the helicopter s skids (to prevent the skids from becoming caught between the logs) and the logs should be firmly secured by pegs. All limbs should be completely removed, but don t remove the bark from the logs (fresh peeled logs are slick). The landing surface should be close to level. 3. Air operations in valley bottoms may be shut down due to inversions, smoke, or fog. 4. When constructing a helispot in a canyon bottom be aware of dead air holes. Be sure the canyon does not have a down draft from a neighboring ridge. Deep canyons need a long run to climb out of, or enough width to allow a helicopter to circle safely. 4.9