CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES ON TOURISM IN NEPAL

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1 Volume 2; Number 1; 15 July 2014 ISSN (Print); ISSN (Online) CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES ON TOURISM IN NEPAL Lekha Nath Bhandari (Nepal) ABSTRACT Favorable climatic conditions at destinations are key attractions for tourists. Weather can ruin the vacation while climate can devastate a holiday destination. Climate change not only impacts on tourism directly by changes in temperature, extreme weather events and other climatic factors, but it will also transform the natural environment that attracts tourists. Despite the global nature of tourism industry and its economic contributions, scholars of climate change research have hardly acknowledged the threat of climate change to the tourism industry. Tourism scholars have rectified this situation to a certain extent by demonstrating how the industry has become vulnerable to climate change and drawing attention to the need for adaptation and mitigation strategies specific to this sector. Thus, this paper will provide an overview of climate change challenges in tourism destinations especially in the mountain regions, with specific reference to Nepal. It outlines several adaptation and mitigation strategies at the local, regional and national levels. Climatic effects on high mountains are very specific; climate change is likely to trigger the rates and intensity of natural hazards such as landslides, avalanches and flooding with dramatic consequences for tourism destinations. The paper outlines adaptation strategies for tourism stakeholders, resident communities and governments and emphasizes that climate change strategies in the tourism sector must be considered as a collaborative effort, with considerations for institutional development, diversification of opportunities, for the sustainable development. KEYWORDS: Tourism, environment, mountain, climate change, adaptation strategy INTRODUCTION Despite significant growth in research on tourism and climate change, there are considerable gaps in research regarding tourism and climate change in specific regions like Nepal. Most of the published researches are based on coastal tourism and the remaining studies which are based on mountain tourism focus explicitly on skiing tourism. Thus, the impacts of climate change on tourism in the Himalayas conspicuously absent from the literature. In Nepal, very little study has been done about relationship between tourism and climate change. This is true to argue that risk is potential loss and opportunity is possible gain. Over the past few years there has been increasing recognition of the risks and opportunities that climate change has brought to tourism (Becken & John, 2010)

2 Therefore, this paper initiates to identify the impacts of climate change in Nepali tourism industry and explores more possibilities of adaptation strategies as climate change is both risk and opportunities for tourism entrepreneurs. Climate change is defined as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and whish is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time period (UNFCCC, 1997). During the past few decades, the world has been experiencing significant increase in global temperature resulting into climate change. Scientists are now confident that this rapid rate of increase in the temperature is due to human induced factors that are mission and accumulation of GHG in the earth s surface. The immediate consequence of this phenomenon is the observed aberration in the climate pattern and frequent occurrence of extreme climatic hazards. The warming trend that has been observed in Nepal is higher than the global average. The rates of increasing temperature differ from place to place but in general, larger in higher altitude compared to low land. The ongoing records of national temperatures since 1962 and recent analysis of these records show high inter-annual variability, and that maximum temperatures in Nepal are progressively increasing if comparison is made with global and regional records (ADB, 2009). Since 1977 and 1994, the mean annual temperature is estimated to have increased by 0.06 C, and is projected to increase by another 1.2 C by 2030, 1.7 C by 2050, and 3.0 C by 2100 (ADB, 2009). According to the records of the department of hydrology and meteorology (DOHM), the average temperature of Nepal was increased by 1.8 Celsius per annum during the period of 1975 to Now, average temperature rise is estimated at 0.5 C per decade, which is very high, compared to several other developing countries (Shrestha, 2000). Days and nights are becoming warmer and cooler less frequent. Precipitation extremes show an increasing trend in intense precipitation events at most recording stations. The assessment indicates that more weather related disasters such as avalanches, floods and landslides can be expected in the future (ADB, 2009). Therefore, understanding of climate variation and changes is essential to assess the climate s sensitivity to the variety of factors, both the human and the nature. Though Nepal has a negligible share in global emissions of greenhouse gases, it is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to fragile mountain ecosystem. Various studies have shown that the climate change impacts are evident on forests, biodiversity, water resources, agriculture, tourism and other sectors in Nepal. Thus, different types of climate change impacts have been noticed on water resources, forest, biodiversity, environment, health and livelihoods. However, climate change creates both opportunities and risks for human development. In order to address the possible climate change impacts, adaptation practices should lay emphasis on sustainable development. It is mainly about warning people about events in advance and preparing them to deal with vulnerability and uncertainty. Adaptation to climate change has received increased attention in the scientific and policy debate, and is seen as complementary to mitigation (UNFCCC, 1997). Therefore more adaptation assessments need to develop and 114

3 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... conduct with the aim to identify and evaluate adaptation options in the field of tourism and other sectors. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS Nepal is one of the sufferers of climate change as many other developing countries despite the fact that it has very low contribution in the Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. The climate change situation of the Himalayan nation is as bleak as many other developing countries around the globe. Precipitation in the country is also being unpredictable with more droughts and short period of erratic rainfall with flash flood and riverine flood. The temperatures in the Himalayas, however, are increasing at a faster rate, which is resulting serious impacts on the glacial lakes which are the sources of water for Nepal. Due to the rise in temperature snow melts and glacial lakes are under a tremendous threat of outburst which is called GLOF. Further, the projections indicate an increase in monsoon and post-monsoon rainfall as well as an increase in the intensity of rainfall, and a decrease in winter precipitation. IPCC (2007) projects that there will be a general increase in the intensity of heavy rainfall events in the future and an overall decrease by up to 15 days in the annual number of rainy days over a large part of South Asia. According to NAPA (2010), Nepal is ranked 6th among the 200 countries who will suffer most from the climate change impacts. Moreover, there are still at least 20 glacier lakes in Nepal likely to outburst in the next 5-10 years (UNEP 2002), which make country and people more vulnerable toward climatic hazards. Climate is changing all around the globe and a Himalayan nation is not an exception. Although Nepal s total greenhouse gas emission share is negligible compared to global community, Nepal has already encountered some of the negative impacts of climate change. Studies made by DOHM shows that average temperature in Nepal is increasing approximately 0.06 degrees Celsius per year. The temperature in the Himalayas, however, is increasing at a faster rate, which is resulting serious impacts on the glacial lakes the sources of water for Nepal. Many glaciers are retreating at a faster rate and rapidly melting glaciers means more seasonal variation in river flow resulting more floods and droughts in the country. Due to Nepal s diverse topography and eco system impact of the climate change in the country will be magnified (Oxfam international, 2009). With the increased intensity of erratic rainfall events hazards like flood and landslide will trigger more than 1300 people mostly poor were killed by floods and landslides between 2000 and 2005 (CBS, 2006). Change in precipitation will have unconstructive impact on rain fed agricultural system which will cause more problem of food security in the country leaving poor vulnerable. With warmer winters mostly in the higher altitudes less precipitation will fall as snow which will accelerate the glacier retreat reducing soil moisture and accelerating erosion (Oxfam international, 2009). Irrigation is the major input for the better agriculture production. It is estimated that about 80 percent of all water in Nepal is used for irrigation. But the changes in temperature and precipitation will alter the hydrological cycle hampering the irrigation reducing the crop yield

4 NATURE-BASED TOURISM AND CLIMATE CHANGE Nature-based tourism is an important and growing sector of tourism, which includes travelling to undeveloped areas for the purpose of enjoying nature (Goodwin 1996). It includes a range of activities, such as trekking, bird watching, jungle safari, camping, hunting and fishing, rock climbing and whitewater rafting (Blamey, 2001). It is a form of recreation that takes an individual away from the regular stress of modern life with the keen interest of getting in touch with natural landscapes, mountains, flora and fauna. It is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry, comprising some 20 percent of all leisure activities (TIA 2002). In countries such as Kenya, New Zealand and Nepal, this sector accounts for as much as percent of all international tourists (Nyaupane, 2004). The International Ecotourism Society (2003) estimated that, in the last decade, the annual growth rate for this sector ranged between 10 percent and 30 percent, as opposed to the 4.3 percent for other tourism sectors. Climate is an integral part of nature-based tourism and can both attract and repel tourists (Gomez, 2005) and can directly affect the choice of recreation by limiting time and space for tourism activities. Climate is not the only factor that tourists weigh; it is one of the most important considerations for a range of activities designed to satisfy tourists. Climate change affects nature-based tourism by affecting the natural resources on which tourism is based (Scott, 2007). Any change in the characteristics of the climate in the Himalayas could reduce the tourism flow negatively by altering the perceived attractiveness of the Himalayan environment. Unlike tourism based on built attractions, such as theme parks and shopping malls, and cultural attractions, such as historical museums, archaeological remains, historical monuments, folklore and traditional festive celebrations, nature-based tourism is very sensitive to climatic variability and change (Smith, 1993). A study of the effect of global warming found that migratory birds wintering in the southern USA arrived on average 13 days earlier (Butler 2003). Likewise, drought conditions during the summer of 1988 contributed to widespread forest fires in Yellowstone National Park, which resulted in evacuations of campgrounds and seasonal visitor accommodations being closed four weeks earlier than normal (Franke, 2000). Compared to the tourist flows of previous years, total annual visits to Yellowstone in 1988 were reduced 15 percent and park officials estimated a total loss of $US60 million due to forest fires. The direct impact of global warming and climate change on mountains in North America and Europe is focused on loss of snow cover and vulnerabilities of climate change on ski industries (Koenig and Abegg 1997; Scott and Suffling 2000; Blamey 2001; Scott, 2006). For example, it is estimated that Austria would experience losses of 10 percent winter tourism revenue as changes in snow cover could put low elevation ski resort at risk (Scott, 2006). More recent studies, however, reported that vulnerability to climate change of the ski industry can be reduced by snow-making technology (Scott, 2006). The vulnerabilities to climate change of the Nepali Himalayas, however, are not comparable because of the differences in mountain characteristics and attrac

5 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... tions. The Himalayan region is a storehouse of biological diversity and cultural heterogeneity with distinctive ethnic groups, mountain peaks, sacred lakes and monasteries. Home to endangered species, such as the snow leopard, one-horned rhinoceros, Royal Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, red panda, and some 850 species of birds, the region offers abundant diversity in fauna and flora, which enhances the region s stature in nature-based tourism. The annual influx of visitors in the Nepali Himalayas increased from about 6,000 in 1962 to 491,504 in 1999 (MCTCA 2004). Nepal s diverse natural and cultural heritage determines the level of tourism activity and the types of program found at specific localities. Valued geographical attributes include aesthetic landscape, remoteness and cultural traditions. Being away from modern amenities is also a part of the appeal for tourism in Nepal (Zurick, 1992). Nature-based activities play a significant role in Nepal s tourism, as 45 percent of foreign visitors visit one or more of the country s protected areas (DNPWC 2004; MCTCA 2004). Climate change can adversely affect natural attractions of the Nepali Himalayas through glacier retreat, avalanches, landslides and flooding, gradual extinction of many species of flora and fauna, and damage to forest ecosystems through fire and insect infestation. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS ON TOURISM Although the tourism sector is highly influenced by climate, our understanding about potential vulnerability to climate change in this sector remains limited (Scott, 2007). Until recently, climate change had not even garnered substantial attention from both the tourism industry and scholarly community. Uncertainties in projections of future climate change have not narrowed during the last 30 years; however, the recent report of the inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated that the Himalayas could face an increase in frequency and intensity of rainfall (Solomon, 2007). This may impose the risk of flooding and landslides, causing disruption in the flow of tourists. In the last three decades, the average air temperature measured at 49 stations across Nepal has risen by F (1 0 C) (Shrestha, 2000). The temperature differences are most pronounced during the dry winter season and least noticeable when monsoon season peaks. The United Nations University Mountain Hazards Mapping Project predicted that flash floods from moraine-dammed and icedammed lakes were the major threat facing the Mt Everest region (Ives and Messerli 1981). Researchers from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) identified 3,252 glaciers and 2,323 glacial lakes, of which 44 are filling rapidly, and that might burst in as little as five years. Considering the average vertical lapse rate of C km 1, the present glaciated area above 5,000 m is likely to be free of snow with an increase in temperature of 1 0 C in the next few years. Similarly, an increase in temperature of C could result in the loss of percent of snow cover from the Himalayas (Alam and Regmi, 2004). This will make the major cause of mountains lacking their beauty that will certainly result decrease in number of trekkers and climbers, 117

6 Glacier retreat also contributes significantly to stream flow variability in the spring and summer, while glacial lake outbursts, which are becoming more likely with rising temperatures, are an additional source of flooding risk. Nepal s low level of development and complex topography leaves it quite vulnerable to climate change. In the Himalayas, loss of ice evokes concerns of further expansion of glacial lakes, leading to an increased potential for glacial lake outburst flooding (GLOF) in the valleys downstream. Nine major glacial lake outburst floods took place between 1935 and 1985 in eastern Nepal. The most recent was Dig Tsho glacial lake outburst in the Mt Everest area that took place on 4 August 1985 (Vuichard and Zimmermann, 1986). The flow of water was 2 4 times the magnitude of maximum monsoon flood levels. The flood killed five people, destroyed 30 houses, 14 bridges, trail networks and the Namche Small Hydro Project, which was at its completion phase to supply electricity to Namche Bazar, one of the major tourist attractions and the gateway of Mt Everest. The flood also destroyed many bridges and trekking trails to Mt Everest. Entire stretches of trails were destroyed or made impassable because of river bank erosion, sliding or massive debris deposition and the region was isolated from the rest of Nepal for several days. Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) is Nepal s the largest protected area and the most popular trekking area, where more than 40,000 tourists visit annually. It is home to some of the world s highest peaks and the world s deepest gorge the Kali Gandaki River Valley. Because of the great variation in topography, rainfall ranges from more than 5,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range in central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the north central portion near the Tibetan plateau. Meteorological data collected from Jomsom from 2002 to 2004 indicate a decrease in winter precipitation in the form of snow and an increase in rainfall after the winter months (Dahal, 2007). This has already affected traditional flat-roofed houses made of mud and stone. Locals have experienced roof leakage and wall erosion problems in their homes, tea shops and hotels. The lower elevation, which receives the highest average rainfall in the country, however, will see potential increases in monsoon precipitation (Shrestha & Wake, 1999). Although this region is less prone to Glacier Lake flooding than the Mt Everest region, there is evidence that the number of flood days has increased because of more intense precipitation events (Alam & Regmi 2004). Avalanches and glacial lake outburst floods predominate in high elevations in eastern Nepal; landslides, debris flows and flash floods are common in the hills; and floods are frequent in lowland Terai. These three regions are related to one another for both climate-related changes and tourism. Rich biodiversity and natural beauty are two key factors in attracting tourists. However, approximately 10 percent of known species of the Himalayas were listed as threatened (Lal, & Murdiyarso, 2001) and, annually, 2.45 percent of species are on the verge of extinction because of climate change (Alam & Regmi, 2004). Warmer and drier conditions from global warming have also caused a significant increase in the number of major wildfires (National Wildlife Federation, 2006). IPCC reported 118

7 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... that forest fires caused by unusually high temperatures in Nepal may threaten extinction of red pandas, leopards, monkeys, deer, bears and other endangered animals (Lal, 2001). In response to climate change, many birds are changing their nesting and migratory patterns (Butler, 2003). This will have a direct impact on the increasing number of special interest nature-based tourists, such as wildlife-viewing and bird-watching tourists in the Himalayas. For instance, changes of schedule of migratory birds like Black Stork, Ruddy Shelduck, and Common Shelduck coming from Siberia (Russia) to Chitwan National Park can be two weeks earlier or later during the months of September and October every year. Nature-based tourism is linked closely to biodiversity and the attractions created by a rich and varied environment. The loss of biodiversity in the ecosystem, therefore, means a potential loss of tourism in various destinations. ADAPTATION STRATEGIES Tourism is a climate sensitive industry therefore stakeholders should be capable to make necessary arrangements during the emergency period of landslides, avalanche, floods and cancellation of flights. Tourism entrepreneurs should be always alert to provide substitution of alternative destinations or other activities as they have already prepared for the holiday. Similarly, designing and engineering must focus to establish tourist accommodation at low risk area to protect from the natural hazards. Moreover, it is worth full to reschedule and design tour or trekking packages based on the weather condition or weather forecast. Environmentalists have expressed several views on climate change and the steps of adaptation strategies. In this regard, Burton has argued why the world needs to seriously consider adaptation to climate change. He adds that firstly, climate change is unavoidable and it is striking everywhere, regardless of the political and ecological boundaries. Secondly, anticipatory and precautionary adaptation is more effective and less costly than forced, last-minute, emergency adaptation or retrofitting. Thirdly, it is likely that climate change may be more rapid and pronounced than the current estimates. Fourthly, immediate benefits may be gained from better adaptation, for example, increased investments in climate-neutral technologies can boost local economies. Fifthly, immediate benefits can also be gained by removing maladaptive policies and practices. Finally, climate change has its threats but also has opportunities. Communities that are most proactive to adapt to climate change are also likely to be primary beneficiaries of their actions (Burton, 1996). Adaptation encompasses adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli and their effects of impacts (Smith & Pilifosova, 2007). It refers to changes in processes, practices, or structures to moderate or offset potential damages or to take advantage of opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation and mitigation measures need to be realistic, depending on local conditions, but within the framework of national and regional strategies. Economic resources, technologi

8 cal development, information and data base, communication and access-related infrastructure developments, institutional developments and issues of equity determine the level of adaptive capacity of a destination. Likewise, there are limits to adaptation. These include the physical and ecological limits, for example, adaptation measures will be limited if mountain tourism facilities/destinations are located at extreme environments and are severely exposed to frequent avalanches or landslides. Similarly, large scale engineering may not be possible where resources are limited. In other cases, there could be natural limitations to adaptation. For example, adaptation to losses in wild ecosystems and biodiversity may be difficult or impossible. In the case of mountains, greatest adverse impacts will likely occur in areas with poor resource endowments, for instance,, if the tourism destination is dependent on a single attraction or activity, and if that is negatively affected by climate change then adaptation measures might be hard to implement. Concrete examples of adaptation strategies in tourism destinations in Asia are hard to find since the studies and research have been done at very minimum level. In general, many mountain tourism destinations in Asia have shifted away from relying on fossil fuel-based energy sources to green technologies, for example, on the main tourist trails of the Annapurna and Everest regions the adoption of solar technologies is now widespread (Nepal, 2008). While not directly related to tourism, in the Langtang National Park of Nepal, threat of GLOF from the dammed Tsho Rolpa glacier has been reduced to a lower level because of measures such as draining the lake and putting in place early warning systems in downstream villages (news.nationalgeographic.com). The total cost of these adaptation measures was $3.2 million, indicating that the cost of some adaptation measures will be very high. In the Nepal Himalaya, it might mean identifying and developing niche tourism products and destinations that will take advantage of climate adaptations. For example, it may require incorporating better environmental practices at the firm or enterprise and destination levels and developing carbon-neutral services and products at the destinations. Overall, potential local adaptations in mountain tourism include sharing losses, modifying threats, preventing or decreasing effects, changing use, and changing location. This implies that adaptation measures need to be practical and should be grounded in reality. Local Level Adaptation Practical examples of local level adaptive responses would include locating new tourist facilities or relocating old facilities to low-risk areas for instance, steep locations and high snowfall areas are at the high risks to tourism. Thus, such locations are required to replace to more secure areas. Mountain tourism destinations must develop their capacity to respond to sudden catastrophic events and disasters by installing early warning systems and establish search and rescue stations with modern technology and equipments. Building of codes and engineering design standards must be enforced to reduce damages of natural 120

9 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... hazards. Relief and insurance mechanisms are necessary to support recovery and reconstruction process. The strategies below are useful for local level adaptation: 1. Establishment of social institutions and arrangements to tackle climate-related effects; the arrangements need to consider representativeness of decision making bodies. 2. Encourage diversification of employment and income sources in the mountains; this is critical in the event of a collapse of the local tourism industry. Critical linkages must be built between tourism and other economic sectors like agriculture. 3. Formal and informal arrangements must be made for collective security against the effects of climate change. This means private and public entities need to build support mechanisms at the local level. 4. Identification and prioritization of local adaptation measures, based on adequate provision of knowledge, technology, policy and financial support. Regional and National Level Adaptation Nepal government should formulate appropriate policies to enhance capacity for rescue operation at the time of emergency, i.e. make adequate arrangements of rescue helicopters, efficient medical team and arrangements of substantial logistics. Similarly, it is necessary to increase social security by enhancing efficient insurance policy. Similarly, government should implement mitigation policies for reducing carbon emissions in the trekking and tour destination by substituting solar technology and planting trees. The following strategies are useful for adaptation. 1. Strengthening, creating and enabling environmental consciousness for adaptation 2. Diversifying tourism products and services 3. Disaster management and adaptive responses in tourism training curriculum 4. Gearing towards poverty reduction 5. Establishing monitoring and communication systems 6. Encouraging local or community level adaptation 7 Pursuing sustainable economic growth 8. Linking tourism livelihood to climate influences 9. Increasing social security and enhancing efficient insurance policy CONCLUSION: RETHINKING THE FUTURE Unique natural features, including the highest peak in the world, biodiversity and natural landscapes, have made the Himalayas a major tourist destination. Nature based tourism plays an important role in improving economic conditions and, hence, is one of the principal sources of optimism for the country s economic development. However, the tourism industry is challenged by global climate change. The impact of climate change on tourism is very complex. As the degree of mountain specificities varies by physiographic regions, so does its impact on the tourism industry. Therefore, the impacts of climate change in the Himalayas should be evaluated carefully, taking into consideration the effects of climate change on each physiographic zone and how these effects interact with mountain 121

10 characteristics of Nepal. Particularly, north-eastern Nepal will experience more avalanches and glacial lake outburst floods, while the hills will face more landslides, debris flows and flash floods and the lowland Terai will see more flood-related hazards. These climate-related hazards destroy tourism infrastructure, including roads, bridges, dams, hydroelectric projects, trails and resorts all pivotal for sustaining tourism in Nepal. Further, fragility and inaccessibility increase the impacts and reduce the ability to recover from the impacts, and make the area more inaccessible. Tourism-industry leaders must plan their infrastructure carefully to avoid natural hazards. Increasing GLOF activities, erratic monsoons and wildfires, caused by periodic droughts, will affect biodiversity adversely. Similarly, warming temperatures may lead to extinction of plant and animal species. This is particularly important in the Himalayan alpine ecosystem where plants and animals must migrate to higher elevations to adapt to rising temperatures. Since tourism seasonality in the Himalayas is determined by the monsoon season, changes in the pattern of monsoons directly impact the flow of tourists and their activities. The seasonality effect of monsoons can be reduced by expanding arid transmountain regions as tourism destinations. More importantly, these areas should be developed as selfsustaining, or minimally dependent on external resources, so that they will not be as impacted by monsoons in the southern region. While one can argue that most of the climate-related disasters take place during the monsoon season, when tourism activities are minimal, the impact of the aftermath of monsoon in early autumn and longer-term indirect impacts should not be underestimated. Unlike direct impacts, it takes longer to see how long-term indirect effects on biodiversity would impact nature-based tourism. This is one of the beginning papers that intents to examine the impacts of climate change on nature based tourism in Nepal. This study provides a regional perspective on assessing the impacts of climate change on tourism in protected areas of Nepal. Diversity makes the Himalayan region more complicated in terms of research and its policy implications. This study, therefore, suggests that there is a need for local data to assess the potential consequences at each nature-based tourism destination. There is a lack of awareness among climate change scientists about the potential impact of climate change on the tourism industry. Tourism scholars have begun to address issues concerning tourism and climate change relationship. Climate and its impacts on the tourism industry have been discussed extensively in the context of the developed world. However, very little research has been conducted in the developing world particularly in the context of mountain destinations. Given the specific characteristics of the mountains, it appears that mountain tourism destinations are more vulnerable to climate change. Evidence of the effects of climate change on mountain destinations are slowly emerging, especially in the context of natural hazards such as disappearing or retreating glaciers, glacier induced flooding, landslides and avalanches. More subtle changes in the natural areas of high mountains are hard to document and take time, therefore the long term impacts of these on the tourism industry is uncertain. The 122

11 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... nexus between climate, tourism and livelihood for the mountain communities can be complex, and therefore requires concerted research efforts in documenting the ways in which climate is going to impact tourism as well as the mountain communities and their livelihood prospects. The impact of climate change and adaptation measures will vary depending on local conditions but broad-based adaptation measures need to be developed and integrated as part of the climate policy at national level. Mountain tourism destinations in Nepal must develop their capacity to diversify their tourism opportunities, discourage development of tourism facilities in risk-prone zones, protective barriers need to be built where facilities have been already built, early warning systems, and search and rescue stations need to be established. Tour and trekking operators should develop itineraries as per the weather condition. These actions need to be considered as a collaborative effort between various players in the tourism industry with integrated approach. Further research on climate change should be conducted in order to minimize risks and increase opportunities in the field of tourism. REFERENCES ADB. (2009). NEP: Climate change assessment, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. Alam, M. & Regmi, B. R. (2004). Adverse Impacts of Climate Change on Development of Nepal: Integrating Adaptation into Policies and Activities (Dhaka: Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS). Becken, S. & Hay J. E. (2010). Tourism and Climate Change: Risk and Opportunities. Viva Books: New Delhi. Bhatta, R. P. (2011). Climate change impacts on tourism and its adaptation strategies of rural community of Krishnapur VDC in Mohana sub-watershed, Kanchanpur District. A MSc Watershed Management Research Thesis submitted to institute of forestry, Office of Dean, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Blamey, R. (2001). Principles of Ecotourism, in: D. Weaver (Ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, pp (Wallingford: CABI Publishing). Burton, I. (1996). The growth of adaptation capacity: Practice and policy. In. Smith, J.B., Bhatti, N., Menzhulin, G. et al (eds). Adapting to Climate Change. New York: Springer. news/2002/05/0501_020502_himalaya_2. html, retrieved on October 23, Butler, C. J. (2003). The disproportionate effect on global warming on the arrival dates of short-distance migratory birds in North America, Ibis, 145, pp CBS, Central Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Statistical Pocket Book, Nepal, NPC/ HMG, Nepal. CBS, Central Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Environmental statistics Book, Nepal. Dahal, N. (2007). Perceptions of Climate Change in the Himalaya. Available at Retrieved on 9 July Dhital, M. R., Khanal, N. R. & Thapa, K. B. (1993). The Role of Extreme Weather 123

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13 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES... Tourism Management 29: Nyaupane, G. P., Morais, D. B. & Graefe, A. R. (2004). Nature tourism constraints: A cross-activity comparison, Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), pp Oxfam International. (2009). Even Himalayas has stopped smiling; Climate Change, Poverty and Adaptation in Nepal. Oxfam International. Oxfam International. (2009). Wind of Change; Climate change, poverty and adaptation Malawi. Oxfam International. Regmi, B. R. & Adhikari, A. (2007). Climate change and human development - risk and vulnerability in a warming world Country Case Study-Nepal, LI- BIRD/UNDP, Nepal. Regmi, B. R., L Thapa., Suwal, R., Khadka, S., and Tamang, B. B. (2009). Agro-biodiversity management: Key strategies to promote community based adaptation. Journal of Forest and Livelihood. Special issues on Climate Change. Forest Action, Nepal. Scott, D. & Suffling, R. (2000). Climate Change and Canada s National Parks (Toronto: Environment Canada). Scott, D., Jones, B. & Konopek, J. (2007). Implications of climate and environmental change for nature based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A case study of Waterton Lakes National Park, Tourism Management, 28, pp Scott, D., McBoyle, G., Minogue, A. & Mills, B. (2006). Climate change and the sustainability of ski based tourism in eastern North America: A reassessment, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(4), pp Shrestha, A. B., Wake, C. P., Mayewski, P. A. & Dibb, J. E. (1999). Maximum temperature trends in the Himalaya and its vicinity and relationship with some large scale climatological parameters, Journal of Climatology, 20(3), pp Shrestha, K. B. (2000). Global Climate Impact Assessment for Himalayan Mountain Regions: Resource Management and Sustainable Development (Kobe, Japan: Asian Pacific Network for Global Change Research). Smith, B. & Pilifosova, O. (2002). Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity. Chapter 18. IPCC Third Assessment Report on Climate Change Smith, K. (1993). The influence of weather and climate on recreation and tourism, Weather, 48, pp Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B. et al., (Eds). (2007). Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). TIA. (2002). Travel Scope. Available at (accessed 20 January 2002). TIES. (2003). Ecotourism Statistical Fact Sheet. Available at Retrirved on 20 January UNEP, (2002). Global Environment Outlook 3. United Nations Environment 125

14 Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP/ICIMOD. (2002). Glacier Lakes. Available at grid/icimod. Retrieved on 06 April 2006). UNFCCC, (1997). Kyoto Protocol to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Climate Change Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Vuichard, D. & Zimmermann, M. (1986). The Langmoche flash-flood, Khumbu Himal, Nepal, Mountain Research and Development, 6(1), pp Zurick, D. N. (1992). Adventure travel and sustainable tourism in the peripheral economy of Nepal, Annals of Association of American Geographers, 82, pp ABOUT THE AUTHOR Lekha Nath Bhandari is a PhD scholar at Singhaniya University in India. He is working on his PhD thesis in tourism. He has studied both his master s and MPhil in English, specializing in tourism and varieties of English. Currently, he is involved in tourism business that is located in Thamel in Kathmandu. He is the managing director at Ample Travels Pvt. Ltd. in Thamel. bhandariln2004@gmail.com 126