Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents in South Sulawesi and Maluku, Indonesia

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1 ISSN : X DOI: /tropics TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Issued June 1, 2015 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents in South Sulawesi and Maluku, Indonesia Fumiko Furukawa 1, 2*, Shigeo Kobayashi 1 and Akihisa Iwata 1 1 Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University 2 Current address: Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University * Corresponding author: f.furukawa@people.kobe-u.ac.jp ABSTRACT This study summarizes changes in traditional community-based mangrove resource use and discusses the relationships between the local people and mangroves at three study sites in South Sulawesi and Maluku, Indonesia: a planted mangrove, a secondary mangrove, and a natural mangrove. The results suggest that the highly diverse uses of mangrove resource are likely the result of long-term use by locals, based on their knowledge of the nature and characteristics of the materials that are available from each mangrove species. Specifically, we found that mangroves have important roles as supplies of fuel material and timber products, which are used in daily life by the residents of coastal areas. However, changes in the characteristics of mangrove resource use at each site suggest that the use of mangroves by locals depends on their daily needs. This indicates that a decrease in mangrove resources or loss of the need for them could threaten the relationship between mangroves and locals as the value of these resources in daily life declines. However, at the sites observed in this study, locals still conducted some activities such as cutting or collecting fuel material and fishing in the mangroves, demonstrating that resource use is affected by economic value. Our results indicate that the characteristics of mangrove resource use differ among regions and vary according to changes in the commercial value of mangrove products, local fishery trends, and the physical state of the mangroves. Key words: mangrove resource use, South Sulawesi, Maluku, sustainable management, economic value INTRODUCTION Mangroves are found in sheltered estuaries and along riverbanks and lagoons in the tropics and subtropics. The term "mangrove" describes both the ecosystem and the plant families that have developed specialized adaptations to live in this tidal environment (Tomlinson 1986). According to the report of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Wilkie and Fortuna 2003), the total area of mangrove worldwide was approximately 14.6 million ha in 2000, with almost 30 % of the world's mangroves having disappeared in the last 20 years. In Southeast Asia, the area covered by mangroves has decreased due to the expansion of residential areas, farmland, and industrial land since the 1980 s, and more recently because of the overexploitation of natural resources, such as the conversion of mangroves into aquaculture ponds. Mangroves have long provided diverse and versatile resources for coastal residents in mangrove regions (Ohn 1992, Kathiresan and Bingham 2001, Aksornkoae 2004). Mangroves have supported livelihoods by providing material and non-material resources and by helping to shape local cultures (Table 1). Mangrove resources are used in local communities as well as for commercial purposes such as aquaculture and charcoal and pulp production. Overexploitation of fisheries and timber stocks is a problem often caused at the local level. Commercial exploitation, however, normally originates from outside the local community and is nearly always on a scale much larger than local forests can sustain (FAO 2007). The total mangrove area declined from 18.8 million ha in 1980 to 15.2 million ha in 2005, according to the FAO (2007). The rate of mangrove loss, however, slowed from 187,000 ha destroyed annually in the 1980 s to 102,000 ha a year between 2000 and 2005 (Table 2). This slowdown may reflect an increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems. There is growing awareness of the services and benefits provided by mangroves, and conservation and restoration schemes are now underway in many countries (FAO 2007). The economic significance of mangroves has been reevaluated in terms of direct forestry and fishery resources, and in terms of their potential for protecting coastlines and maintaining the estuarine ecological balance (Aksornkoae 2004). The progressive degradation of mangrove ecosystems may negatively affect mangrove resource use. However, information regarding changes in local community-based

2 34 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. Table 1. Categories of mangrove plant resource use Material use Non-material use Category Construction Craft Tying Roof &Wall Fuel Food Medicine & Poison Others Usage structure and floor material of buildings tool, furniture, non-structural material for buildings, fencing material string, cord, cordage, fishnet thatch, partition, and walling firewood, charcoal foodstuff, beverage, spice, cooking oil medical use, medicinal supplies, poison, detergent, repellent decoration, cosmetic, ceremonial and magic, entertainment, game, dye, food-curing, fertilizer Source: Ono (2007), Phillips & Gentry (1993). Table 2. Current and past extent of mangroves by region ( ) (unit:1,000 ha) Area year change in mangrove area year change in mangrove area year change in mangrove area Africa 3,670 3, , , Asia 7,769 6,741-1,028 6, , (Indonesia) 4,200 3, , , Oceania 2,951 2, , , North/Central America 2,181 2, , , South America 2,222 2, , , Total area 18,794 16,925-1,869 15,740-1,185 15, Source: FAO Forestry Paper resource use resulting from the loss and degradation of mangrove forests is still lacking compared to research documenting human impacts on the economic value of mangroves. In this study, we demonstrate examples of changes in traditional community-based mangrove resource use and discuss the relationship between local people and mangroves in Indonesia. Indonesia has the largest extent of mangroves in the Asian region, accounting for about half of the regional extent of mangrove area (Table 2). The three sites examined in this study were representative of three mangrove ecosystems: planted mangrove, secondary mangrove, and natural mangrove. STUDY SITE To understand the relationships between local people and mangroves in different conditions, the present study was conducted at three sites in the provinces of South Sulawesi and Maluku, Indonesia: a planted mangrove, a secondary mangrove, and a natural mangrove (Fig. 1). The planted mangrove site in Sinjai, South Sulawesi Province, faced the Gulf of Bone and was located between 5 2'-5 21' S and ' ' E. The original mangrove vegetation in Sinjai was almost lost, but the local community and government were highly supportive of reforestation activities. The population of Sinjai has gradually increased and reached 228,936 in 2010, when the population density was 279 people per square km (BPS Kabupaten Dinjai ). The labor force (individuals aged 15 to 64 years) constituted 60.8 % of the total population (BPS Kabupaten Sinjai 2011). Gross prefectural production (GPP) in 2010 was composed of agriculture, forestry, and fishing (50.3 %); manufacturing and construction (6.5 %); and commercial and service industries (42.6 %). Compared to the corresponding values in 2006 [agriculture, forestry, and fishing (59.3 %); manufacturing and construction (6.4 %); and commercial and service industries (33.0 %)] (BPS Kabupaten Sinjai, 2007), the proportion of agriculture, forestry, and fishing had slightly decreased, while commercial and service industries had slightly increased. Sinjai had a large local wholesale fish market and offshore fishing was more prevalent than aquaculture, with skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and macker-

3 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 35 Fig. 1. Location of study sites in Indonesia. el tuna (Euthynnus affinis) being important fishery products. The secondary mangrove site in Palopo, South Sulawesi Province, was separated from the Luwu Prefectural administration as an administrative city in 2006, and was located between 2 53'-3 04' S and ' ' E. The mangrove area has decreased in Palopo due to the conversion of mangrove into aquaculture ponds. In recent years, the population of Palopo has increased more rapidly than the population of Sinjai, and in 2009, the population reached 146, 482, with a density of 591 people per square kilometer (BPS Kabupaten Palopo ). The labor force (individuals aged 15 to 64 years) made up 60.8 % of the total population (BPS Kota Palopo 2010). GPP in 2008 was composed of agriculture, forestry, and fishing (31.5 %); manufacturing and construction (14.9 %); and commercial and service industries (53.6 %) (BPS Kota Palopo 2009). As in Sinjai, in Palopo the contributions to GPP from agriculture, forestry, and fishing decreased, while the contributions of the commercial and service industries increased compared to the corresponding GPP values in 2006 [agriculture, forestry and fishing (36.8 %); manufacturing and construction (12.5 %); and commercial and service industries (50.7 %)] (BPS Kota Palopo 2007). Aquaculture operations in Palopo producing seaweed (Gracilaria sp. and Gelidium sp.) and milkfish (Chanos chanos) were more prevalent than offshore fishing. The natural mangrove site in Werilau Village on Aru Islands, Maluku Province, was located at 5 23' S, ' E, approximately 60 km from Dobo, the capital city of Aru Utara. This was a remote village, distant from markets, with about 150 households. Werilau Village was located adjacent to natural mangrove forests and a coral reef, and the majority of villagers made a living through fishing activities and crop cultivation for self-consumption. The main cultivated crops were cabbage, chili, sweet potato, cassava, and taro. Fishing and aquaculture for financial gain involved catching sea turtles, hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), sharks, sea cucumbers (Holothuria scabra), and spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp.), and cultivating seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii). Although the village had not established a public electricity service as of 2011, 11 households had their own power generation equipment. RESEARCH METHOD To understand the characteristics of mangrove conditions at the three study sites, information was collected from the relevant literature and from surveys and interviews dealing with the land-use changes of the coastal areas. To analyze the characteristics of mangrove plant resource use by local communities among the three study sites, a mangrove plant resource inventory was prepared for each site. Mangrove species lists were made according to field surveys and documents from the local forestry departments. Useful mangrove species were categorized into material resources and non-material resources based on the classification systems of Phillips and Gentry (1993) and Ono (2007) (Table 1). Material resources were categorized as either "construction", "craft", "tying" or "roof & wall" and non-material

4 36 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. resources were categorized as either "fuel", "food", "medicine & poison" or "others." The usefulness of mangrove plant species was further defined based on the part of the plant used as well as how resources were processed and used. At each study site, interviews regarding knowledge of mangrove resource use were conducted with three or four villagers who were born and raised at the site and who had experience in gathering, processing, and using mangrove plant resources. The interviewees from Sinjai Prefecture consisted of four male villagers, one of whom was a member of a community-based mangrove planting group and three of whom were representatives from a union of local aquaculture, forestry, and fisheries workers. The interviewees from Palopo City consisted of three male villagers, each of whom was a representative from the local agriculture, forestry, and fisheries union. The interviewees from Werilau village were two female villagers who were involved in daily fishing activities in mangrove areas and two male villagers who were involved in fishing and farming. Interviewees were asked whether or not the mangrove plant resources identified in the mangrove use inventories were currently being used. If the interviewees indicated that a mangrove resource was being used, they were then asked how it was used as well as any possible alternatives. To determine the relationship between mangroves and the local people, the numbers of villagers who accessed the mangroves during the daytime low tide (3 hours) were recorded during the 14-day survey periods, along with their ages and reasons for accessing the mangrove areas. Each mangrove study site was approximately the same size and was adjacent to a neighboring village. Access routes to the mangroves from each village were generally along primary creeks. In Sinjai, a 60-ha mangrove site adjacent to Tongke- Tongke Village was selected and observations were made from 2-15 September The mangrove was composed solely of Rhizophora mucronata, as a result of replanting work by Tongke-Tongke villagers. About 65 % of villagers in the area were engaged in work related to fisheries and aquaculture (Buku perencanaan desa; unpublished report ). In Palopo, a 60-ha mangrove site adjacent to a small settlement in Wara Timur District was selected and observations were made from 20 November to 3 December This mangrove was secondary forest located along a construction road and had been converted to aquaculture ponds. About 16.9 % of all households in this district were engaged in work related to fisheries and aquaculture (BPS Kota Palopo 2009). In Werilau, a mangrove site located along the west side of the village was selected and observations were made from 3-16 August With the exceptions of a priest and a teacher, all villagers in this area were engaged in fishery activity. Mangrove conditions RESULTS Mangroves covered km 2 of Indonesia in 2005, which is the largest mangrove area among the Southeastern Asian countries (FAO, 2007). However, in 2005, it was reported that, in 1980, approximately 31 % of mangrove area of Indonesia had been converted to other types of land use (Table 2). The main causes of mangrove loss in Indonesia are conversion of land for shrimp farming (East Java, Sulawesi, and Sumatra), excessive logging, and, to a lesser extent, conversion of land to agriculture or salt pans (Java and Sulawesi). Other areas have been degraded by oil spills (East Kalimantan) and pollution (FAO 2007). The rate of mangrove loss, however, slowed from 700,000 ha destroyed annually in the 1980 s to 350,000 ha annually between 1990 and 2000 (Table 2). This slowdown may reflect increased awareness of the value of mangrove ecosystems. In 1984, the Agriculture and Forestry Minister of Indonesia decreed that a 200-m wide green belt of mangrove must be conserved along the coast (Joint Decrees by Agriculture and Forestry minister: KB. 550/246/KPTS/1984; No.082/KPTS-Ⅱ/1984). In 1990, the Indonesian government decreed that green belts of 200 m of mangrove must be retained along the coast and belts of 50 m must be retained along riverbanks; moreover, protected area management should cover 130 times the difference between high and low tides (Presidential Decree No. 41, 1999). In South Sulawesi Province, the total mangrove area decreased from 67,200 ha to 34,300 ha between 1982 and 2003, a reduction of 65 % (Amri 2004). The mangrove area on the west side of South Sulawesi Province (Maros, Pinrang, and Pankep) was converted into aquaculture ponds for giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) and milkfish (C. chanos) in the mid-1970 s. After the depletion of resources in these areas, the mangrove area on the east side of the province (Bone, Luwu, and Sinjai) was converted into new aquaculture ponds. Sinjai originally possessed around 781 ha of mangrove forest, which were dominated by species such as Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Avicennia spp., and Nypa fruticans; these areas were reduced by 80 % to a total area of 156 ha due to the development of aquaculture ponds for use in association with giant tiger prawn, seaweed (Gracilaria sp.),

5 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 37 and milkfish (personal communication in DKP kabupaten Sinjai). Damage caused by coastal erosion increased because of the loss of mangrove areas. Replanting activities that began in 1981 employed around 100 households in 1995, according to interview results. The planted mangrove area covered 845 ha in 2010, reflecting about 79 % survival rate for the 1,057 ha of mangroves replanted (Fig. 2). Local communities and the government in Sinjai were highly supportive of the reforestation activities and declared a protected mangrove area from the sea to 50 m from the highest tidal level. The use of mangrove resources by local people was regulated from the sea to 100 m from the highest tidal level, with a permit from the local government being required for resource use (Sinjai District Regulation No. 8, 1999). The development of aquaculture ponds outside of mangrove area gradually increased to 682 ha in On the other hand, Luwu Prefecture, including Palopo City, contained a vast mangrove area of 34,913 ha in 1975 according to earlier reports by the Survey Team Pabrik Kertas Gowa. This rich mangrove area has been affected by the development of aquaculture. In the city of Palopo, land occupied by aquaculture ponds increased rapidly by 270 %, from 600 ha to 1,600 ha in This increase was attributed to an increase in seaweed aquaculture (Gracilaria sp. and Gelidium sp.). As a result, the mangroves in Palopo occupied 510 ha by 2010, and they were in questionable condition at that time (Fig. 2). The Department of Forestry, which is authorized to conserve and manage the mangroves, has attempted to protect them through regulations concerning resource use, conservation, and management. At the same time, there are plans to establish fishponds within the mangrove area to increase aquaculture production in Palopo (personal communication in DKP Kota Palopo). The local governments in Palopo and Sinjai have responded to problems associated with the disappearance of mangroves and the development of coastal aquaculture. An innovative and adaptive management strategy for combining harmonized mangrove-fishpond areas has been attempted. Werilau Village was in a coastal location, behind a hilly area of tropical forest. Both sides of the village were adjacent to mature mangroves dominated by Bruguiera spp. and Rhizophora spp. over 30 m in height and 50 cm in diameter. The forest canopy was closed and surveys confirmed that the forest floor at the coast had been invaded by seedlings of Acrostichum aureum and Acanthus sp. Farther inland the forest floor had been invaded by seedlings of Heritiera sp., Xylocarpus spp., and Aegiceras spp., and epiphytes of plants such as orchids and ferns were present. Mangrove areas were part of the daily living space of the villagers; for example, mangrove creeks served as places to anchor ships and install shared-use toilets. Although mangrove forests surrounding villages existed on commonly shared land, boundaries restricting marine resource use by villages on neighboring islands were in place. In 1972, a Taiwanese company planned to manufacture pulp and fertilizer from mangroves (Rhizo- Fig. 2. Change in the mangrove and aquaculture pond areas in Sinjai and Palopo. For the mangrove area in Palopo ( ), only 2010 data were collected and reported. Source: BPS Kabupaten Sinjai ; BPS Kota Palopo 2002, , 2008, 2010.

6 38 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. phora spp. and Bruguiera spp.) on Werilau Island, but their plan was cancelled because the transportation costs were too high (personal communication with the Village Headman). The Werilau villagers regarded the mangrove forest as a part of their living space. However, the villagers considered themselves to have free use only in the daytime, with the space used at night by other creatures and purported disembodied spirits. The awareness of co-existence with other creatures played an important role in preventing resource overexploitation. Characteristics of mangrove resource use by local communities Inventory of mangrove resources at each study site Local men in Sinjai and Palopo tended to be more familiar than women with mangrove resources. Tables 3 and 4 list the mangrove and mangrove-associated species at each study site in Sinjai and Palopo. Each useful species is categorized according to Table 1. In Sinjai, 20 species, including mangroves and some mangrove-associated species, were originally present, and 16 of these species were identified as useful by locals (Table 3). Eight mangrove species were used for their material resources, six of which were categorized as "construction" and "craft," two as "tying," and one as "roof & wall." Fifteen mangrove species were used for their non-material resources, 13 of which were categorized as "fuel," four as "food," two as "medicine & poison," and four as "others" (Tables 1 and 3). In Palopo, 20 species that included mangroves and various mangrove-associated species were originally present, and 18 of these species were identified as useful species by locals (Table 4). Thirteen mangrove species represented the material resources, nine of which were categorized as "construction," seven as "craft," one as "tying," and one as "roof & wall." Eighteen mangrove species were used as non-material resources, 15 of which were categorized as "fuel," five as "food," six as "medicine & poison," and three as "others" (Tables 1, 4). The most common usage of mangrove species at both sites was as "fuel." Material resource uses of mangroves were categorized as "craft" and "construction," primarily in association with aquaculture. In Sinjai, Ceriops spp. and Rhizophora spp. were utilized as scaffolding, as a material for building work sheds around aquaculture ponds, and as a construction material for building piers. In Palopo, Sonner- Table 3. Inventory of mangrove plant resources in Sinjai Scientific name Material use Non-material use Family Species Local name Construction Craft Tying Roof &Wall Fuel Food Medicine &Poison Others Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba Api-api Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina Api-api Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica Cokke Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Cokke/Bakko Rhizophoraceae Ceriops decandra Fandda Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Fandda Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Lenro Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Lenro Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Lenro Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Birofa Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Buli Palmae Nypa fruticans Nipah Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Buli Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Utti-utti(Otti-otti) Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Haru/Waru Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae Kalere Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum Jangalo Gramineae Spinifex littoreus Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Closed circles show the species utilized both in the past and present. Open circles show the species utilized only in the past. Horizontal lines ( ) indicate that we could not determine the local name of the species through interviews.

7 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 39 atia spp. and Bruguiera spp. were also utilized for these purposes. Fibers from the leaves of N. fruticans were used as a "tying" material and the leaves were used as "roof & wall" material. Edible sap collected from tapped inflorescences of N. fruticans was used to make an alcoholic beverage. Xylocarpus granatum was also used to make an alcoholic beverage in Palopo. Embryonic seeds of Bruguiera spp. were eaten as a substitute staple food during times of war. In Palopo, Sonneratia caseolaris was also consumed as a food item for supplementing regular meals. Avicennia alba was utilized as a medicinal substance for relieving abdominal pain. In Sinjai and Palopo, X. granatum was used as a cosmetic face powder. In Sinjai, Heritiera littoralis. was used to mix rice flour. In Palopo, Aegiceras floridum was used in various spiritual rituals involving badgers and demons. In Werilau, 41 species that included mangroves and various mangrove-associated species were recorded, 37 of which were identified as useful by locals (Table 5). The type of knowledge regarding the use of mangrove resources possessed by villagers in Werilau varied by sex. Men primarily had knowledge regarding "construction" and "roof & wall" uses, whereas women over 40 years old had knowledge of mangrove use with respect to medicinal properties. Sixteen mangrove species were identified by locals as providing material resources, 11 of which were categorized as "construction," seven as "craft," one as "tying," and 11 as "roof & wall." Thirty-three mangrove species were identified by locals as providing non-material resources, 23 of which were categorized as "fuel," five as "food," nine as "medicine & poison," and four as "others" (Tables 1, 5). Materials used for "construction" had different applications depending on the nature of the timber. The bodies of traditional Maltese fishing boats were primarily constructed using timber with natural water-resistant properties and straight stems, such as Sonneratia alba and Calophyllum inophyllum, while outriggers were constructed using Hibiscus tiliaceus. The leaves of Pandanus sp. were used as a "tying" material as well as "roof & wall" material. The most common use of mangrove species was as fuel. The materials utilized for fuel depended on various characteristics, such as their durability and the ease with which timber would ignite. Aegiceras corniculatum was used primarily as "fuel" because it retained its strength after ignition. Heritiera littoralis ignited easily and was used as kindling. Some species served different medicinal purposes depending on the part of the tree used. The Table 4. Inventory of mangrove plant resources in Palopo Scientific name Material use Non-material use Family Species Local name Construction Craft Tying Roof &Wall Fuel Food Medicine &Poison Others Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina Lesse lesse Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera parviflora Gandi-gandi Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Kajang-kajang Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Tangere Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Bakko Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Lenro Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Lanro/Bakau Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Beroppa Laut Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia caseolaris Beroppa sungai Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia ovata Beroppa batu Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Buli Meliaceae Xylocarpus sp. Buli lotong Combretaceae Lumnitzera littorea Barana Palmae Nypa fruticans Nipah Myrsinaceae Aegiceras floridum Paresingeng Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Paru Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum Rapio Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae Daun talawere Gramineae Spinifex littoreus Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Elli-elli Closed circles show the species utilized both in the past and present. Open circles show the species utilized only in the past. Horizontal lines ( ) indicate that we could not determine the local name of the species through interviews.

8 40 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. peel of Barringtonia sp. was used as a fish poison, and its leaves were used as a diarrhea remedy. Leaves of Scaevola taccada were used as medicine for women post-childbirth, and the fruit of this species was used as an eye medicine. Leaves and parts of the fruit from Terminalia catappa and Sonneratia sp. as well as the leaves of Sesuvium portulac- Table 5. Inventory of mangrove plant resources in Werilau Scientific name Material use Non-material use Family Species Local name Construction Roof Craft Tying &Wall Fuel Food Medicine &Poison Others Avicenniaceae Avicennia alba Avicenniaceae Avicennia lanata Avicenniaceae Avicenia marina Abah Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis Abah terat Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Tongki Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera parviflora Ketai Rhizophoraceae Ceriops decandra Kayu tanggir Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Tongel Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Akar tinggi Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora stylosa Abah furim Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Abah furim (Akar mangi-mangi) Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba Kebala Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia sp. Kebala Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum Pohon magar Meliaceae Xylocarpus moluccensis Pohon magar Combretaceae Lumnitzera littorea Paci Paci wakat (Bivaht) Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa Bivaht wonron Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Kayu run Myrtaceae Osbornia octodonta Gomu Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum Abah Myrsinaceae Aegiceras floridum Paci Paci wakat (Bivaht) Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum Paku-paku wakat Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Benena Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica Kabuh Guttiferae Calophyllum inophyllum Bintanguru (Kara) Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantea Col pantai (Wafus) Asclepiadaceae Finlaysonia maritima (Abarat) Apocynaceae Cerbera manghas Kadangur Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Pohon mara Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Waruk (Mara) Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae Katang-katang Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Ketapang (Me) Pandanaceae Pandanus tectorius Daun tikar Leguminosae Pongamia pinnata Kacang-kacang (Wuai) Leguminosae Derris trifoliata Goodeniaceae Scaevola taccada Papacheda (Gudua) Gramineae Spinifex littoreus Teruterumafuwatan Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae Vitex ovata Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Bivaht Closed circles show the species utilized both in the past and present. Open circles show the species utilized only in the past. Horizontal lines ( ) indicate that we could not determine the local name of the species through interviews.

9 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 41 astrum were eaten for sustenance. Viviparous seeds of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza were prepared in a mixture with palm sugar and shaved coconut endosperm after being peeled and exposed to water, and then eaten for sustenance. The fruit of Xylocarpus sp. was used as a children's toy. Changes in the characteristics of mangrove plant resource use at each study site In Sinjai, mangrove species were most commonly used as "fuel" followed by "construction", "craft", "food" and "medicine & poison" (Table 3). Nypa fruticans was the only species whose use was still categorized as "roof & wall", "tying" and "food". Rhizophora mucronata was the only species whose use was categorized as "construction", "craft" and "fuel" (Table 3). In Palopo, mangrove species use was mainly categorized as "fuel" followed by "construction", "craft", "food" and "medicine & poison" (Table 4). The number of mangrove species used for "construction" was reduced from nine to one (Rhizophora sp.), those used as "fuel" decreased from 15 to five, and those used for "medicine & poison" decreased from six to none. In both Sinjai and Palopo, the total number of useful mangrove species was greatly reduced compared to the past. Both of these areas still used mangrove species for "fuel", "construction", "tying" and "roof & wall" but presently none were used for "medicine & poison" or "others". Mangrove resources categorized as having a "roof & wall" use were primarily used in the development of aquaculture fences, piles, and work sheds built around aquaculture ponds. "Fuel" resources were primarily used as firewood or for cooking with a kompor (gas burner) and the pericarp of coconuts. Five species were used as firewood in Palopo, while only one firewood species was used in Sinjai. This difference was attributed to reforestation efforts involving the planting of only R. mucronata in Sinjai. Locals in Sinjai and Palopo continued to use mangrove resources as firewood and timber for building work sheds around fishponds as well as for underwater scaffolding material and pilings. N. fruticans was used to make an alcoholic beverage. In Werilau, the number of mangrove species with uses categorized as "fuel" declined from 23 to 20 species, whereas no change was observed in the number of species categorized as "construction" or "tying" (11 and one species, respectively) (Table 5). Though the number of mangrove species is still the same, some species categorized as "construction" have declined in number. For example, adequately sized H. littoralis mangroves, which were used to make traditional ships called korekore, had become difficult to obtain from sites close to the village. The number of mangrove species used for "roof & wall" purposes was reduced from 11 species to nine species. Although the availability of resources categorized as "food" did not change, locals had stopped eating them frequently. The number of mangrove species used as "medicine & poison" decreased from nine species to seven species, likely because of alternative medicines being available at local markets. The rate of decrease in the cumulative number of mangrove species was less than that at the other two sites examined. However, the quantity of useful mangrove resources around villages has decreased following the dairy-level resource use. Access frequency and purpose of access to mangrove areas At the study site in Sinjai, over the course of 14 days, a total of seven people accessed the mangrove areas. Two men and one woman engaged in fishing, including crab fishing, activities. Four men cut R. mucronata for use as firewood (Fig. 3). At the study site in Palopo, over the course of 14 days, a total of six people accessed the mangrove areas: three men collected firewood and three men engaged in mud crab fishing (Fig. 3). Women and children in Palopo rarely accessed mangrove areas. Mangroves were still used as fuel material although the diversity of mangrove plants used as a resource by locals in Sinjai and Palopo is decreasing. Rhizophora spp. are used as fuel material by individual families but are not commercially exploited for use as charcoal and chip products. Mangrove materials for fuel use were mainly collected by men engaging in fishery or aquaculture activities. At the study site in Werilau, a number of villagers were engaged in routine activities in mangrove areas. Werilau villagers were more closely associated with mangrove resources, compared to villagers at the Sinjai and Palopo study sites. Nine men, 41 women, and 14 children were observed undertaking activities over the course of 14 days (Fig. 3). Women and children were mainly engaged in fishing activities and gathering fire wood, whereas men were engaged in the repair of fishing vessels and fishing for mud crabs. The number of villagers who accessed mangrove areas, especially those who accessed them for fishing, increased as the spring tide drew closer, suggesting that tidal cycles affected activity within mangrove areas. Fishery product inventories were obtained through interviews with Werilau villagers who were engaged in fish-

10 42 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. Table 6. Mangrove fishery inventory in Werilau Family Scientific name Species Local name Market value Crustaceans Portunidae Scylla olivacea Tou global market value Portunidae Scylla tranquebarica Tou global market value Portunidae Scylla serrata Wes global market value Portunidae Scylla paramamosain Wes global market value Portunidae Portunus pelagicus (male) Mi badu local market value Portunidae (female) Mi nakan local market value Portunidae Thalamita crenata Fufuar Self-consumption Portunidae Thalamita sp. Dewar local market value Menippidae Myomenippe hardwickii Bomar Self-consumption Menippidae Myomenippe sp. Matin Self-consumption Ocypodidae Uca vocans Babou Self-consumption Ocypodidae Ocypode ceratophthalmus Wewe Self-consumption Dotillidae Scopimera sp. Wewe Self-consumption Penaeidae Penaeus sp. Ura Self-consumption Squillidae Harpiosquilla sp. Faham Molluscs Potamididae Terebralia sulcata Waifi /Waifian Self-consumption Potamididae Cerithidea obtusa Woihil local market value Strombidae Lambis sp. Nero Self-consumption Naticidae Polinices sp. Karufuran Self-consumption Nassaridae Nassarius sp. (Sipu londa) Self-consumption Melongenidae Melongena sp. Jeh Self-consumption Muricidae Chicoreus sp Ganana Self-consumption Muricidae gen et. sp. Neru Self-consumption Veneridae Meretrix sp. Jem Self-consumption Arcidae Anadara granosa Bim Self-consumption Littorinidae Littoraria sp. Kongkong Self-consumption Mytilidae Xenostrobus sp. Lon Self-consumption Echinoderms Cucumariidae Pentacta sp. Kainasi global market value Phyllophoridae Phylloporus sp. Torgol global market value Holothuridae Holothuria scabra Samara global market value Vertebrates Monacanthidar Monocanthus sp. (Ikan suru) Self-consumption Pomacentridae Dischistodus sp. Oguoga Self-consumption Siganidae Siganus canaliculatus Bena Self-consumption Mugilidae Parupeneus sp. Kannaha local market value Clupeidae Sardinella sp. Kakan Self-consumption Latidae Lates sp. Giu Self-consumption Serranidae Epinephelus coioides Maga Self-consumption Belonidae Strongylura strongylura Marasi local market value Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus buffonis Yerwana local market value Aplocheilidae Aplocheilus sp. Fuifuikura market value Toxotidae Toxotes jaculatrix Kuhada/Kohada Self-consumption Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Self-consumption Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus Self-consumption Apogonidae Apogon hyalosoma Self-consumption Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Kadau local market value Horizontal lines ( ) indicate that we could not determine the local name or market value of the species through interviews.

11 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 43 Fig. 3. Number of villagers who accessed mangroves during the daytime low tide (3 hours) over a period of 14 days. The black bar shows the number of men, the white bar shows the number of women, and the gray bar shows the number of children. ery activities such as collecting oysters, cockles, mussels, crabs, and shrimp using a spear or their hands. The rich biodiversity of the mangrove ecosystem was capable of supporting the livelihoods of people in Werilau. Fishery species with local market value included Cerithidea obtusa, Parupeneus sp., Strongylura strongylura, Zenarchopterus buffonis, and Oreochromis sp. These species were also caught for self-consumption. The main edible crab (Scylla spp.) is a highly valued mangrove product, and various species of sea cucumbers are also important resources (Pentacta sp., Phyllophorus sp. and Holothuria sp.) (Table 6). Women and children mainly fished for self-consumption, whereas fishing by men was a commercial activity, with catches sold to Chinese middlemen. DISCUSSION Characteristics of the use of resources from mangroves at each site Mangrove species at the three sites examined were uti-

12 44 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. lized in a variety of ways. While differences existed between the mangrove vegetation at each of the three sites, the local people adapted their use to the material characteristics of each mangrove species. At the three sites examined, mangrove species used as timber were water-resistant and durable. These characteristics may distinguish mangrove wood from other types of wood. Some mangroves species are resistant to bark beetles due to their high concentrations of tannin (Abdul 1981). According to a previous study that compared the characteristics of mangrove species categorized in the present study, the timber strength of species categorized as "construction" and "craft" resources is related to the species specific gravity (Cotton 1996). Previous studies of the specific gravity of dried wood of mangrove species determined that H. littoralis had the highest specific gravity, followed by Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora apiculata, and Bruguiera spp. (Walsh 1977). H. littoralis and C. decandra were also identified as useful species and were used in a variety of applications. Of all mangrove species identified in Werilau Village, H. littoralis provided the most valuable resources. Additionally, mangrove species used in "construction" must have a long, straight main trunk, whereas those categorized as "craft" were selected based on characteristics such as flexibility, durability, shape, and functionality. Firewood was the most common non-material use associated with mangrove species. Walsh (1977) evaluated mangrove fuel materials based on their specific gravity and found that Bruguiera spp. provided the highest quality followed by Ceriops spp. and Rhizophora spp.; Avicennia spp. and S. caseolaris were of lower quality. Locals in Sinjai and Palopo used high-quality Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp., and Rhizophora spp. for firewood, whereas locals in Werilau used species of varying quality, such as Avicennia spp.. Locals in Werilau did not only use species with vine- or fernlike shapes for firewood. These results indicate that Werilau villagers were strongly dependent on mangrove resources as a source of fuel. Palm leaves are widely used in the tropics as thatching for roofs, wall materials, and as a tying material (Cotton 1996). The uses of N. fruticans in Sinjai and Palopo were primarily categorized as "tying" and "roof & wall", while in Werilau, where that species was not observed in the mangrove areas, Pandanus tectorius was used. The same mangrove species had several applications, with different parts of the tree being used as"food" and "medicine & poison". Mangrove resources were used for various medicinal purposes at each study site, many of which were related to diarrhea and stomach ailments. Poison obtained from mangrove species was primarily used in association with fishery activities. In Werilau, mangrove species were also used for medicinal purposes related to pregnancy and childbirth. Phan (1999) reported that mangrove resources were mainly used to alleviate diarrhea, skin diseases, and stomach ailments. This suggests that people living near mangrove areas are exposed to intestinal infections and diarrhea through their drinking water and due to water shortages. Werilau villagers used a greater number of mangrove species compared to villagers in Sinjai and Palopo. In Werilau, mangrove species used as "roof & wall" material were more numerous than in Sinjai and Palopo, while those used for "craft" were less numerous. These mangrove use characteristics may suggest that Werilau has limited timber resources from the mountain areas, as it is on an island, and therefore mangrove plants provide various resources, such as firewood and timber, that are indispensable to the people in Werilau. The number of mangrove species with various material and non-material uses differed significantly among the study sites examined. However, one shared tendency was that the most recorded uses at every site were in the "fuel" category. Higher percentages of species were used for "craft" in Sinjai and Palopo than in Werilau. Meanwhile, higher percentages of species were used for "roof & wall" purposes in Werilau than in Sinjai and Palopo. The latter may be due to difficulties in obtaining alternate building materials, such as forest wood, due to the remote island location of Werilau. This high diversity of uses of mangrove resources is likely a result of long-term use of mangroves by locals, according to their knowledge of the nature and characteristics of the materials available from each mangrove species. The three study sites shared much in common in terms of mangrove use, despite differences in the species composition of mangrove areas. Decreases in the diversity of mangrove resource use and future mangrove resource needs Mangrove forests supply a diverse range of resources, especially fuel material and timber products, which are used in daily life by residents of coastal areas. However, the number of mangrove species used at present in Sinjai and Palopo is much smaller than that indicated in the mangrove resource inventories in Tables 3 and 4. This reduction was particularly apparent in the number of species used for "craft", "medicine & poison" and "construction" purposes. One factor in such reductions may be increased access to other non-mangrove products, commodities, and alternative

13 Changing relationships between mangrove resources and local residents 45 medicines from marketplaces. Furthermore, most of the reforested mangrove sites in Sinjai are monocultures of R. mucronata. Changes in mangrove species composition resulting from replanting activities and legal limits on cutting mangroves have directly affected the diversity of mangrove uses by locals. Resource use in Palopo has also been restricted due to the degradation of the mangrove ecosystem following its conversion to aquaculture ponds. The decline in mangrove resource use may be linked to changes in the relationship between locals and mangroves in Sinjai and Palopo. In Werilau, mangrove use differed from the other regions examined. In Werilau, local livelihoods depended more strongly on the use of mangroves resources than did livelihoods in other coastal villages. Other mangrove sites in the region that were easily accessible by humans have been rapidly destroyed by recent widespread urban development and the overexploitation of mangrove resources. Meanwhile, mangrove forests in Werilau have been maintained in a healthy condition despite frequent access by villagers. This could be due to the remote location of Werilau, its low population density, and its isolation from commercial markets. The mangrove site in Werilau represents how mangrove resources could be used to support and maintain local livelihoods without being overexploited for commercial use. The degree of dependence on mangrove resources has changed along with the development of a market economy. This indicates that a decrease in or a loss of the need for mangrove resources might cause the relationship between mangroves and locals to collapse in conjunction with a decline in the value of mangrove resources in daily life. Specialized use of resources with economic value This study found that a decrease in the diversity of mangrove resource uses resulted from a change in the frequency at which the mangrove sites in Sinjai and Palopo were accessed. At those mangrove sites, few locals performed activities of any kind in the mangrove area. The lack of use of the mangrove forest may reflect its decreased or lost value as a supply of resources for daily life. However, locals still conducted some activities such as cutting or collecting fuel material and fishing in the mangroves. Why have mangroves been maintained merely as a site for fuel material and mud crab (Scylla spp.) fishing in Sinjai and Palopo? Throughout Indonesia, cooking fuel has been rapidly changing from kerosene, charcoal, or wood to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) though a government program that began in 2007 (Arata 2011). In the rural areas of Palopo and Sinjai, however, kerosene and firewood were still the primary fuel sources for cooking and heating. Furthermore, firewood use increased slightly in urban areas between 2005 and (BPS Jakarat 2003; BPS Jakarta 2005 and 2008). These tendencies seem to be related to rising oil prices. The oil price increase began around 2005 in local markets, and likely led to a reevaluation of the use of mangroves as a fuel material (BPS kabupaten sinjai ). However, further field study is needed to clarify this mangrove resource value as a fuel material, given the rise of oil priced. In Werilau, the mangrove currently plays an important role as a site for fishery activity. In contrast, we found few people engaged in fishery activities in the mangroves of Sinjai and Palopo, with the exception of the mud crab fishery. However, mud crabs are an important fishery resource in the three sites due to the increasing demand for mud crab in international markets. The mud crab (Scylla spp.) has been an important fishery resource in Indonesia since the early 1980 s (FAO Fisheries Global Information System). The annual production of mud crab in Indonesia increased by 14 % from 1985 to 1994 and the international market for mud crab reached 8,756 t in Total mud crab exports in 1985 were valued at US$0.77 million and reached US$21.03 million in 1994, over which time the annual export volume of mud crab in Indonesia increased by 12 %. The market price of mud crab over this period rose from US$0.44/kg to US$3.05/kg (Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1994). The increased value of mud crab at local markets has led to an increase in the number of locals who fish for this species (Furukawa et al. 2014). Demand for mud crab is still increasing internationally, and the catch rates in Sinjai and Palopo, South Sulawesi, have grown rapidly since the late 1990 s (BPS kota Palopo and Kapupaten Sinjai ). These results imply that the characteristics of mangrove resource uses differ by region and vary according to changes in the commercial value of mangrove products. Further biological research is needed for a discussion of the relationships between the physical state of the mangroves (planted vs. secondary vs. natural), the fishery potential, and the local fishery trends. CONCLUSIONS Resources from mangroves are selected in each area according to daily needs and economic value. Resource use differs by region and varies according to changes in the

14 46 TROPICS Vol. 24 (1) Fumiko Furukawa, Shigeo Kobayashi et al. commercial value of mangrove products, local fishery trends, and the physical state of the mangroves. For sustainable management of mangrove sites, we must not only evaluate the mangrove ecosystem and its recovery but must also consider the site-specific relationships established between local communities and mangroves. Factors to consider include daily needs and economic value of mangrove resources. Micro-scale studies and research based on field surveys are keys to the sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems (Ajiki, 2004). Community-based knowledge of the current and past extent, condition (planted, secondary, natural), and use of mangroves is essential for sustainable management and coexistence with mangrove ecosystems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was possible with financial support from a Grant-in-Aid for JSPS fellows. The authors gratefully acknowledge two anonymous reviewers and Dr. Takeshi Toma for improving the quality of this manuscript. We would sincerely like to thank Dr. Andi Amri of Hasanuddin University and the staff of LIPI for their kind support with the survey. We would also like to express our deep gratitude to the local communities in South Sulawesi and Maluku for supporting me during our field research. REFERENCES Abdul RMA, Low CK, Abu SA Determination of relative tannin contents of the barks of some Malaysian plants. Malaysian Forester 44 (1): Ajiki K Socio-economic study of the utilization of mangrove forests in South-East Asia. In: Narta Vannucci (ed) Mangrove Management and Conservation. United Nations University Press Aksornkoae S Sustainable use and conservation of mangrove forest resources with emphasis on policy and management practices in Thailand.In: Narta Vannucci (ed) Mangrove Management and Conservation. United Nations University Press Amri A Silvo-fishery systems and sustainable management of coastal resources in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Kyoto University. Arata M Overcoming fuel crises using social safety nets: The case of "Kerosene- to-lpg Conversion Program" in Sundanese Village, West Java, Indonesia. Asian Rural Sociology Asian Rural sociology Association (4): [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Sinjai. Kabupaten Sinjai dalam Angka BPS, Sinjai. [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik kota Palopo Palopo Dalam Angka BPS, Palopo. [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Statistik potensi desa Indonesia BPS Jakarta. [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia. Statistik potensi desa provinsi Sulawesi Selatan 2005 and BPS Jakarta. Cotton CM Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. West Sussex, England. 424 pp. Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan Statistik Ekspor Hasil Perikanan. [FAO] Food and Agriculture Organization The world's mangroves FAO Forestry Paper FAO, Roma [FAO] Food and Agriculture Organization, Fisheries and Aquaculture department. Fisheries Global Information System (FIGIS). (cited 2013 July) Furukawa F, Iwata A, Kobayashi S Current state of the mud crab fishery and resource conservation in Indonesia: Case studies of South Sulawesi and Maluku. Japanese Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, No.52(1): (in Japanese) Kathiresan K, Bingham BL Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 40: Wilkie ML, Fortuna S Statius and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 63. Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome. Ohn U Report on mangrove forest products and utilization of the Ayeyarwady Delta. Feasibility study on Mangrove Reforestation, Myanmar. Field document 4. FAO, Yangon: 51 pp. Ono K Locally appropriate management of mangrove ecosystem: a case study in Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Yokohama National University. (in Japanese) Phillips O, Gentry HA The useful plants of Tambopata, Peru:Ⅰ. Statistical hypothesis tests with a new quantitative technique. Economic Botany 47(1): Phan NH Non-timber products of mangroves. Proceedings of symposium on significance of mangrove ecosystems for coastal people: Survey Team Pabrik Kertas Gowa Survey bahan baku Pabrik Kertas Gowa di Sulawesi Selatan Tenggara. Tomlinson BP The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press: 413 pp. Walsh GE Exploitation of Mangal. In: Chapman VJ. (ed) Wet Coastal Ecosystems, Ecosystems of the World 1: Received: September 12, 2013 Accepted: December 1, 2014