Airport Systems: Planning, Design, and Management Richard de Neufville AmedeoR. Odoni McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
Preface xix Acknowledgments v xxiii User's Guide xxv Part One Introduction 1 1 The future of the airport and airline industry 3 1-1 The airport industry at the end of the twentieth Century 4 1-2 Long-term growth 9 1-3 Commercialization 14 1-4 Globalization 18 1-5 Electronic commerce 21 Electronic ticketing 21 Electronic commerce 22 1-6 Implications for airports Systems planning and design 25 Exercises 26 References 26 2 International differences 29 2-1 Introduction 30 2-2 Some physical differences 31 Check-in facilities 32 Aircraft contact Stands 33
vi 2-3 Some usefül distinctions 38 National differences in diversity of decision making 39 National differences in Performance criteria 43 2-4 Implications for practice 47 General implications 47 Specific implications 49 Exercises 54 References 55 Part Two System planning 57 3 Dynamic Strategie planning 59 3-1 Forms of planning 60 Plans 60 Master plans 62 Strategie plans 64 3-2 Airport Systems planning 65 Airport Systems 65 Planning airport Systems 67 3-3 The forecast is "always wrong" 70 Cost estimation 72 Aggregate forecasts 74 Composition of forecasts 76 Effect of longer planning periods 77 Effect of economic deregulation 79 3-4 Implications for planning 80 3-5 Dynamic Strategie planning coneepts 81 3-6 Dynamic Strategie planning process and methods 83 Exercises 88 References 89 4 Privatization and deregulation 93 4-1 The airport and airline industry before privatization and deregulation 94 Airports 94 Airlines 97
vii 4-2 Motivations for privatization and deregulation 98 U.S. airline deregulation 98 Worldwide airline privatization 99 Privatization of airports 100 4-3 The concept of privatization 100 Rights to residual income 101 Management control 103 4-4 Guidelines for airport privatization 106 4-5 Airline deregulation 110 4-6 Implications of airline deregulation for airports 111 Increased volatility 112 r Transfer hubs 118 Competition between airports 124 Exercises 125 References 126 5 Multi-airport Systems 129 5-1 Introduction 129 5-2 Basic concepts and issues 132 Definitions 132 Prevalence 133 Unequal size 135 5-3 Difficulties 138 Insufficient traffic at new airport 139 Difficulty in closing old airport 141 Insufficient traffic overall 142 Impractical to allocate traffic 144 Volatility of traffic at secondary airport 146 Overall perspective 147 5-4 Market dynamics 149 Concentration due to sales opportunities 149 Airlines concentrate on routes 150 Airlines concentrate at primary airports 152 Factors favoring multi-airport Systems 154 5-5 Planning and developing multi-airport Systems 157 Landbanking 158 Incremental development 160
viii Flexible facilities 161 Careful marketing 162 Exercises 163 References 164 6 Environmental impacts 167 6-1 Introduction 167 6-2 Fundamentals of noise measurement 170 Measuring aircraft noise 171 Certification of aircraft for noise 182 Practical implications 185 6-3 Mitigating airport noise 186 Noise monitoring Systems 187 Community relations and public participation programs 190 Land-use policies 191 Airport design interventions 194 Surface operations and flight operations 195 Interventions outside airport properties near existing Sites 198 Access restrictions 199 Economic incentives 201 6-4 Air quality and mitigation of air pollution 202 6-5 Water quality control 206 Deicing fluids (ADF) 206 Fuel leaks and spills 208 Storm water runoff 208 6-6 Control of highway and road access traffic 209 6-1 Wildlife management 210 Exercises 211 References 212 7 Organization and financing 215 7-1 Introduction 216 7-2 Ownership and management of airports 217 7-3 Organizational structures 225 7-4 Regulatory constraints on airport user charges 233 Price caps 235
ix "Single Till" versus "Dual Till" 237 Residual versus compensatory 241 7-5 Financing capital investments 243 Outright government grants 243 Special-purpose user taxes 244 Low-cost loans from international or national development banks 244 Operating surpluses 244 Loans from commercial banks 245 General-obligation bonds 245 Reyenue bonds 245 Private financing against specified rights to airport revenues 246 Exercises 249 References 249 8 User charges 251 8-1 Introduction 252 8-2 Cost and revenue centers 253 8-3 Guidelines and background for the setting of user charges 258 8-4 The various types of airport user charges 260 Landing fee 261 Terminal area air navigation fee 262 Aircraft parking and hangar charges 262 Airport noise charge 263 Passenger service charge 264 Cargo service charge 265 Security charge 265 Ground handling charges 266 En route air navigation fee 266 8-5 Nonäeronautical charges 268 Concession fees for aviation fuel and oil 268 Concession fees for commercial activities 269 Revenues from car parking and car rentals 269 Rental of airport land, space in buildings, and assorted equipment 269 Fees charged for airport tours, admissions, etc. 270
x Fees derived from provision of engineering Services and reimbursable Utilities by the airport operator to airport users 270 Non-airport revenues 270 8-6 Distribution of airport revenues by source 270 8-7 Comparing user charges at different airports 274 Government funding 274 Content and quality of Services offered 275 Volume of traffic 275 Characteristics of traffic 275 General cost environment 276" Accounting practices 276 Treatment of aeronautical users 276" 8-8 Ground handling Services 277 8-9 Landing fee computation: average-cost pricing 283 8-10 Historical cost versus current cost 288 Exercises 290 References 291 Part Three The airside 293 9 Airfield design 295 9-1 Introduction 296" 9-2 Airport classification codes and design Standards 300 Practical implications 302 Runway designation and classification 311 9-3 Wind coverage 312 9-4 Airport layouts 314 Land area requirements and related observations 315 Geometrie characteristics 319 9-5 Runway length 328 Declared distances 330 Usability of a runway 332 Design length 334 9-6 Runway geometry 336 Separations from other parts of the airfield 340 Vertical profile 341 9-7 Taxiways 343 Special cases 347
xi 9-8 Aprons 351 9-9 Physical obstacles 355 Exercises 361 References 364 10 Airfield capacity 367 10-1 Introduction 369 10-2 Measures of runway capacity 370 10-3 Factors that affect the capacity of a runway system 3 76 Number and geometric layout of the runways 3 76 ATM Separation requirements 3 77 Visibility, ceiling, and precipitation 388 ' Wind direction and strength 391 Mix of aircraft 391 Mix and sequencing of movements 394 Type and location of runway exits 396 State and Performance of the ATM System 397 Noise considerations 398 10-4 Range of airfield capacities and capacity coverage 400 10-5 A model for Computing the capacity of a Single runway 408 10-6 Generalizations and extensions of the capacity model 416 10-7 Capacity of other elements of the airfield 422 Capacity of the taxiway system 422 Capacity of the aprons 424 Exercises 430 References 432 11 Airfield delay 435 11-1 Introduction 436 11-2 The characteristics of airside delays 437 11-3 Policy implications and practical guidelines 444 11-4 The annual capacity of a runway system 450 11-5 Computing delays in practice 455 Exercises 457 References 459
xii 12 Demand management 461 12-1 Introduction 462 12-2 Background and motivation 464 12-3 Administrative approaches to demand management 467 Schedule coordination: the IATA approach 469 Experience in the United States 474 12-4 Economic approaches to demand management 475 Congestion pricing in theory 476 Congestion pricing in practice 480 12-5 Hybrid approaches to demand management 486 Slots plus congestion pricing 487 Buying and selling slots 489 Slot auctions 491 12-6 Policy considerations 493 Exercises 495 References 496 13 Air traffic management 499 13-1 Introduction 500 13-2 Generations of ATM Systems 502 13-3 Description of ATM system and processes in terminal airspace 504 Airspace structure 504 Handling of a typical airline flight 506 Airport traffic control tower 509 Terminal airspace control center 510 Surveillance 514 Navigation for precision instrument approaches 517 En-route control center 522 13-4 Air traffic flow management 525 Objectives and limitations of ATFM 525 ATFM operations 527 Ground delay programs 530 13-5 Collaborative decision making 534 Additional technical issues and extensions of CDM 542 Prospects 544
xiii 13-6 Near- and medium-term enhancements 545 GPS-based navigation 545 Automatic dependent surveillance 547 Digital Communications 548 Weather data 548 Automation and decision-support Systems 548 Exercises 551 References 554 Part Four The landside 557 14 Configuration of passenger buildings 559 14-1 Importance of selection 560 14-2 Systems requirements for airport passenger Buildings 563 Passenger perspective 565 Airline perspective 568 Owners' perspective 570 Retail perspective 572 Government agencies 573 Balance 574 14-3 Five basic configurations 574 Finger piers 576" Satellites 577 Midfield concourses 580 Linear buildings 582 Transporters 584 Centralized and dispersed 586 14-4 Evaluation of configurations 587 Walking distances 588 Aircraft delays 594 Transporter economics 595 Flexibility 599 14-5 Assessment of configurations 6"00 14-6 Hybrid configurations in practice 6"02 Exercises 603 References 603
xiv 15 Overall design of passenger buildings 605 15-1 Specification of traffic loads 607 The issue 607 Peak-hour basis for design 608 Nature of loads 610 15-2 Shared use reduces design loads 611 Drivers for shared use 612 Analysis methods 616 Overall implications of sharing 634 15-3 Space requirements for waiting areas 636" Importance of level of service 636 Importance of dwell time 639 15-4 Space requirements for passageways 643 The formulas 645 Effective width 647 15-5 Areas for baggage handling and mechanical Systems 649 Exercises 652 References 652 16 Detailed design of passenger buildings 655 16-1 Design Standards 656 16-2 Identification of hot spots 660 16-3 Analysis of possible hot spots 664 16-4 Simulation of passenger buildings 669 16-5 Specific facilities 673 Queues 676 Check-in areas 677 Security and border Checkpoints 678 Moving walkways 680 Waiting lounges 680 Concession Space 682 Baggage claim areas 684 Curbside and equivalent areas 685 Exercises 688 References 689 17 Ground access and distribution 693 17-1 Introduction 694
xv 17-2 Regional airport access 695 Nature of airport access traffic 696 Distribution of airport access traffic 659 Preferences of the users 701 Needs of airport operators 702 17-3 Cost-effective Solutions 703 The issue 703 Door-to-door analysis 707 Rail Solutions 710 Highway Solutions 711 17-4 Parking 712 Hourly parking 714 Structured parking 715 Long-term parking 716 Rental car parking 716 Employee parking 717 17-5 On-airport access 717 17-6 Within-airport people movers 718 Technologies 719 Location 722 Capacity of network 724 17-7 Within-airport distribution of checked bags 726 Security Systems 728 Information Systems 729 Mechanical Systems 731 Capacity 735 Exercises 735 References 736 Part Five Reference material 739 18 Data validation 741 18-1 The issue 741 Errors 741 Incompleteness 743 18-2 The resolution 743 Exercises 745 References 746
xvi 19 Models of airport operations 747 19-1 Background 747 19-2 Classification of models 748 Level of detail 748 Methodology 749 Coverage 750 19-3 Airside models and issues in model selection 750 Principal existing airside models 750 Selection criteria 753 19-4 Models of passenger building operations 756 Model availability 757 Data requirements 758 Repeated versus one-time model use 759 Model development process 760 Communicating the results 761 Exercises 762 References 763 20 Forecasting 765 20-1 Forecasting assumptions 766 20-2 Fundamental mathematics 769 20-3 Forecasts 771 20-4 Scenarios 775 20-5 Integrated procedure 776 Exercises 777 References 777 21 Cash flow analysis 779 21-1 Introduction 779 21-2 Discounting and the discount rate 780 21-3 Present and annual value of monetary flows 782 21-4 Notes on Computing 785 21-5 Measures of project effectiveness 788 Exercises 797 References 801 22 Decision and options analysis 803 22-1 The issue 803
xvii 22-2 Decision analysis concept 804 22-3 Decision analysis method 806 22-4 Options analysis concept 812 Financial options 814 "Real" options 815 22-5 Options analysis method 816 Exercises 817 References 817 23 Flows and queues at airports 819 23-1 Introduction 820 23-2 Describing an airport queuing system 821 The user generation process 822 The service process 823 The queuing process 826 23-3 Typical measures of Performance and level of service (LOS) 828 Utilization ratio 828 Expected waiting time and expected number in queue 829 Variability 829 Reliability 830 Maximum queue length 831 The psychology of queues 831 23-4 Short-term behavior of queuing Systems 833 23-5 Cumulative diagrams 835 23-6 Long-term behavior of queuing Systems 842 Little's law 843 Relationship between congestion and utilization 843 23-7 Policy implications 847 Exercises 849 References 850 24 Peak-hour analysis 851 24-1 Introduction 851 24-2 Definition of the design peak hour 853 24-3 Conversion of annual forecasts into DPH Forecasts 854 24-4 DPH estimates of aircraft movements 860
xviii 24-5 DPH estimates of flows of arriving passengers and of departing passengers 861 Exercises 862 References 862 Index 865 About the Authors 884