COLLABORATIVE ACTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM (COAST) PROJECT: REEF AND MARINE RECREATION MANAGEMENT (RMRM) THEMATIC AREA

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2 COLLABORATIVE ACTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM (COAST) PROJECT: REEF AND MARINE RECREATION MANAGEMENT (RMRM) THEMATIC AREA June 2014 Rapid Marine Ecosystem Assessment Report By: Bernice Mclean * Jonathan Kingwill * Jayshree Govender * In collaboration with the COAST Demo Site Management Committee and other stakeholders * EcoAfrica Environmental Consultants Cover photo insert from left: i

3 Foreword This report covers the rapid ecosystem assessment studies that were undertaken to inform the participatory mapping and sustainability management planning processes for the Reef and Marine Thematic Area of the Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism (COAST) Project. The assessments were done collaboratively by EcoAfrica together with local stakeholders at each of the three Demonstration Sites, being Watamu in Kenya, Bagamoyo in Tanzania and the Tofo, Barra and Tofinho area in Mozambique. Sustainable Marine Tourism Management requires ongoing work. Through collaborative planning, based on ecosystem-based adaptation, a sound foundation can be provided for improved governance, ensuring that reef and marine recreation can be developed and managed in a way that provides lasting positive impacts for local economic development and environmental health. Assessment Team June 2014 i

4 Table of Contents Foreword... i Table of Contents... ii List of Figures... iii List of Tables... iii Acronyms... iv 1 Introduction Tourism in Marine and Coastal Areas The RMRM Thematic Area of the COAST Project Methodology Approach Literature Reviews Socio-economic Surveys Transects, Photography, Filming and Observations Field Visits, Photography Stakeholder Discussions Participatory Mapping Activities Results: Watamu Demo Site Overview of the Watamu Marine and Coastal Environment Rapid Ecosystem Assessment Results in Watamu Relative Biodiversity Indices Relative Condition Ratings Indicator Species Conclusions on the Watamu Demo Site Results: Bagamoyo Demo Site Overview of the Bagamoyo Marine and Coastal Environment Rapid Ecosystem Assessment in Bagamoyo Relative Biodiversity Indices Relative Condition Ratings Indicator Species Underwater Tourism Potential Conclusions on the Bagamoyo Demo Site Results: Tofo-Barra-Tofinho (TBT) Demo Site Overview of the TBT Marine and Coastal Environment Rapid Ecosystem Assessment in TBT Relative Biodiversity Indices Relative Condition Ratings Indicator Species Conclusions on the TBT Demo Site General Conclusions Monitoring and Evaluation for Ecosystem-based Adaptive Management The Need for Collaborative Action ii

5 References Annex 1: Marine Tourism Indicators and Methods for KWS Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM) Programme in Watamu Annex 2: Fish Species List for Watamu Rapid Ecosystem Assessment Annex 3: List of Endangered and Vulnerable Marine Species in TBT List of Figures Figure 1: Laying out a transect in TBT Demo Site... 4 Figure 2: Videography of line transect, Watamu Demo Site... 4 Figure 3: Divers with counting slates, Watamu Demo Site... 6 Figure 4: Photographic survey, Watamu Demo Site... 6 Figure 5: Mangrove field visit, TBT Demo Site... 8 Figure 6: Seagrass & seahorse, Inhambane Bay, TBT Demo Site... 8 Figure 8: Participatory mapping, Bagamoyo Demo Site... 9 Figure 7: Participatory mapping, TBT Demo Site... 9 Figure 9: Marine Recreation Activities within the Watamu Demo Site Figure 10: Marine Tourism Impacted Areas of Watamu Demo Site Figure 11: Marine Recreation Activities within the Bagamoyo Demo Site Figure 12: Coral disease, Mwamba Kuni Reef Figure 13: Coral breakage, Mwamba Kuni Reef Figure 14: Soft corals, Mbegani Bay Figure 15: Marine Tourism Impacted Sites within the Bagamoyo Demo Site Figure 16: Marine Recreation Activities within the TBT Demo Site Figure 17: Marine Tourism Impacted Sites within the TBT Demo Site List of Tables Table 1: RMRM Rapid Ecosystem Assessment Methodology... 3 Table 2: Reef Assessment Sites... 5 Table 3: Results of biodiversity counts for fish, soft and hard corals Table 4: Relative condition rating for the sample sites Table 5: Results of biodiversity counts for fish, soft and hard corals Table 6: Relative condition rating for the sample sites Table 7: Results of biodiversity counts for fish, soft and hard corals Table 8: Relative condition rating for the sample sites iii

6 Acronyms BAPs BATs CBO COAST CORDIO DSMC EEZ GEF ICZM KWS NGO RMRM SAM Tech UNEP UNIDO UNWTO WCS Best Available Practices Best Available Technologies Community-based Organisation Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Development Coastal Ocean Research Development in the Indian Ocean Demonstration Site Management Committee Exclusive Economic Zone Global Environment Fund Integrated coastal zone management Kenya Wildlife Service Non-Governmental Organization Reef and Marine Recreation Management Strategic Adaptive Management Technical United Nations Environment Program United Nations Industrial Development Organization United Nations World Trade Organization Wildlife Conservation Society iv

7 1 Introduction 1.1 Tourism in Marine and Coastal Areas Coastal environments are complex, dynamic, highly sensitive and delicate ecosystems, comprising of significant habitats and rich biodiversity. Globally, the productive capacity and ecological integrity of the marine environment, which includes both estuaries and nearshore coastal waters, are being degraded. In most cases, the main driving factors contributing to the degradation of these `ecosystems are poor spatial planning, rapid population growth and associated development-related activities in these coastal areas. These result from increasing population, urbanisation, industrialisation, tourism and maritime transport (UNWTO, 2013a). Throughout history, coastal environments have held a charismatic lure for visitors. Tourism in coastal areas is one of the largest and fastest growing sectors of the industry that holds a promise of contributing to the economic and social wellbeing of the destination countries. In Sub-Sahara Africa, many coastal countries with attractive marine and coastal environments are increasingly turning to tourism as a viable option to accelerate economic growth, as the sector proves to be a useful factor for such growth (UNWTO, 2013a). Coastal tourism is however also a fragile sector, particularly within developing countries, where governance systems and development structures are emerging. Negative impacts from the sector can contribute to rising pollution and degradation of sensitive marine and coastal areas, resulting from poorly planned developments, competition for scarce natural resources, rising real estate prices, displacement of local communities and irreversible damage to local culture. Simply stated, inappropriate tourism development negatively impacts local natural and cultural resources and limits tourism business opportunity into the long-term. There is now growing recognition that if planned and practised collaboratively and responsibly, tourism can be managed to deliver both quality visitor experiences and benefits to local economies and communities, and their livelihoods. 1.2 The RMRM Thematic Area of the COAST Project The Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism (COAST) Project, implemented by United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), was developed to identify and apply a number of Best Available Practices and/or Best Available Technologies (BAPs/BATs) aimed at the reduction of negative environmental impacts resulting from the coastal tourism sector actions and pollutants. The project was implemented within nine coastal tourism destinations in Sub-Saharan Africa under three main Thematic Areas: Ecotourism, Environmental Management Systems, and Reef and Marine Recreation Management (RMRM). The RMRM Thematic Area was implemented in three Demonstration Sites (hereafter Demo Sites), in East Africa, being Watamu, Kenya; Bagamoyo, Tanzania and Tofo, Barra and Tofinho (TBT), Mozambique. The aim of the Demo Sites was to demonstrate and support 1

8 adoption of best practice approaches to promote sustainable reef and marine recreation practices. The RMRM activities were organised according to the following components: Component 1: Data collection; Component 2: Design, Development and Implementation of Project Briefs; Component 3: Survey and GIS Mapping of Sensitive Areas and Damaged Sites; Component 4: Demarcation of Reef as part of the as part of a Reef Management Strategy; Component 5: Sustainability/Management Planning; Component 6: Awareness and Capacity Building on Reef Conservation; and Component 7: Project Management, Facilitation and Monitoring and Evaluation. This report is concerned primarily with activities under Component 3: Survey and GIS Mapping of Sensitive Areas and Damaged Sites and specifically with the ecosystem assessment survey activities. The methodologies for the ecosystem surveys are described below, followed by the key findings that are relevant to the RMRM Thematic Area aims. The report concludes with some of the main recommendations that are taken up by the sustainability management plans / strategies for each Demo Site, for improving the governance of reef and marine recreation in each site. This report should be read in conjunction with the other deliverables completed for each of the Demo Sites as part of the RMRM project activities. 2 Methodology 2.1 Approach A standard methodology was used in the rapid marine ecosystem assessments in the three Demo Sites (see Table 1 below). This methodology includes the following: Literature review; Socio-economic surveys; Transects, observations, photography, filming and observations; Field visits, photography; Stakeholder discussions; and Participatory GIS mapping The methodology has been used by EcoAfrica in other project initiatives in East Africa and the Western Indian Ocean and has provided sufficient data for use in planning and strengthening marine conservation and management efforts. While the methodology purposefully employs rapid techniques, it was chosen to be most applicable to the RMRM project aims and participatory planning approach, to be easily repeatable for replication in other areas and ongoing monitoring of marine tourism activities by relevant authorities, and to provide a useful platform of information for supplementing additional and more comprehensive assessments. 2

9 Table 1: RMRM Rapid Ecosystem Assessment Methodology Literature review Existing research reports and literature relevant to the marine ecosystems in the Demo Sites were collected and analysed. Socioeconomic Surveys Structured interviews conducted with local stakeholders in selected areas of the Demo Sites. Further anecdotal data was collected through numerous interactions with stakeholders including fishers, tourists, dive operators, tour boat operators, researchers and authorities. Transects, photography, filming and observations Using both transect methods and random photographic techniques, assessment team dived and snorkelled coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass areas and filmed, photographed and recorded species and environmental processes, characteristics and impacts in selected areas of the Demo Sites. Field visits, photography Different marine and coastal habitats and marine recreation activities in the target area were observed, filmed and photographed. Stakeholder discussions Focus group discussions, as well as informal discussions were held with relevant stakeholders. Participatory GIS mapping Participatory mapping with stakeholder feedback was undertaken to identify target areas for assessment as well as sensitive and degraded habitats and areas of interest / use. 2.2 Literature Reviews The literature review process was based on a review of relevant documentation on BAPs and BATs related to RMRM utilising the COAST Online Toolkit, as well as reviewing other key current documents relevant to marine recreation and ecosystem health in each of the Demo Site areas (publications, reports, plans and legislation etc.). 2.3 Socio-economic Surveys One of the first activities carried out by EcoAfrica was the collection of existing Demo Site information and spatial data. This activity was undertaken to compile a baseline study of information for further monitoring of changes at the Demo Sites, both during and after the project. Preliminary baseline surveys were designed, tested and conducted at all three Demo Sites and baseline reports drafted to capture the results. These draft reports were shared with key stakeholders and the COAST management team for further input and finalization. Additional information was collected throughout the project and incorporated into the ecosystem assessment, participatory mapping and sustainability planning processes. The draft Baseline Report for each Demo Site was shared with stakeholders for review and finalization. 3

10 At the end of the RMRM project activities, a follow-up stakeholder survey was conducted and the results incorporated into final Baseline Reports for each Demo Site Transects, Photography, Filming and Observations The rapid ecosystem assessment and participatory mapping activities provided an indication of the key sensitive ecosystem areas and degraded or impacted sites relating specifically to marine recreation. Transect assessments were carried out primarily on coral reefs, while other sensitive marine ecosystems that were used for or impacted by marine recreation, like mangrove forests and seagrass beds, were also visited and inspected. Rapid ecosystem assessments and participatory mapping activities provided an understanding of the degree and type of reef and marine usage, as well as the type of impacts from marine recreation. Underwater reef surveys were conducted using rapid reef assessment approaches to obtain an understanding of the degree and type of reef usage, as well as the type of impacts from marine recreation. The rapid assessment approach using a combination of techniques including: i) Photographic Profiling; ii) Fish and Coral Counts (hard and soft corals and other indicator species); iii) Photos along a Transect; and iv) Video Transects (see Figures 1& 2 below). These techniques were also piloted, as possible future monitoring options. Figure 2: Laying out a transect in TBT Demo Site Figure 1: Videography of line transect, Watamu Demo Site The underwater team consisted of two or more divers experienced in the rapid assessment methodology, still photography and videography. Where possible, information on the reefs were obtained from local divers or user groups. A concerted effort was made to include 1 Note: While the results from the stakeholder surveys were to inform aspects of the used ecosystem assessment, they are not included in detail in this report, but are captured in the Baseline Report for each Demo Site. 4

11 relevant conservation officials, local divers or reef monitoring teams in the assessments, as part of capacity building for future monitoring activities. While this was achieved in Bagamoyo and TBT, conservation officials in Watamu were unavailable for surveys. The team of divers carried out a series of dives in selected sites (see Table 2 below for dive locations at each Demo Site 2 ). Sampling sites were chosen in conjunction with DSMC members, through stakeholder feedback and by determining tourist use and potential impact areas. In Watamu, the sampling sites were recommended directly by the DSMC Technical Team (Tech Team), while in Bagamoyo and TBT, sampling sites were based more of stakeholder feedback and observation of tourist use. The boats used by the divers when going to a reef were sourced from the local tour operators, conservation or fisheries authorities, and local fishermen. Observations and subsequent viewing of digital stills and videography enabled the team to assess parameters relating to biodiversity, coral reef health, fish abundance and other indicators. Table 2: Reef Assessment Sites Demo Site Watamu Bagamoyo Tofo, Barra, Tofinho Reef Name Coral Gardens Richard Bennett s Reef / Turtle Reef The Larder Brain Coral Reef Drammer reef Mwamba Kuni Mwamba Mshingwi Mbegani Bay Reefs Manta Reef Hogwarts Reef Clownfish Reef Chamber of Secrets Buddies reef The Office Reef Inhambane Bay Rocky area Existing research and monitoring of reefs in the East African area has focused largely on assessments relating to fisheries and resource use, rather than specifically relating to recreation or marine tourism. For instance a comprehensive set of methods is outlined McClanahan (2008) based on over 20 years of experience of monitoring coral reefs in Kenya, which provide valuable guidance for long-term measurement of biodiversity, ecological processes, fish catch and the lifestyles and perceptions of fishers. It should be noted that, for the purposes of the project objectives, the aim of the rapid assessments was not to undertake a comprehensive baseline evaluation of the reefs 3, but rather to assess the relative state of the 2 The GPS coordinates for the reefs are not included in this report but are registered in the metadata for the mapping. 3 While a comprehensive baseline assessment and reef evaluation would prove extremely valuable for understanding and monitoring the health of the reefs in the three sites, this would require an extended time and significantly more resources and falls beyond the scope of the COAST Project. It is useful to note that at the time of implementation of the RMRM project 5

12 reefs relating to reef and marine recreation management and to identify sensitive and degraded areas for including in the GIS mapping. The rapid reef assessment team studied a number of environmental parameters to pilot the reef assessments within the three Demo Sites, as described below. a) Relative Biodiversity Indices The biodiversity of a site can be determined by various scientific methods that may range in technique from simple observation to the physical collection of organisms through a variety of sampling techniques. For the purposes of the rapid assessment described here, the relative diversity across different areas is more informative than absolute species diversity. Relative diversity may be assessed by comparing sites using the same methodology, to minimise any inconsistencies. Relative diversity estimates were obtained for fish, the hard and soft coral families through observations and counts done during 12-minute trails by researchers swimming at random areas of the site. The counts were repeated at different areas of the site to obtain the relative levels of diversity of these groups of organisms. For each sampling period rest intervals of 1 to 2 minutes where taken in between trails and all observations were recorded on a slate (see Figure 3). Experience from numerous other assessments have proven that a 12 minute period is sufficient for encountering most of the species groups present at a site and is also adequate for the observer to remember which species were encountered during that period. b) Relative Condition Ratings Different types of damage on each site were observed and recorded. The damage was inflicted by either anthropogenic or natural causes. For each dive site, the researchers photographed and examined the different types of damages, which included damage from discarded nets, anchors and abandoned fishing lines intertwined with coral, as well as obvious signs of coral bleaching, large-scale coral die-off, non-specific physical damage, and sediment and algae covering the corals. While further systematic and quantitative research over extended periods of time is required to ascertain the degree of damage and exact cause of the damage, as well as the relationship of the damage to marine recreation, Figure 3: Divers with counting slates, Watamu Demo Site Figure 4: Photographic survey, Watamu Demo Site activities, an un-related initiative was conducted in the region to establish a videographic baseline of some of the key reefs in the region. Analysis of the results from this initiative, the East African Marine Transect (EAMT), was still underway at the time of writing this report. 6

13 this method provided a useful estimation of the relative condition and threats to the site. The relative condition or degree of damage estimations were made by rating the different sites through a combined impression of all the different types of damage and degradation noted by the investigators and a comparison of images recorded during the photographic profile at each site. The photographic profile of the sampling site was done by recording random images of the site, each at a 45-degree angle and approximately 1 meter above the coral. Sites were rated using a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 representing the worst condition and 1 representing the best condition sites (see Figure 4). c) Underwater Tourism Potential The underwater tourism potential assessment was used primarily in Bagamoyo due to the relative limited tourism use of the marine areas compared to the other two Demo Sites. A modification in the overall COAST Project focus following the project mid-term review, required an adjustment in the RMRM Thematic area from reef conservation and management to reef recreation management. This required an adjustment in approach, particularly in Bagamoyo, where threats to the reefs are mainly due to fishing activities. The approach therefore, focused on estimating overall tourism potential of the reefs within the Bagamoyo Demo Site. Estimating the tourism potential of reefs can be a complex issue as different tourists look for different attractions and many factors affect the overall visitor experience. Within the scope of this project however, this parameter refers primarily to the underwater attractiveness of the different sites in Bagamoyo based on characteristics such as the attractiveness of the underwater landscape, the biological diversity, the accessibility and safety, to name a few. Finally, to make rating the different sites easier, the simple question was asked: If you had limited time, to which site(s) would you take tourists who are interested in observing marine life? Again the rating scale of 1 to 5 was used. d) Indicator Species Reefs are complex ecosystems with multiple strong interrelationships among fish, coral, physical and chemical processes and other organisms and ecosystems such as sea urchins, sea cucumber, seagrass beds, mangroves and so on. Changes on one part of the system can have direct effects on the abundance of certain species. Indicator species is a well-known concept and considered acceptable methodology and a basis on which statements can be made regarding the health of coral reef environments (see McClanahan, 2008 for a description of assessment methodologies for specific indicator species). The presence of sea cucumber, sea urchins, certain species of starfish and butterfly fish species, as well as large groupers are commonly used as indicators of reef health. For this study, the presence of selected indicator species such as butterfly fish, parrotfish, sea cucumber, Crown of Thorns starfish and grouper (on deeper reefs), were recorded for the different sample sites. 7

14 e) Additional Information The field assessments were supplemented with existing research findings and stakeholder consultations. For instance, in Watamu, the two reef areas selected by the DSMC Tech Team were the subject of ongoing research by A Rocha Kenya who were working to assess the impact of snorkelling on marine habitats and tourism industry of Watamu Marine National Park (Cowburn et al, 2013). Researchers from Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) have also conducted monitoring of a specific coral reef area in Watamu for an extended period of time (McClanahan, pers. comm, 2013). In Bagamoyo, the Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership has worked to create a monitoring baseline with fishers for selected coral reefs off Bagamoyo. In TBT, the Marine Megafauna Foundation has conducted extensive research over more than 10 years on selected megafauna such as manta ray species and Whale Sharks. These RMRM assessments utilised information from the results of these and other research efforts to support the identification of the sensitive marine areas within the overall Demo Site and the identification of some of the key current human impacts from marine tourism on the marine system. 2.5 Field Visits, Photography Field visits were undertaken to specific areas of concern, interest and/or high-use identified by stakeholders, including local residents, marine recreation user groups (tour operators), authorities and researchers to verify the validity of existing data and supplement information from the assessments. The field visits helped to identify additional sensitive and damaged areas within other sensitive habitats i.e. mangroves, seagrass beds and estuaries (see Figures 5 and 6 below). The visits also helped to highlight the important linkages between the different habitats from an ecosystem-based adaptive management perspective in that critical biophysical linkages exist among mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs, sandy beaches through natural processes and species life stages. The field visits also helped to understand the reef and marine recreation management linkages among the different ecosystems, for instance in the TBT Demo Site, the Inhambane Bay is growing in popularity among snorkelers and divers who traditionally visited the deeper offshore reef areas, particularly if weather conditions are not conducive to SCUBA diving on the deeper reefs. Figure 5: Mangrove field visit, TBT Demo Site Figure 6: Seagrass & seahorse, Inhambane Bay, TBT Demo Site 8

15 While some information was gathered from stakeholder interactions, useful information was also obtained from general observations, such as signs of litter, pollution of the habitats, construction, and the presence of marine recreation activities i.e. boat mooring, snorkelling, swimming, fishing etc. Photography and videography was used to record habitats and features and marine recreation activities within the Demo Sites. This information was used in developing the GIS maps for the Demo Sites (See Section 3 below). 2.6 Stakeholder Discussions Workshops, meetings, focus groups and informal discussions were held at each Demo Site with as many stakeholders as possible, throughout the project implementation process. Stakeholders consulted included tourism operators, fishers, schools, community groups, lodges and guesthouses, tour and boat operators, researchers and specialists, NGOs and government representatives. In addition, regular meetings and consultations were held with the DSMC and Tech Team members from each Demo Site. Stakeholder discussions involved sharing of information, results, expectations and experiences and the identification of options and responsibilities for future management, as well as participatory mapping. 2.7 Participatory Mapping Activities The participatory mapping exercise was undertaken through ongoing consultation with stakeholders and field visits to identify key features, impacts, areas of concern, and opportunities for improved management (see Figures 7 & 8). In general, the process involved the sourcing of any existing mapping data for the marine and coastal area of the Demo Site. GPS points were recorded for as many major features as possible, relating to the reef and marine recreational use. Collection of additional information through the ecosystem assessments, ground-truthing, existing research and stakeholder participation, contributed to the mapping exercise. Mapping of some of the major sensitive ecosystems (reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves) was supplemented by information provided by researchers from each site and dive operators. Figure 8: Participatory mapping, TBT Demo Site Figure 7: Participatory mapping, Bagamoyo Demo Site 9

16 In Watamu, existing mapping data sets were provided by UNIDO for some of the major sensitive ecosystems. This was supplemented by data collection and information provided by researchers from WCS and selected dive operators. The RMRM team sourced satellite images of the Watamu Demo Site and the information was used as a basis for the mapping, in addition to the information collected during follow-up field visits and stakeholder discussions during the development of the RMRM maps and sustainability management plan. Mapping data for the other two Demo Sites was not readily available and limited existing information was obtained, yet obtained through a negotiated process with local researchers, dive operators and other information sources. In Bagamoyo, preliminary data was obtained from The Coastal Management Partnership and in the TBT area, mapping data was provided by researchers at the Eduardo Mondlane University. Standard reef coordinates were provided by dive operators in the area, as well as capturing on GPS during visiting some sites. Mapping information was collected from various sources and compiled into a 1 st mapping layer entitled Sensitive Marine Tourism Elements. The information collected was detailed spatially using GIS, and included the data sets listed below: 1. Existing urbanised areas and developed tourism areas; 2. Marine tourism use areas, especially areas shallower than 3m in depth; 3. Types of marine tourism usage, including snorkelling, SCUBA diving, motorised boats, jetskis, swimming, surfing, recreational and sports fishing, kite surfing, paddling; 4. Sensitive ecosystem elements within the marine area, including reef areas, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, turtle nesting areas and high biodiversity corridors; and 5. Protected areas, managed areas and areas with no management. The information was then analysed spatially through over-laying data sets by making use of GIS. The aim was to produce a 2 nd mapping layer entitled Impacted Tourism Areas that indicated zones of higher usage requiring priority better management, as well as sites that are degraded and require intervention. The information used to determine these areas included the following data sets: 1. Tourism access points into the marine environment; 2. Tourism routes within the Demo Site; 3. Level of marine tourism usage, ranging from low through medium to high; 4. Specific areas with existing and/or potentially high impacts from marine tourism; and 5. Specific areas of conflict between users. The draft sets of maps produced for each site were discussed with the DSMC, Tech Team members, villagers in the Demo Site, researchers, lodge owners and other key users of the Demo Site. Areas of specific use or concern identified by the stakeholders during the consultation meetings were also mapped. A second draft of the maps were presented to 10

17 stakeholders for further feedback and input, which was incorporated into the final maps. The aim of the maps is to provide information to orientate management activities and priorities (sensitivities, degradation, threats, management arrangements and priorities, research and information gaps) within the Demo Site. 3 Results: Watamu Demo Site 3.1 Overview of the Watamu Marine and Coastal Environment The Watamu Demo Site is located on the Kenyan coast, approximately 120km north of Mombasa, within the Malindi District (Kilifi County) in the Coast Province of Kenya. The Demo Site falls within the Watamu Marine Park and Reserve (also known as Watamu Marine Protected Area) and within the broader Malindi-Watamu Marine Conservation Area. The Watamu area hosts an exceptional wealth of biodiversity that forms the basis of tourism and trade along this stretch of coast. The Watamu Marine Park covers an area of 10km 2 whereas the Reserve covers an area of 32km 2 in addition to a 100ft wide strip of coastal land above the high-water mark. The area is well known for its pristine sandy beaches, rich marine biodiversity (including visiting Whale Sharks, manta rays and three species of sea turtle), and its reef-protected lagoon, Mida Creek. The water is relatively shallow in the Demo Site apart from the area around the entrance to Mida Creek and the deeper channel running along the length of the Marine Protected Area (MPA). Small coral patches lying parallel to the shore are marked with buoys (KWS, 2013). The Malindi/Watamu Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) host a complex biological diversity of fringing, patch and deep-water coral reefs with more than 60 coral genera represented. Coral families include Favidae, Poritidae and Acroporidae and the underwater flora comprises mainly Cymodocea algae. The Park also hosts numerous species of fish from more than 12 families. Mida Creek features expanses of diverse seagrass beds and a highly productive mangrove habitat in which 9 mangrove species are recorded within an area of about 1,600 ha. The estuarine conditions of Mida Creek are maintained by groundwater seepage, with the adjoining Arabuko Sokoke Forest and Nature Reserve (42,000 ha) that forms the water catchment area (KWS, 2013). The population of Watamu is approximately 9,000 inhabitants, the majority of whom are highly dependent on marine and coastal resources for their livelihood. Tourism is the key socio-economic activity in Watamu and is one of the primary employers for the local people. Various marine recreation activities in the Watamu Demo Site are illustrated in Figure 9 below. 11

18 Figure 9: Marine Recreation Activities within the Watamu Demo Site 12

19 3.2 Rapid Ecosystem Assessment Results in Watamu In Watamu, the rapid reef surveys were conducted on two reef areas that were suggested by the Tech Team for assessment, including the very popular snorkelling site of Coral Gardens where the majority of boat operators take visitors to snorkel, and the less utilised Richard Bennett s Reef (also reportedly known as Turtle Reef). Field visits were also conducted at other marine areas including some of the deeper SCUBA diving reefs, Brain Coral and Drammer Reefs and dolphin watching areas, selected sandy beaches and areas of Mida Creek. The assessment supported the identification of the sensitive marine areas within the overall Demo Site and the identification of some of the key current human impacts from marine tourism on the marine system. In Watamu, additional reef monitoring activities were conducted to contribute to future monitoring and management efforts. These pilot data collection activities included: i) A photographic and video transects along a 50 metre transect and along a zigzag transect; and ii) An investigation by CORDIO into Tourism Use of Marine Resources in Watamu Marine National Park (WMNP). The latter activity involved surveys conducted of three aspects of tourism use in the WMNP; snorkeler behaviour, consequent damage to coral areas and a first assessment of the use of rock pools by tourists in WMNP. The surveys by CODRIO yielded a detailed list of indicators and associated methods for monitoring of tourism use of key attractions in the WMNP (see Annex 1), as well as recommendations for next steps for implementing monitoring in the framework of the Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM) programme of KWS. Previous studies suggest an overall declining health of the marine ecosystems in Watamu. Following the extensive coral bleaching event in 1997/8, there has been some improvement in coral recovery, but not as extensive as was expected (McClanahan pers. comm. 2013). Specific tourism-related studies, reveal specific pressures on coral reef ecosystems in the area. Coral damage by tourists activities has been previously reported (Muthiga and Weru, 2002). Such damage may be by abrasion, fragmentation and broken corals caused mostly accidentally but can also be intentionally by snorkelers or boat s crews. These damages can reduce the coral cover changing the benthic community structure and ultimately reducing the tourist value of the sites. A previous study at Watamu Marine National Park recorded observable tourists induced damage to the corals at Coral Gardens. (Cowburn et al, 2013). The study also reported more damage at Coral Gardens than two other sites less frequented by snorkelers, and differences in damage experienced by different coral genera Relative Biodiversity Indices The results of the fish and coral counts at Coral Gardens and Richard Bennett s Reef showing the relative biodiversity indices are presented in Table 3 below. The site with the lowest index was the greater-utilised Coral Gardens snorkelling reef compared to the lesser-snorkelled, deeper, Richard-Bennett s Reef. The greater diversity in species at Richard Bennett s Reef 13

20 was particularly evident in the smaller fish species. These two reefs are in fact quite close to each other (see Figure 9). Reasons for the lower diversity of both fish and coral on the Coral Gardens site cannot definitely be said to result from tourism activities alone, however, based on results from previous research, disturbance from marine recreation may be said to be a contributing factor. A list of fish species identified from the rapid assessment of the two reef sites is provided in Annex 2. Table 3: Results of Biodiversity Counts for Fish, Soft and Hard Corals Sample Site n Biodiversity counts and overall index Fish Hard Coral Soft Coral Index Coral Gardens 18 29,4 (7-50) 7,9 (4-21) 0,8 (0-8) 37,3 Richard Bennett s Reef / Turtle Reef 18 31,3 (18-53) 9,8 (2-22) 1,8 (0-7) 41,1 Note: The Index column merely represents the total of fish + hard coral, n is the total number of readings for each site and numbers in brackets indicate the total range in the readings Relative Condition Ratings In this parameter the sample site considered to be in the best condition would have a rating of 1, while the more degraded site would have a rating of 5 (see Table 4). Some signs of damage (physical breakage, disease and die-off) to the coral were observed at Coral Gardens, specifically on the upper levels of the corals that may have been more exposed to tourist contact during low tide periods. Some signs of pollution including discarded plastic bags, ropes as well as possible increased nutrification as evidenced by the presence of filamentous algal growth. The growth of filamentous red algae was more evident at the Coral Gardens site. The difference in conditions could be affected by the depth of the reefs since Richard Bennett s Reef is deeper and therefore, less impacted from warming due to deeper waters. Observational dives to the deeper offshore reefs, Brain Coral and Drammer Reef suggested fewer tourism-related impacts on the corals, but also fewer species of fish. While the team recorded a few smaller groupers, no large groupers were evident. The limited number of deeper reefs available for SCUBA diving makes good management of these reefs imperative. Table 4: Relative Condition Rating for the Sample Sites Sample Site Ratings Coral Gardens 3,36 Richard Bennett s Reef / Turtle Reef 2, Indicator Species Indicator species were noted, but the data collected cannot be applied with any degree of confidence for the purpose of making definitive conclusions. Butterfly fish were observed at both sites and a large grouper was observed at Coral Gardens however, there was generally a 14

21 distinct lack of predatory species (grouper) at both reefs. These highly territorial fish are sought after by fishermen and are easily caught in traps as they chase the smaller species into the traps. The even spread across sites renders the meaningful application of the concept of indicator species difficult without further data collection during a more intensive study Conclusions on the Watamu Demo Site Despite the restrictions of the rapid assessment methodology and limitations inherent due to the small scope and limited timeframe of the assessment, some basic trends may be observed in terms of the health of the sites. Based on existing research results and the results from this study, the marine ecosystems of the Demo Site system may be said to be showing multiple signs of stress. There is no doubt that the shallower reefs areas have been degraded both by natural and human-induced pressures and will continue to decline in health in the absence of stronger management interventions and the presence of increasing pressures from local threats to the immediate ecosystems and surrounding biomes, as well as global change. The Watamu marine area has a large degree of pressure from coastal development, but also has a framework for proper governance of the site due to the status of a marine protected area. If implemented effectively, the proposed plan for strengthening the management of the MPA by KWS through their SAMS process, will help to identify and mitigate key threats to the system. Figure 10 below illustrates the higher use zone and some of the key sensitive marine areas impacted by tourism including coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds and sandy beaches. The map provides a useful illustration of the location of sensitive ecosystems and their proximity to high tourism use (the area from Kanani, all along the coastline to Uyombo). It is evident that the higher use and impacted areas relate directly to the level of access by users of the areas and the need for improved management in these areas. 15

22 Figure 10: Marine Tourism Impacted Areas of Watamu Demo Site 16

23 4 Results: Bagamoyo Demo Site 4.1 Overview of the Bagamoyo Marine and Coastal Environment The Bagamoyo Demo Site is located in the Bagamoyo District, approximately 65km north of Dar es Salaam City. Tanzania s coastal zone hosts a high biodiversity and an abundance of natural resources (Ruitenbeek et al, 2005). The Bagamoyo coastline is characterised by sandy and rocky shores, muddy tidal flats, mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds. The area also includes an ecological hotspot, Mbegani Bay, that covers a diversity of ecosystems and supports a rich marine life, and as a result a highly productive fishery. The Bay is located about 10km south of Bagamoyo Town and includes a shallow rectangular-shaped lagoon (commonly known as Lazy Lagoon) that is separated from the sea by a narrow raised fossil reef platform. This narrow peninsular of land provides a buffer against ocean surf, protecting the shore and coastal settlements. Within the lagoon, several other raised reef platforms occur, including Mapopo Island and Chaza Island. The lagoon covers about 15km 2 and extends between Kondo village in the south and the Ras Mbegani in the north. The coral reefs around the Bagamoyo marine area are relatively poor compared to other reefs off mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar. High concentrations of coral reefs in Mbegani Bay are found in Mwamba Kuni and Mwamba Mshingwi, while patchy reefs that are sedimentstressed, are located at Mwamba Kati, Mwamba Mjini, Mwamba Poyogo, Mwamba Tekea and Mwamba Chuma (Tobey et al, 2013). Seagrass beds are common in the offshore area of Bagamoyo and are strongly linked to the health of the coral reefs in terms of energy flows. They are highly productive areas and support great species diversity and abundance. Seagrass beds can be seen on the side of the coral reefs that are protected from current action, e.g., at Mwamba Kuni and Mwamba Mshingwi. Large areas of seagrass also flourish along the lower end of sandy intertidal zones. Seagrass beds are the most important habitat in Mbegani Bay in terms of providing an essential fish nursery habitat for the fishery (Tobey et al, 2013). In the Bagamoyo area, mangroves grow along the coastal fringe from Ras Mbegani to Mlingotini. Denser mangrove thickets occur on most of the raised reefs or islands inside the lagoon. Stands of mangroves also occur at Kaole, Kondo and further south, extending to Mbweni in Kinondoni District. Research indicates that 8 of the 10 mangrove species occurring in Tanzania occur in Mbegani Bay (Tobey et al, 2013). As with coral reefs and seagrass beds, mangroves provide essential habitat for a diversity of species and serve as nursery areas for juvenile fish. They also serve as a coastal buffer for severe weather events, help to maintain water quality and reduce siltation and erosion. The Bagamoyo area is fed by the Wami and Ruvu Rivers, which have their estuaries in the Bagamoyo District and provide breeding ground for shrimp and other economically significant species. The rivers are also a major supplier of nutrients to the Indian Ocean waters and are the source of water for human consumption, livestock and irrigation in the District. 17

24 Approximately 50% of the population of the villages in the Bagamoyo District rely on fishing and / or farming for livelihood (Tobey et al, 2013). Secondary activities include salt making, firewood production, food and drink sales during high fishing season and other small business activities (Torell et al, 2006). The mangroves of Bagamoyo form a more or less continuous band along the coast from Saadani, southwards to the area near Kitame Salt works and from Ruvu River to Mpiji River. The abundance of seagrass is also high, although bottom trawling poses a significant threat (Francis et al, 2001; Francis et al, 2002). Commercial seaweed cultivation was initiated in Bagamoyo in 1998 and it is an important source of income for women in some villages such as Mlingotini, (Torell et al., 2006). Marine tourism is relatively underdeveloped in Bagamoyo compared to elsewhere in Tanzania, but marine and coastal resources play a critical role in supporting local people, providing a source of food, revenue and energy (Semesi et al, 1998). The health and productivity of the marine ecosystem is critical to the people in the Bagamoyo area who rely primarily on environmental goods and services for their livelihoods (Tobey et al, 2013). Marine recreation activities in the Bagamoyo Demo Site are multiple as illustrated by Figure 11 below. 18

25 Figure 11: Marine Recreation Activities within the Bagamoyo Demo Site 19

26 4.2 Rapid Ecosystem Assessment in Bagamoyo In Bagamoyo, the rapid reef surveys were conducted on the distant sandbank and reef of Mwamba Kuni, as well as Mwamba Mshingwi, one of the reefs on the outskirts of Mbegani Bay. Mwamba Kuni is the most often visited reef area for snorkelers and is the shallower of the two reefs. Mwamba Mshingwe is one of 4 coral reef areas closed by the Central Coordinating Committee, a local fishers organisation. Both reefs are reportedly still heavily fished. Additional exploratory surveys were done within the Mbegani Bay and in the marine area on the offshore area of the Bay. Reef survey methods primarily involved fish and coral counts and photographic profiling. Challenges relating to weather conditions and the lack of availability of SCUBA equipment for assessments of the deeper reef limited the replication of methods, but did not impact the overall findings of the assessment Relative Biodiversity Indices The results of the fish and coral counts at Mwamba Mshingwe Reef and Mwamba Kuni Reef showing the relative biodiversity indices are presented in Table 5 below. The site with the lower biodiversity index was the more distant Mwamba Kuni Reef compared to Mwamba Mshingwe site. These two reefs are located approximately 10km apart (see Figure 10) and Mwamba Mshingwe Reef lies at a greater depth than Mwamba Kuni. Reasons for the lower diversity of both fish and coral on the Mwamba Kuni site can not definitely be said to result from tourism activities alone since it is located at a distance from any mangrove forests (which could serve as a nursery area for juvenile fish). The limited degree of marine recreation to either of these sites makes it unlikely that tourism activities have any direct impact on the biodiversity index of either of the sites. Destructive fishing activities are evident at both sites, but are more intense at Mwamba Kuni as described below. Table 5: Results of Biodiversity Counts for Fish, Soft and Hard Corals Sample Site n Biodiversity counts and overall index Fish Hard Coral Soft Coral Index Mwamba Mshingwe Reef ,8 3,8 26,8 Mwamba Kuni Reef 7 11 (5-16) 7,3 (5-10) 3,1 (0-4) 18,3 Note: The Index column merely represents the total of fish + hard coral, n is the total number of readings for each site and numbers in brackets indicate the total range in the readings Relative Condition Ratings As with the Watamu Demo Site relative condition ratings, in this parameter the sample site considered to be in the best condition would have a rating of 1, while the more degraded site would have a rating of 5 (see Table 6). According to the rapid assessment, Mwamba Kuni Reef is in a poorer condition (3,4) compared to Mwamba Mshingwe (2,8). Some signs of damage (physical breakage, disease and die-off) to the ecosystems were observed at all sampled sites and field visit areas (mangroves and seagrass areas). At 20

27 Mwamba Kuni, while some coral areas were intact and the area hosts a relatively large area of coral coverage, significant coral destruction and stress were observable (see Figures 12 and 13 below). Some signs of pollution including netting, ropes and other discarded materials were evident on parts of Mwamba Mshingwe. Although Mwamba Mshingwe coral condition appeared somewhat better than Mwamba Kuni, areas of breakage and degradation were also observable. Figure 12: Coral disease, Mwamba Kuni Reef Figure 13: Coral breakage, Mwamba Kuni Reef Field visits to other sensitive areas also suggested systems under pressure. For instance, on one visit, a high mortality of juvenile fish species was observed in the area near Mlingotini. Signs of degradation of the seagrass beds were also evident along the coastal strip. Based on the results from existing research (Francis et al, 2001; Francis et al, 2002), the primary cause is likely to be from destructive fishing methods, such as beach seine netting. Table 6: Relative Condition Rating for the Sample Sites Sample Site Ratings Mwamba Mshingwe Reef 2,8 Mwamba Kuni Reef 3, Indicator Species Indicator species were noted, but the data collected cannot be applied with any degree of confidence for the purpose of making definitive conclusions. Butterfly fish were observed at Mshingwe in minimal numbers and sea cucumbers were observed at Mwamba Kuni, suggesting that the systems have not yet been degraded to the most severe extent. However, large numbers of sea urchins and some evidence of Crown of Thorns starfish were also seen at Mwamba Kuni, indicating a system out of balance, but not yet to the degree of being overrun by blooms of the destructive Crown of Thorns. No large predatory fish such as grouper were observed at either of the sites. The meaningful application of the concept of indicator species is difficult without further data collection during a more intensive study. 21

28 4.2.4 Underwater Tourism Potential The reefs in Bagamoyo are highly diverse and from a tourism perspective, offer a great variability in characteristics. Few of the coral reefs within the Demo Site area could be considered classic destination diving or snorkelling sites, due to the extremely high degree of damage to the reefs. In addition, other areas in Tanzania offer significantly less damaged reefs for visitors, together with higher biodiversity. That said, the reefs off Bagamoyo do offer a certain degree of attraction to the visitor from Dar es Salaam or those attracted to the area for the cultural historical heritage. The soft coral reefs in Mbegani Bay are unusual in their composition and may be of interest as part of a day-trip (see Figure 14 below). This would however, have to be timed with precision given the large tidal fluctuations in the Bay and difficult snorkelling conditions as a result. Mwamba Kuni is currently used by local and foreign tour operators as a snorkelling destination and if managed correctly, offers good potential for further development as a day-trip for snorkelers. Further attention is however, needed for reducing the destructive fishing on the reef and of mooring of tour boats to prevent damage from anchoring. New reef areas that are located further Figure 14: Soft corals, Mbegani Bay offshore, beyond the borders of the Demo Site have recently been popularized for SCUBA diving and reportedly offer significantly higher quality diving experiences than the inshore reefs Conclusions on the Bagamoyo Demo Site Despite the restrictions of the rapid assessment methodology and limitations inherent due to difficulties encountered in sampling, the limited scope and timeframe of the assessment, some very clear indications are observable of a decrease in the health of the sensitive marine ecosystems. Based on existing research results and the results from this study, the marine ecosystems of the Bagamoyo Demo Site system may be said to be showing significant signs of stress. There is no doubt that the area has been severely degraded by destructive fishing methods and other human-induced pressures and will continue to decline in health in the absence of stronger management interventions and the presence of increasing pressures from local threats to the immediate ecosystems and surrounding biomes, as well as global change. Although marine tourism currently does not have a major impact on the ecosystems, due to the small scale of recreational activities in the marine area, the existing activities could be zoned for proper management of marine tourism, as it develops in the area. Figure 13 below provides an indication of the area of concern for future management. The proposed port development in the Mbegani Bay area will likely cause significant environmental changes and will need to be carefully planned and managed to mitigate ongoing detrimental impacts. 22

29 Figure 15 below illustrates the higher use zone and some of the key sensitive marine areas impacted by tourism including coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds and sandy beaches. The map provides a useful illustration of the location of sensitive ecosystems and their proximity to high tourism or marine resource use 4. Given the current relative absence of marine tourism activities in the Bagamoyo area (except for snorkelling and diving activities at Mwamba Kuni), two different levels of impacted areas are identified on the map and are based on current and potential future impacts on the marine ecosystems from marine tourism activities. The establishment of protection and zoned management of the impacted and priority higher use areas indicated in the map, within an integrated management plan for the broader marine area, should be a top priority. 4 It should be noted that the impacts from fishing have not been mapped as it falls outside of the scope of work for this project. If indicated however, areas impacted by fisheries would cover all the reefs and almost the entire marine area shown on the map. 23

30 Figure 15: Marine Tourism Impacted Sites within the Bagamoyo Demo Site 24

31 5 Results: Tofo-Barra-Tofinho (TBT) Demo Site 5.1 Overview of the TBT Marine and Coastal Environment The Tofo-Barra-Tofinho (TBT) Demo Site is located in south-eastern Mozambique. The area lies on the Indian Ocean coast, on Ponta da Barra peninsula in the province of Inhambane. The Demo Site lies about 22km from the historic town of Inhambane and is characterised by diverse ecosystems including coastal sand dunes, rocky and sandy shores, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, coral reefs and open ocean. The Demo Site includes three main beach areas: Tofo, Barra and Tofinho and a number of coral reefs, with an abundance of soft corals of the genera Lobophytum and Cladiela. The dominant ocean currents transport sediment northwards and form North-trending headlands such as Tofo (Obura et al, 2012). The Tofo, Barra and Tofinho area hosts an exceptional wealth of biological diversity, which forms the basis for tourism and trade along this stretch of coast. The high degree of marine productivity in the region results from the mixing of variable eddies from the Mozambique Channel in the North and from the East Madagascar Current- Agulhas Current region in the South. The mosaic of ecosystems in the TBT area supports a unique combination of terrestrial and marine life forms and many endangered species (See Annex 3 for a list of Endangered and Vulnerable marine species). Most often cited species are the year-round aggregations of manta rays, the Reef Manta (Manta alfredi) and the Giant Manta (Manta birostris), which represents the largest known aggregation in the Indian Ocean and the second largest in the world (Marshall et al, 2011). The area also hosts one of the largest aggregations of Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus) in the Western Indian Ocean (Obura et al, 2012). Other charismatic megafauna sited in the area include large wintering populations of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncates), Humpback Dolphins (Sousa chinensis) and the highly endangered Dugongs (Dugong dugon). Endangered species in the area include five species of marine turtles that include Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta), Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas) and Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), as well as seahorses and a variety of other species. Over thirty coral reefs are used as diving / snorkelling destinations, with new reefs being regularly discovered. In addition to the high biodiversity present off the shores of Tofo, Tofinho and Barra, the Bay of Inhambane provides an essential link in the complex ecosystem processes in the area. The Bay is rich in mangrove and seagrass ecosystems that provide critical habitats for a diversity of marine organisms including seahorses (Hippocampus sp.), sea cucumbers (Holothurian sp.), crustaceans and molluscs. They are also essential feeding and breeding grounds for many economically important fish species. Anecdotal evidence also exists of endangered dugongs in the Bay area. Inhambane Bay is used extensively by local fishermen, using a vast array of fish traps and nets. The North-eastern area of the Bay is also attracting growing numbers of visitors where 25

32 visitors picnic, snorkel, SCUBA dive, kayak, motor boat and jet ski. Boat trips are also offered to the islands in the Bay. Historically a small coastal fishing village, the TBT area has grown significantly over the years into a major tourism destination that has stimulated a significant growth in population. Six village areas fall within the Demo Site, including: Sequiriva, Salela, Machavenga, Josina Machael, Conguiane and Nhamua. Artisanal and subsistence fishing is the sole source of protein for over 40 percent of the Mozambican population in the TBT area (Ocean Revolution, 2011). The marine areas under high use from marine tourism included the coral reefs, nearshore areas (for swimming, surfing, fishing, boating, jet skiing etc.) and the Inhambane Estuary, an area that hosts sensitive seagrass beds, rocky areas and mangrove forests. Certain coral reefs are targeted more often by operators due to their easy access and the perception of opportunities for marine fauna encounters. Marine recreation activities in the TBT Demo Site are multiple, as illustrated by Figure 16 below. 5.2 Rapid Ecosystem Assessment in TBT In the TBT area, reef assessments were done at a number of reefs. These were selected based on their degree of use, comparability and reported level of degradation by the dive operators. These included two deeper reefs in the Tofo/Tifinho area, Manta Reef and Hogwarts Reef (2km further south from Manta Reef), two shallower reefs off Tofo, Clownfish Reef and Chamber of Secrets and two reefs in the Barra area, Buddies and Office Reefs. The reef assessment methods used were similar to those conducted at Watamu and Bagamoyo Demo Sites. Differences in results were however, anticipated due to the greater depth of most of the TBT reefs compared to the other two Demo Sites and the different focus of marine tourism activities. In TBT, the reef recreation is focussed largely on SCUBA diving on deeper reefs to observe megafauna species, rather than the coral reefs themselves. Less physical reef damage from recreation-related activities was therefore anticipated on the deeper reefs surveyed. The shallower reefs (Clownfish Reef and Buddies Reef) are both used as novice dive sites and could therefore be expected to sustain greater marine recreation-related impact to the corals. Field visits were also conducted at other sensitive marine ecosystems, including the mangrove forests and seagrass beds in the Inhambane Bay. Sensitive areas of the Inhambane Estuary have recently grown in popularity for tourism. New recreational activities increasing access to some of the sensitive areas in the estuary, include snorkelling in the seagrass and rocky areas in the estuary, boating and kayaking, jetskiing and swimming. In addition to recreational tourism pressures, local stakeholders report a decrease in fish catch in the Inhambane Bay and a growing number of people using the area for resources extraction. 26

33 Figure 16: Marine Recreation Activities within the TBT Demo Site 27

34 5.2.1 Relative Biodiversity Indices The results of the fish and coral counts at the 6 different reefs in the TBT area showing the relative biodiversity indices are presented in Table 7 below. The site with the lowest biodiversity index was Buddies Reef, the shallowest site on the Barra side of the Demo Site. Due to its accessibility, Buddies Reef is a popular location for novice divers and has also been subject to intense fishing pressure, which could contribute to the lower biodiversity ratings. Office Reef, also on the Barra side, is located at a greater depth and is further offshore, limiting access to the reef by fishers. While Hogwarts registers the second lowest ratings, this may be the result of sampling challenges whereby the poor diving conditions restricted the number and accuracy of the species counts (low visibility and strong current conditions were experienced during the survey). Chamber of Secrets and Clownfish Reef register the highest biodiversity indices respectively. Both are fairly shallow reefs and would therefore be expected to host a greater variety of corals and fish species. The greater accessibility of Clownfish Reef and higher use by divers, may contribute to lower biodiversity indices compared to Chamber of Secrets. Table 7: Results of Biodiversity Counts for Fish, Soft and Hard Corals Sample Site n Biodiversity counts and overall index Fish Hard Coral Soft Coral Index Manta Reef (26m) 3 25,3 (20-29) 5 (2-11) 6,6 (2-6) 30,3 Hogwarts (22-35m) 2 24,3 (25-23) 0 12,5 (12-13) 24,3 Clownfish Reef (10m) 6 32,5 (24-38) 7,2 (4-10) 13 (3-18) 39,7 Chamber of Secrets (13-22m) 5 38,8 (33-44) 4,2 (3-7) 5,8 (3-10) 43 Buddies Reef (7-11m) 4 12,5 (7-15) 4 (2-6) 4,8 (4-6) 16,5 Office Reef (18-27m) 2 14 (13-15) 9,5 (9-10) 4,5 (4-5) 23,5 Note: The Index column merely represents the total of fish + hard coral, n is the total number of readings for each site and numbers in brackets indicate the total range in the readings Relative Condition Ratings These relative condition ratings refer to the relative condition of the sample site based on a rating of images captured during the photographic survey. A site that is considered to be in the best condition would have a rating of 1, while the more degraded site would have a rating of 5 (see Table 8 below). Unlike the other two Demo Site rapid reef assessments that were limited primarily to two main reefs, the TBT rapid reef assessment involved a greater number of reef sample sites (6) due to the higher number of reefs utilised for marine recreation. These reefs are geographically dispersed throughout the Demo Site and in consequence, yield somewhat different results. According to the rapid assessment, Clownfish Reef close to the village of Tofu is has the lowest relative condition rating (2,97), followed by Buddies Reef (2,75) that lies close to Barra. Both of these reefs are relatively shallow and are more accessible to both tourists and fishermen as a result. Since they are both relatively close to shore, both reefs are also used by dive operators during poor sea conditions and also as 28

35 destinations for novice SCUBA divers. Signs of coral breakage are evident at both reef and discarded fishing equipment was observed at Buddies Reef. Office Reef which lies further offshore from Barra was categorised as the reef in the best relative condition (1,95), followed by Chamber of Secrets (2,23). This is consistent with the fact that these sites are less accessible and less frequently visited. Manta Reef, one of the southernmost reefs bordering the edge of the Demo Site, recorded a lower relative condition rating (2,45) than either Office Reef or Chamber of Secrets. Despite the fact that Manta Reef one of the least accessible reefs from a proximity to the tourist areas of Tofo and Barra, it is most heavily visited reefs in the TBT Demo Site due to the incorrect perceptions of visitors that they are guaranteed to encounter megafauna on their dives. Due to poor sea conditions during the assessment of Hogwarts Reef, it was not possible to obtain sufficient photographic samples for analysis. Field visits to other sensitive ecosystems highlight a significant concern in terms of increasing pressure from tourism and resource extraction in the absence of adequate management. Inhambane estuary is becoming an extremely popular destination for visitors to undertake a wide range of activities. The ecosystems in the estuary host a wide diversity of sensitive and species and serve as important productive sources for maintaining levels of important marine resources. Research on the estuary is relatively sparse but preliminary results thus far and observations from the field visits to the area, highlight the dire need for urgent management interventions to minimise the increasing exploitation of species as well as to mitigate the impacts from inappropriate tourism activities. Table 8: Relative Condition Rating for the Sample Sites Sample Site Ratings Manta Reef 2,45 Hogwarts Unable to assess due to poor dive conditions Clownfish Reef 2,97 Chamber of Secrets 2,23 Buddies Reef 2.75 Office Reef Indicator Species The TBT area is globally renowned for its large aggregations of megafauna as mentioned above. The presence of these species is an important indication of functioning marine systems. Indicator species were noted during the surveys for the RMRM project activities, but the data collected cannot be applied with any degree of confidence for the purpose of making definitive conclusions. Butterfly fish were observed at most sites. Large groupers were observed at Manta Reef and at Chamber of Secrets and Clownfish Reef. Turtles were also observed Hogwarts Reef. Other large megafauna species were observed at Manta Reef (Bowmouthed Guitarfish, Reef Manta and Whitetip Reef Shark) and at Chamber of Secrets 29

36 (Whitetip Reef Shark). Numerous Humpback Whales were observed during the boat ride to the survey site in September While the presence of these indicator species and megafauna suggests a certain level of healthy functioning ecosystems, there is evidence of growing pressure on both the species and the marine ecosystems in the area. A key concern expressed by stakeholders is the uncontrolled extraction of megafauna (i.e. sharks, turtles, manta rays) and other sensitive organisms (i.e. sea cucumber, seahorses) through fishing. Ongoing research in the area has recorded a drastic decline in the sightings of some of the key megafauna species. For instance, research by Marine Megafauna Foundation (MMF) shows evidence of steep declines in sightings of Reef Manta Ray (88% decline) and Whale Shark (79% decline) between 2003 and While the causes may vary, it is suggested that both uncontrolled and destructive fishing activities and increasing numbers of tourists to the reefs are causing the decline in sightings (Rohner et al, 2013). Questions have also been posed as to the impact of both high number of visitors to the reefs as well as the use invasive sampling methods that may create a disturbance and result in avoidance behaviour of the megafauna species (Dykman pers. comm., 2013). While the above discussion suggests changes in the marine ecosystems that are evidenced by indicator species, the meaningful application of the concept of indicator species for the purpose of assessing reef and marine recreation impacts is difficult without further data collection during a more intensive study Conclusions on the TBT Demo Site While visitor numbers were controlled to a certain extent by operators in some of the more sensitive areas such as seagrasses, mangroves and coral reef areas, these areas are still freely accessible by boat and uncontrolled by user fees or regulations offering protection from destructive activities. Management of the visitation to these areas and activities within these sensitive areas and the less sensitive buffer areas, was not yet strong enough to ensure adequate protection and sustainable use. Despite the restrictions of the rapid assessment methodology and limitations inherent due to difficulties encountered in sampling, the small scope and limited timeframe of the project, some very clear indications are observable of a decrease in the health of the sensitive marine ecosystems. Based on existing research results and the results from this study, the marine ecosystems of the TBT Demo Site system may be said to be showing signs of stress. There is no doubt that the area is under pressure from over-fishing and destructive fishing methods and other human-induced pressures, tourism included. The apparent decline in health of the marine ecosystem will worsen in the continued absence of tourism and coastal governance interventions. These will be exacerbated by increasing pressures from local threats to the immediate ecosystems and surrounding biomes, as well as global change. 30

37 The TBT area falls within a series of selected sites within the Mozambique Channel that, when combined, have potential World Heritage value. A recent Western Indian Ocean Study on marine World Heritage, found that 6 sites within the Mozambique Channel, (including the Tofo-Bazaruto area), host features that are globally unique and potentially have the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) required for designation as a serial transboundary World Heritage area (Obura et al, 2012). Despite the important marine biodiversity of the Inhambane area and the reliance of the tourism sector (and therefore the local economy) on the marine natural capital, there are currently no formal marine protected areas declared within the Demo Site or any clearly zoned marine managed areas demarcating specific activities. While the rapid assessments are not sufficient to quantify specific cause and effect relationships for the degradation, the combined pressures of a number of impacts is contributing to the degradation including: over-utilisation of resources, destructive tourism and fishing activities, uncontrolled coastal development and poor waste management. The results highlight the need for greater environmental protection and improved management of tourism in this area, as well as the opportunity to zone specific areas for different uses and to manage visitor numbers and impacts for these areas relative to the type and extent of marine recreation activity. Figure 17 below illustrates the higher use zone and some of the key sensitive marine areas impacted by tourism including coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds and sandy beaches. The map provides a useful illustration of the location of sensitive ecosystems and their proximity to high tourism use. It is evident that the higher use and impacted areas relate directly to the level of access by users of the areas and there is a clear need for improved management in these areas. The establishment of protection and zoned management of the impacted and priority higher use areas indicated in the map should be a priority. 31

38 Figure 17: Marine Tourism Impacted Sites within the TBT Demo Site 32