Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) in Africa: A Case Study

Transcription

1 African Archaeological Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2000 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) in Africa: A Case Study Audax Z. P. Mabulla 1 Africa is both fortunate and unfortunate as far as Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) is concerned. Fortunate because the continent is a warehouse for the heritage resources, which document the origin and development of our humanity. In the meantime, it is very unfortunate that Africa is too poor to take care of such vast cultural treasures. In this paper, I use Tanzania as a case study to explore ways that Africa can generate revenue and public support for CHM. An effective means of accomplishing this goal is to make the products of the past attractive and accessible for cultural tourism. Only in this way does Africa s past heritage become economically sustainable for long-term survival, productivity, and contribution to global education, research, tourism, and pride in the past accomplishments of humanity. L Afrique est à la fois heureuse et malheureuse en ce qui concerne la Gestion du Patrimoine Culturel (GPC). Heureuse parce que ce continent est un entrepôt de ressources de documentation sur l origine et le développement de l humanité. Mais en mème temps, il est trés malheureux que l Afrique soit si pauvre pour prendre soin d un si grand trésor culturel. Dans cet article, je me suis servi de la Tanzanie comme cas d étude pour explorer les moyens par lesquels l Afrique pourrait générer des recettes et un appui public à la GPC. Un moyen efficace pour accomplir ce but est de rendre les produits du passé attrayants et accessibles pour un tourisme culturel. C est par ce moyen seul que l héritage du passé africain deviendra économiquement soutenable pour réaliser une survie à longue portée, la productivité, et une contribution a l éducation mondiale, à la recherche, au tourisme et à la fierté des réalisations du passé humain. KEY WORDS: cultural tourism; Olduvai Gorge; Laetoli; Isimila; Australopithecus afarensis; A. boisei; Homo habilis. 1 University of Dar es Salaam, Archaeology Unit, PO Box 35050, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania /00/ $18.00/0 C 2000 Plenum Publishing Corporation

2 212 Mabulla INTRODUCTION The need to protect and manage cultural heritage resources 2 has become increasingly apparent in recent years (e.g., Cleere, 1989, 1993; Goodland and Webb, 1987; Schmidt and McIntosh, 1996; Serageldin and Taboroff, 1994). Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 21st century, this objective remains a mere aspiration for many African nations. Scholars have identified a number of obstacles to the protection and management of Africa s past. Although these roadblocks vary from one country to another, the most troublesome issues include physical and cultural factors such as weathering, erosion, vandalism, and looting; lack of protection, management programs and legislative laws; lack of adequately trained personnel; political unrest; lack of funds; lack of research on preservation techniques and methods; lack of awareness of the value of cultural heritage resources; and lack of appropriate equipment for information storage and curation facilities/space (Brandt and Mohamed, 1996; Brent, 1996; Karoma, 1996; Kibunjia, 1997; Mabulla, 1996; R. McIntosh, 1996, S. McIntosh 1993; Marc, 1994; Mturi, 1996). In this paper, I focus on the lack of funding the most notorious problem preventing the proper protection and management of Africa s past heritage. Because of the economic recession that continues to plague many developed countries, interest in funding cultural heritage management (CHM) programs in Africa is declining. Meanwhile, given the economic constraints faced by many African countries, CHM is obscured by a sea of more urgent concerns. Investing into CHM is generally considered a useless luxury that can be contemplated only after primary needs are met (e.g., public health, food security, political stability, and economic and technological development issues with more immediate impact upon living societies). The institutions given charge of the protection and management of cultural heritage resources are often the weakest governmental agencies. As such, CHM is the subject of specific projects only on an exceptional basis and in those cases, usually with external funding (e.g., the recent preservation of the Laetoli footprints by the American Getty Conservation Institute). I explore ways through which Tanzania can generate revenue and public support for CHM. Apart from requesting grants and soliciting donations from the scientific and public community to supplement locally generated funds (Mabulla, 1996), an effective means of accomplishing this goal is to make the products of the past attractive and accessible for education, appreciation, and enjoyment. Only in this way can Africa s past heritage become economically sustainable for long-range survival, productivity, and contribution to global education, research, tourism, and pride in the past accomplishments of humanity. 2 Cultural heritage resources refers to sites, structures, and remains of archaeological, paleontological, historical, religious, cultural, or aesthetic value.

3 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 213 In Tanzania, the cultural heritage resources offer many opportunities for generating funds and public support through cultural tourism. By cultural tourism, I refer to nondegrading travel and visitation by tourists to sites, structures, and remains of archaeological, paleontological, historical, religious, ethnographic, or aesthetic value. Such activities would allow tourists to enjoy, study, and appreciate humanity s past and present accomplishments. Revenues would support the protection and management of past heritage resources and bring economic benefits to nearby communities. As conceived in this paper, cultural tourism should promote a symbiotic relationship whereby both tourists and cultural heritage resources benefit from each other. Tourists will pay money to visit the heritage resources, and the revenue will be reinvested in CHM programs (i.e., protection, preservation, conservation, documentation, and recovery/salvage). Heritage resources are part of dynamic ecosystems that require community participation for long-term survival and productivity. Therefore, forming partnerships between the tourist industry and local communities is vital to the success of any cultural tourism program. When local communities are involved in the tourist industry, they become not only the marketers and communicators, but also instrumental to public support and education concerning the need to protect and manage the cultural resources. When well conceived, cultural tourism is a lucrative business for the local and international lodging and hotel establishments and for the travel industry. Moreover, it will boost the local community s economy and create more job opportunities for local people. This symbiotic relationship between cultural heritage resources, tourists, tourist industry, and local communities does not exist in the present system of touring cultural resources in Tanzania. In particular, the financial benefits are being reinvested neither in CHM nor in the local communities. At present, the only beneficiaries of tourism of cultural heritage resources are tourists, business people, and the government. Therefore, my goal in this paper is to outline a strategy for the development of cultural tourism in Tanzania. Properly planned and implemented cultural tourism can achieve long-term CHM and rural community development goals in Tanzania, without degrading the heritage resources. POTENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL TOURISM IN TANZANIA Although Tanzania may be an economist s nightmare, it is a dreamland in being well endowed in natural and cultural assets (Fig. 1). Tanzania provides one of the most comprehensive and complete documentations of hominid biological and cultural evolutionary patterns spanning the past 4 million years. These important cultural heritage resources range from Plio-Pleistocene times to the present. The resources document the origin of humans and technology, the nature of the initial

4 214 Mabulla Fig. 1. Map of Tanzania showing natural and cultural heritage resources with potential for tourism. human adaptation to the environment, African societies and cultures prior to the availability of documentary sources, the earliest oral traditions, the contact between East Africa and the world, and resistance to European colonial domination (Fig. 1). Olduvai Gorge Olduvai Gorge is a 100-m deep and 46-km long stream-cut valley. The Gorge is located at the western flank of the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in the

5 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 215 Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA), on the plains of the Serengeti ecosystem (Fig. 1). It is one of the most famous palaeoanthropological sites in the world, thanks to the late L. S. B. Leakey and M. D. Leakey s tireless investigations and public relations. Geological deposits spanning the last 2 million years before present (bp) have yielded an unsurpassed record of past environments; fossil hominids attributed to Australopithecus (Paranthropus) boisei, Homo habilis, and Homo erectus (about 65 specimens so far); Early, Middle and Late Stone Age artifacts; and a wide range of fossilized faunal remains (Hay, 1976; Leakey, 1971; Leakey and Rose, 1994; Leakey et al., 1972; Mabulla, 1990; Manega, 1993). Olduvai Gorge is open to the public and has been one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tanzania. After M. D. Leakey s retirement and her permanent return to Kenya in 1984, the Olduvai camp, hominid fossil sites, site museums, and main museum have deteriorated due to neglect, vandalism, and looting (Karoma, 1996; Mabulla, 1996). The present system of tourism at Olduvai Gorge does not favor the long-term survival and productivity of the Olduvai sites, museums, and infrastructure, because the revenues generated through entrance fees are not reinvested into their management. Moreover, the funds are not going back to the people at Olduvai Gorge and surrounding Maasai communities, yet these people are the best potential protectors of Olduvai Gorge heritage resources. The poor facilities at the main (field) museum and the inaccessibility of many sites in the Gorge have meant that tourist education and enjoyment are limited. During research at Olduvai Gorge ( ), I have witnessed on several occasions tourists and tour operators complaining about the poor tour services they received. Some of them even threatened to ask for their money back. To offer tourist experiences of outstanding quality, the infrastructure and the attractions at Olduvai Gorge need to be developed and properly managed. This means that the generated revenue must be used in maintaining the cultural resources for long-term survival and productivity. Furthermore, although the tour guides at Olduvai Gorge are doing a wonderful job given the circumstances of their working environment, they are not appreciated by their employer. For example, no formal training in the form of short-term instruction or refresher courses has been given to them since they were employed. This unfortunate condition limits the potential of Olduvai tour guides to offer tourists experiences of outstanding quality. Laetoli Laetoli is located 36-km south of Olduvai Gorge in a rolling, open plains setting of the Serengeti ecosystem (Fig. 1). This site may be viewed as contiguous with Olduvai Side Gorge. Laetoli is famous for two remarkable sets of discoveries by the late M. D. Leakey. First are the fragments of postcranial bones, jaws, and teeth of an ape-like human ancestor known as Australopithecus afarensis (White, 1977, 1980). Dating to 3.8 million bp, A. afarensis was until 1995 our earliest

6 216 Mabulla known ancestor. The second important discovery is several trails of footprints made by three individuals of A. afarensis about 3.8 million bp (Drake and Curtis, 1987; Hay, 1987; Leakey, 1983a). The footprints were imprinted on a fine-grained volcanic ash, and they are the world s only undisputed evidence for the origin of habitual bipedal locomotion in the human lineage (Leakey, 1987; Robbins, 1987; Tuttle, 1987). In addition, Early and Middle Stone Age artifacts and a wide range of faunal remains have been recovered, as well as an almost complete skull of a possibly anatomically modern human (LH 18; Day and Magori, 1980; Harris and Harris, 1981; Ndessokia, 1990). The Laetoli site has remained closed since its discovery. Closure was necessary because of the fragmentary nature of the hominid footprints. After the 1970s excavations, the hominid footprints were preserved in situ by covering them with alternating layers of river sand and plastic sheeting (Jones, 1987). Lava blocks and thorn branches were then built on top of them. Ideally, the hominid footprints were to be preserved in situ by building a museum around them (Leakey, 1983a). Unfortunately, the museum was never built and acacia trees and grasses grew on top of the footprints sediments, thus endangering them (Mabulla, 1996; Ndessokia, 1990). The Getty Conservation Institute has recently completed an attempt to preserve the hominid footprints (Agnew and Demas, 1998). Unfortunately, the hominid trackways were reburied in bio-barrier fabrics and geotextile layers again, freezing the history of this important heritage resource. If a portion of the footprints at site G could be transformed into an on-site museum, it would serve as an exhibition and research center for study, enjoyment, and appreciation by people from all over the world. In addition, walk-about tours of the 29 hominid pedestals/markers can be organized easily. During the expeditions by M. D. Leakey at Laetoli, cement pedestals were built on the location where fossil hominid remains were found. Over time, these pedestals were destroyed due to natural and anthropogenic causes. In 1998, 19 of the 29 hominid pedestals were found and restored by Ryan Schaub (Belloit College student) and Felix Ndunguru (archaeologist, Antiquities Unit) during the University of Dar es Salaam/Associated Colleges of the Midwest (UDSM/ACM) field school at Laetoli, directed by myself and Russell Tuttle (University of Chicago). The hominid pedestals found and restored are shown in Table I and Fig. 2. Hominid pedestals offer great potential for walk-about cultural tourism at Laetoli. Photographs and description of the hominid fossil(s) will be encased in glass embedded in each of the pedestals for tourists to see and read. In addition, a trained tour guide can interpret the geology, archaeology, past environment, and fauna of the visited locality in Laetoli. For proper cultural tourism at Laetoli, I recommend that a field (main) museum be built km away from the footprint sites. This field museum (like that at Olduvai Gorge) should display and interpret hominid and cultural evolution and palaeoenvironmental histories of Laetoli. Also, the museum will have the necessary infrastructures such as toilets and rest house. This arrangement will

7 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 217 Table I. Restored Hominid Pedestals Potential for Walk-About Cultural Tourism at Laetoli Pedestal for Hominid remains Locality LH 1 Right upper fourth premolar (A. afarensis) 1 LH 2 Juvenile mandible (A. afarensis) 3 LH 3/6 Partial upper and lower dentition (A. afarensis) 7 LH 4 Adult mandible and holotype of A. afarensis 7 LH 5 Right maxillary fragment with upper second incisor to upper 8 first molar (A. afarensis) LH 7 Right upper first and second molar fragment (A. afarensis) 5 LH 12 Left third upper molar fragment (A. afarensis) 5 LH 13 Right mandible fragment (A. afarensis) 8 LH 15 Left lower third molar (A. afarensis) 1 LH 16 Left lower first molar (A. afarensis) 6 LH 18 Ngaloba (LH 18) skull (H. sapiens) 25 LH 19 Left lower second molar (A. afarensis) 8 LH 21 Cranial and post cranial material (A. afarensis) 12E LH 22 Right upper fourth premolar and first molar (A. afarensis) 11 LH 23 Left lower second molar (A. afarensis) 8 LH 26 Right upper second molar (A. afarensis) 6 LH 27 Right third upper molar (A. afarensis) 8 LH 28 Right upper second molar (A. afarensis) 8 LH 29 Left mandible fragment; lower first to third molar (H. erectus) 8 minimize the impact of tourists to the sites and environment as wastes will be properly disposed of. From the field museum, a trained tour guide will take a small number of tourists to the sites/localities. Vehicles will be parked half a kilometer from the sites/localities, and tourists and guides will walk to and from them. Isimila Isimila is located about 14 km south of Iringa town along the Iringa Mbeya highway (Fig. 1). A number of late Acheulian occurrences have been found preserved in riverine sediments (Cole and Kleindienst, 1974; Howell et al., 1972). Isimila is one of the very few early hominid sites in Eastern Africa located outside the East African Rift Valley System. Being located on the outskirts of Iringa town and about 250 m from the Iringa Mbeya highway, Isimila has great potential for cultural tourism because visits can be coordinated through package tours with wildlife tourism of Mikumi National Park and the nearby Kalenga historical site. Kalenga was the capital of chief Mkwawa who resisted German colonial domination. Mkwawa killed himself to avoid capture by Germans. His head was cut off and sent to Germany, only to be returned after independence. This head is now displayed in the museum at Kalenga. A field museum is in existence at Isimila, but it is in poor state. For example, the display and interpretations of hominid culture and environmental histories of the site are outdated, based on old lithic terminology and dates that are no longer tenable. In addition, soil erosion threatens the future survival of the site. Therefore,

8 218 Mabulla Fig. 2. Map showing the locations of the Laetoli hominid discoveries, the fauna localities and footprint sites with potential for cultural tourism (adapted from Leakey, 1987).

9 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 219 we need to conserve the site and create tourist-friendly displays at Isimila. If Isimila is properly managed and the infrastructure developed, it holds great potential for cultural tourism through package tours. Lake Natron and Engaruka Basin Lake Natron is located 86 km north of Mto wa Mbu and north of Lake Manyara National Park (LMNP; Fig. 1). Early investigations by Isaac and his team (Isaac, 1965, 1967) recovered a significant assemblage of fossil mammals, Acheulian artifacts, and a hominid jaw fragment attributed to Australopithecus boisei at Peninj site (Leakey and Leakey, 1964). These materials were recovered from the Humbu Formation recently dated to 1.7 million bp (Manega, 1993). Engaruka is located at the foot of the Manyara Natron rift scarp, about 43 km north of Mto wa Mbu and almost the same distance south of Lake Natron. Engaruka is a complex of late Iron Age farming settlement covering an area of about 25 square km (Robertshaw, 1986). The farming communities at Engaruka depended on an irrigation system (Sutton, 1986). Remains of terraced irrigated fields, stone/lined irrigation furrows, and stone circles are found at the site. Both Engaruka and Lake Natron Basin could potentially attract tourists. In fact, many tourists visit Lake Natron Basin to see flamingos, waterfalls, and the Oldonyo Lengai volcanic Mountain (personal observations, 1994). On their way to Lake Natron, tourists bypass the Engaruka site because either tour and safari operators do not know the potential attractiveness of this site or they cannot interpret it. Posting a guide who can present and interpret the site to the public will attract tourists and tour and safari operators to stop at Engaruka. In the Lake Natron Basin, Peninj and other archaeological and paleontological sites are not easily accessible. Therefore, I suggest that a main museum be established at one of the tourist camping sites. This main museum will display the culture, hominid, and environmental histories of Lake Natron and Engaruka Basins. The fascinating tectonic and volcanic histories of the rift valley (where Lake Natron Basin is located) and volcanic mountains (e.g., Oldonyo Lengai) could attract many tourists to the museum. During my 5-day visit to Lake Natron Basin in July 1994, I observed tourists spending a minimum of two nights in the Lake Natron Basin. Their viewing of the flamingos, waterfalls, and Oldonyo Lengai Mountain usually ended between 2.00 and 3.00 pm. From 3.00 to 6.00 pm. tourists had no other place to go. A nearby field museum will, therefore, be a perfect place for tourist education and enjoyment after a long day of walk and/or travel. Many tourists show an interest in camping in the Lake Natron Basin on their way to either Serengeti, Olduvai Gorge, Ngorongoro, and Manyara, or to Arusha from Manyara, Ngorongoro, Olduvai Gorge, and Serengeti. Therefore, there is a need for an integrated tour package for Tanzania Northern Circuit.

10 220 Mabulla Serengeti National Park The Serengeti National Park (SENAPA) is a natural laboratory whose history dates back to the beginning of human evolution, about 4 million years ago. Excavations at both the Seronera Lodge, Serengeti Wildlife Research Institute and the Gol Kopjes sites have yielded archaeological materials that range from Later Stone Age to Pastoral Neolithic and Iron Age periods (Bower, 1973; Bower and Chadderdon, 1986). Also, Middle and Later Stone Age materials have been excavated at the Loiyangalani River site (Bower and Gogan-Porter, 1981). Recent surveys of the savanna environments and landscapes of the northern (Bologonja area) and southern (Seronera area) Serengeti ecosystem, by Masaki Nishida and his team, have revealed a wide range of lithic materials, including late Acheulian handaxes and cleavers (Bologonja area), Sangoan or Njarasan heavyduty tools (Seronera and Lake Makati valleys), Middle and Later Stone Age (MSA and LSA) and Pastoral Neolithic (PN) materials (Nishida and Mabulla, 1997). Also found at one of the surveyed kopjes were stone engravings of the cup type, suggesting that the Swahili game of bao was probably practiced at this particular kopje. PN artifacts and stone circle structures were found at this bao kopje. The wildlife, vegetation, and landscape of the Serengeti ecosystem are unique in the world. For decades they have attracted tourists and will continue to do so for a long time to come. Although ecotourism is developed and well established in the Serengeti, cultural tourism is undeveloped. The Serengeti ecosystem is also a perfect place for the creation of an integrated tour package (ecocultural tourism) for the Tanzania Northern Circuit. I suggest that a main museum be established at the visitor center in Seronera. Collections for interpretations and museum displays will come from all the archaeological sites in the Serengeti ecosystem. Undoubtedly, the displays and interpretations of past culture, environmental, and wildlife histories of the Serengeti ecosystem will attract many tourists to visit the museum and the visitor center at Seronera. Eyasi Basin The Eyasi Basin is located at the southern border of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Fig. 1). This is another promising area for cultural tourism. Fossil hominid remains of three individuals (Eyasi I, II, and III), attributed to archaic Homo sapiens, were recovered from the Lake Eyasi shore by Kohl Larsen in the 1930s. Recently, I discovered a cranial fragment of a fourth individual of archaic Homo sapiens (Eyasi IV) from the 1930s discovery site (Bräuer and Mabulla, 1996). All the fossil hominid remains were associated with an early MSA lithic assemblage locally known as the Njarasan Industry. Located 3.5 km east of the lake shore skull site is the Mumba rock shelter. This shelter has yielded an archaeological sequence ranging from Middle Stone

11 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 221 Age to Iron Age, as well as biological evidence for the emergence of our own subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens. Three hominid molars of anatomically modern Homo sapiens were recovered from the Mumba Bed VI-B dated to ca. 130,000 bp (Bräuer and Mehlman, 1988; Mehlman, 1989). Mumba rock shelter also has rock art. A recent survey in the Eyasi Basin found more sites with lithic materials and rock paintings (Mabulla, 1996). Mumba rock shelter and other rock painting sites are not officially open to tourists as no Antiquities guides are posted at the sites. Nevertheless, tour and safari operators from Arusha and some individuals in the Eyasi Basin have been taking tourists to these important sites (personal observations, 1992, 1993, 1997). Datoga pastoral and Hadzabe forager way of life, and the Eyasi landscape (e.g., Lake Eyasi, Eyasi rift scarp, natural springs, semiarid vegetation, etc.) have also played major roles in attracting tourists and safari and tour operators to visit the Eyasi Basin. Therefore, if Mumba rock shelter and other rock painting sites are developed and managed for cultural tourism, Eyasi Basin will attract a large number of tourists. Central Tanzania Central Tanzania is very rich in rock painting sites (see Leakey, 1983c; Lim, 1992; Masao, 1979; Fig. 1). The paintings probably tell more about Stone Age people, and their behaviors and culture than can be learned from stone tools, pottery, bones, and other artifacts that form the basis of archaeological studies. Stylistically, the rock art of Tanzania provides one of the longest chronological sequences of artistic creativity in the world, possibly going back in time to about 40,000 bp (Anati, 1986, 1994). If this date is confirmed, it means that Tanzania was one of the earliest centers for the origin and evolution of artistic capability in the world. The Kolo area is located about 100 km north of Dodoma and is composed of a cluster of rock painting sites. Antiquities employees are stationed at Kolo to guard the sites as well as their visitors. Nevertheless, other areas in central Tanzania with numerous rock painting sites (e.g., Masange, Kisese, Pahi, and Tlawi) are not open to visitors as no guides have been posted to them. Yet, these sites and others in central Tanzania have the potential of attracting a large number of visitors and hence generating funds for their own upkeep. Tanzania Coast The Tanzania coast stretches from the Tanga region in the north to the Lindi region in the south (Fig. 1). This coast is endowed with prehistoric and historic sites that document the development of urbanism and Swahili culture in East Africa.

12 222 Mabulla Early Swahili sites and monuments of interest to tourists include Kilwa Kisiwani, Kunduchi ruins, Tongoni ruins, and the Bagamoyo stone town, just to mention a few. These sites have standing architectural remains that include houses, tombs, mosques, wells, or town walls made of coral lime. Apart from structural remains, there are also objects of local origin such as pottery, iron tools, and shell beads; and imported objects such as Islamic, Persian and Chinese celadon, porcelain and glass vessels, as well as copper and silver coins (Chami, 1994; Mturi, 1983). Most of these sites date from the eleventh to nineteenth centuries AD (Mturi, 1983). Recent surveys by the Archaeology Unit, University of Dar es Salaam, have found many smaller sites besides those with obvious architectural remains (Chami, 1994; Schmidt et al., 1992). Some of these sites are located inland, but the connection between them and the coast is apparent (Schmidt et al., 1992). The evidence for iron working at some of the sites during the first millennium AD suggests that early iron working in Tanzania may have been tied into trade with the coast and points beyond. In spite of Mturi s early efforts to publicize the coastal sites through publications and brochures (e.g., Mturi, 1974, 1983), cultural tourism on the coast of Tanzania is still underdeveloped. The reasons for this are many and varied, including the following: (1) Mturi s articles and brochures are either too technical for tourist consumption or have not reached the intended markets, or both; (2) underdeveloped infrastructure such as tourist hotels and resorts in Kilwa and Bagamoyo; (3) the inaccessibility of Kilwa, located 320 km south of Dar es Salaam; and (4) lack of trained site interpreters and tourist guides at Kilwa and Bagamoyo. Nevertheless, investors have in recent years built several tourist hotels and resorts along the Bagamoyo Dar es Salaam coast. Therefore, lack of infrastructure along this coast is no longer an issue. Moreover, a new all-weather highway is being constructed from Dar es Salaam to Lindi via Kilwa. When this road is completed, Kilwa and her vicinity will be accessible all year around. During the climax of her prosperity, Kilwa was the center for a maritime complex, which controlled the entire East African coast (Chittick, 1974). Evidently, Kilwa was one of the birth places of the rich and diversified Swahili culture and architecture in East Africa (Mturi, 1983). Kilwa Kisiwani s architectural remains such as the Friday mosque, other small mosques, the Gereza, and the sultani s palace are potential places for cultural tourism. For example, the sultani s palace was a flashy building that contained more than 100 rooms, including a swimming pool. It is reputed to be the largest building in Africa, south of the Sahara, prior to European contact (Mturi, 1983). By publicizing this rich cultural heritage, coastal cultural tourism would have a great potential for attracting tourists from the Islamic world, India, and China tourist markets that have not been fully exploited. Cultural tourism along the coast can be coordinated with other local cultural activities: excursion boat rides (e.g., to Songo Mnara and other islands), fishing trips to Mafia Island, and visits to Stone Age sites located along the coast. Also,

13 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 223 it will be possible to coordinate cultural tourism in Kilwa and ecotourism at the Selous Game Reserve when the road is improved. STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURAL TOURISM IN TANZANIA Although tourism is not well developed in Tanzania, the market conditions are favorable for future growth. With increasing unpredictability of rainfall for cash crop production and falling prices on the global market for cash crops, tourism in Tanzania promises to be the most important source of foreign income for the national economy (Komba, 1997). Even if prehistoric and historic sites have long been known for their potential for tourist attractions (Leakey, 1983a,b; Mturi, 1983), they have not been fully exploited so as to attract both local and foreign tourists. This is because a national strategy for cultural tourism development has been lacking. As a result, only a few sites (e.g., Olduvai Gorge) have been open to tourists, and despite the fact that these few sites have been generating revenue, nothing substantial has been reinvested in their management. Thus, the cultural heritage resources have not benefited from tourism of archaeological sites. If we seriously care as a nation about our past histories, this mismanagement of heritage resources needs to be stopped at once. Planning and Management Planning and management of cultural tourism is a complex issue because it includes heritage sites as well as human habitats. Accordingly, planning of cultural tourism needs a careful management of customer satisfaction, heritage sites, and the host communities. As a rule of the thumb, cultural tourism should be carried out at professionally managed attraction sites. The antiquities office should post heritage managers or guides to all the sites that are considered potential tourist attractions. No tourist visitation should occur at sites that lack heritage managers or guides. The needs and reasons for cultural heritage management should be evaluated before any site or locality is opened to visitors. The strategy of cultural tourism should view heritage resources as marketable products and should place priority on their management (protection, conservation, preservation, and curation). Infrastructure Facilities that provide access (e.g., roads, telephones, etc.) and direct service to tourists at the site (e.g., a rest house, rest rooms, and local field museum) must be either built where they are not available, or improved where they are available.

14 224 Mabulla To encourage the development and growth of cultural tourism, the Tanzanian government may make available various developmental incentives (e.g., low interest loans, tax breaks, developmental grants) to local and foreign investors or selectively provide infrastructure and promotional assistance in some areas. Enhancement of Cultural Attractions As noted earlier, cultural heritage materials are focal attractions. Nonetheless, these resources would be secondary to most visitors. Therefore, other features of the site s location will enhance the desirability of cultural heritage attractions. These may include wildlife and unique physical features of the landscape (e.g., lakes, mountains, ocean, etc.). Other unique features may also enhance cultural tourism. These may include, for example, visiting Hadzabe foragers in the Eyasi Basin, visiting a traditional Maasai boma near Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli, staying overnight in a traditional Wagogo tembe house in central Tanzania and/or excursions and traditional boat rides along the coast of Tanzania. At the end of the tour, tourists will have broader educational knowledge and enjoyment of the archaeological, ecological, and contemporary cultures of the area. Forming Partnerships with Local Communities As noted in the previous section, the success of cultural tourism also depends on other amenities that enhance the potential value for the tourist trade. Therefore, forming partnerships with local communities and the tourist industry is vital to the success of cultural tourism in Tanzania. Only in this way can cultural tourism of heritage sites be coordinated with other sectors in societies (e.g., ritual activities, traditional celebrations, organized local entertainment, etc.) and other ecotourism itineraries. As noted earlier, the best protectors of heritage resources are often the people who live near the resources. Local communities must, therefore, be fully involved in formulating and developing the cultural tourism industry. When people participate in decision making, they will be committed to conserving and managing the cultural heritage sites. Also the local people should be involved in the economic activities of the cultural tourism industry. Site rehabilitation works, building of local main museums and the construction of roads leading to the sites can be given to local community contractors. Likewise, site guards and tour guides should be employed from the local communities. Besides, communities can participate by establishing local enterprises that sell food and local material culture to tourists. An agreed percentage in the form of revenue derived from cultural tourism should go back to the development programs of the local communities living near the sites. It should be made clear that the economic benefits and employment opportunities for the

15 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 225 local communities will largely depend on the quality of the sites and local people s commitment to conserve and manage them (see also Marc, 1994). Marketing and Promotion In tourism, marketing is the management process of selecting tourist markets and providing them with the tourism product in view of achieving optimal tourist satisfaction and maximizing organizational goals (Komba, 1997). Because tourism requires that the tourist instead of the product be moved from his/her place to the place where the product/service can be consumed, marketing of tourism should consciously focus on identifying target markets and promoting the products. The current tourism of cultural heritage sites in Tanzania (e.g., at Olduvai Gorge) has not been successful in part due to lack of marketing and promotion. Therefore, Tanzania should organize and launch very aggressive advertising and promotion campaigns for her cultural heritage attractions. The main aim should be to create knowledge of the cultural heritage attractions available in Tanzania and encourage tourists to visit the country. Tanzania should promote a gentle cultural tourism that is exotic, euphoric, community based, product oriented, long sighted, sustainable, educational, motivated by value; and a tourism in which communities participate in planning and management, and maximum revenue stays within. In Tanzania, tourism activities are under the Ministry of National Resources and Tourism, and the Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB) under this ministry is responsible for promoting and developing all aspects of the tourist industry. Because cultural tourism is different from conventional tourism, TTB should allocate funds for research to be done on this new area of tourism. Cultural tourism should be advertised and promoted as a joint package with conventional tourism and should be targeted for both internal and external markets. Internal Market The absence of internal demand has not only limited the range of infrastructure and facilities needed at the sites, but also has seriously restricted the active visitations of Tanzanians. For example, in 1998, only 930 Tanzanian adults and 209 Tanzanian students visited Olduvai Gorge (Kileo, 1998). This unfortunate situation has been due to lack of awareness of the cultural heritage attractions available in the country. Therefore, TTB and archaeologists need to publicize and educate, through seminars and workshops, the tour operators, developers, investors, and the public at large about the socioeconomic benefits and tourist satisfaction that cultural tourism can bring to their business, the local communities, and tourists. As noted earlier, Tanzania has unique and largely untapped cultural heritage attractions. The

16 226 Mabulla challenge has been to provide the institutional and commercial facilities necessary to ensure that the growth of cultural tourism is sustainable. The local market conditions are favorable, and thus, if we develop this cultural tourism, tour operators, safari companies, developers, and investors will invest in the infrastructures such as resorts, roads, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, etc. The economic profits will benefit the business people, the local communities, and the cultural heritage resources. Also we need to educate and encourage Tanzanians, through archaeology clubs and public forums, to visit cultural heritage sites so that they can understand and appreciate their biological and cultural histories. Presentation and interpretation of the cultural heritage resources to indigenous visitors should be in Kiswahili, a language that they are familiar with. Only this way will people feel a sense of pride and collective ownership of the material remains of their past history and accomplishments. This might help to protect these important heritage resources for long-term survival and productivity. External Market The majority of the current and potential tourists in Tanzania are foreigners, particularly Europeans, Asians, and Americans, constituting the external market. Accordingly, people from these nations and other African nations (e.g., South Africa) should also be the target for cultural tourism marketing and promotion. The external market conditions are favorable. For example, in 1998, a total of 39,108 foreign tourists visited Olduvai Gorge alone, bringing in about US$ 60,000 as entry fees (Kileo, 1998). The number of tourists visiting Olduvai Gorge and other sites will dramatically increase once the proposed cultural tourism program is implemented. Until very recently, many tourist attractions in Tanzania were advertised and promoted through brochures and pamphlets produced by the government owned tourist board, TTB. However, in recent years, individual service providers (e.g., tour operators, airlines, hotels, game lodges, national parks, game reserves, etc.) have begun to market and promote their own components of the total tourist product. Although these two levels of tourism marketing are becoming effective in promoting and advertising tourism in Tanzania (Komba, 1997), cultural tourism is rarely covered. The reason for this is insufficient nontechnical literature. There is a great need for archaeologists to collaborate with TTB and other individual service providers in producing archaeological and cultural information for tourist and public consumption. Important promotional and advertising tools that can be used to inform potential visitors include brochures, magazines, newspapers, radios, televisions, and the Tanzania web site. To reach a wider and larger market for our archaeological and cultural products, contact with foreign travel agents, tour operators, and hotels is indispensable. Moreover, we need to invite the press and promote cultural tourism within the local and international media.

17 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 227 In promoting cultural tourism, we need to inventory and elaborate the cultural attractions, remembering that these inventories are different from those of a strictly scientific value. The cultural products should educate and, at the same time, present an attraction to tourists. Promotion should be focused on the public and, more specifically, on colleges, institutions, universities, the working and business classes, and retired people both inside and outside Tanzania. Develop Model Villages We should promote cultural tours that move from site to site, chronicling human biological and cultural evolution and development from early hominid sites to Swahili settlements. These should be coordinated with exposures to current living lifestyles (e.g., foraging, pastoralism, traditional farming, traditional fishing, Swahili culture, etc.). Ultimately, we should develop model villages for each stage of human cultural evolution and development. Nonetheless, care should be taken so that we do not create highly artificial model villages that convey misleading information in the name of entertainment (e.g., Disney World/Land). Nor should we want to create a situation where local populations become just another attraction similar to wildlife. Training of Cultural Tourist Guides Cultural heritage attractions are difficult to understand just by looking at them; they need additional information to make them intelligible to visitors. Because the majority of the visitors are unfamiliar with the cultural (e.g., palaeoanthropological or historical) literature, we should ensure that the messages of the past encoded in the items of material cultures are interpreted and presented effectively. Creative and meaningful interpretations and presentations that integrate scientific and nonscientific languages would, surely, benefit visitors. Yet, the majority of the tour guides stationed at Olduvai Gorge, Kaole, and Kilwa sites lack formal training in interpreting and presenting the information to tourists. This deficit has meant that the interpretations and presentations of cultural heritage resources have not been effective and meaningful. One of the major goals of the proposed cultural tourism is to develop locally trained labor to ensure that cultural tourism is sustainable in terms of employment. Short-term training programs for the employees stationed at cultural heritage sites are, therefore, necessary to upgrade their efficiency. Accordingly, the Archaeology Unit of the University of Dar es Salaam, in collaboration with the Antiquities, National Museum of Tanzania, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, and tour and safari operators, can design such short-term training programs. Lecturers from the Archaeology Unit can conduct

18 228 Mabulla these training programs at the various sites during vacations. Moreover, arrangements can be made for full-time training (e.g., 3, 6, or 12 months) programs as well. Certificates and diplomas can then be offered to individuals who successfully participate in full-time training programs. Nontechnical presentation and interpretation language should be emphasized during training. Moreover, interpretation and presentation of the cultural heritage resources to indigenous visitors should be in Kiswahili. Symbiotic Relationship One of the major goals of cultural tourism is to preserve, protect, manage, and conduct research on the cultural heritage resources of Tanzania by using the funds generated from cultural tourism. Visitation fees and donations at tourist sites are the major source of income for cultural tourism. Other financial sources could include selling relevant archaeological souvenirs to tourists at each site or local main museum. Such souvenirs may include T-shirts, caps, mugs, replicated artifacts, hominid fossil casts, postcards, photographs of sites, and portraits of outstanding scholars such as the late L. S. B. Leakey and M. D. Leakey (after permission is sought from the Leakey family). The income from cultural tourism should become a fund administered by a special committee and used exclusively for CHM projects, including preservation, conservation, maintenance, recovery, and research. Moreover, some of the income should go to improving and benefiting the local communities living near the cultural heritage sites. The resulting symbiosis allows cultural tourism to develop further for the benefits of tourists, CHM, and the local community. Special Committees For the development and success of the cultural tourism program proposed in this paper, two special committees need to be formed. First is a committee with real power and a well-defined relationship to the government that will immediately start to advise private and public sectors on issues related to cultural tourism and to promote and formulate guidelines for cultural tourism in Tanzania. The composition of this committee may vary but, to be viable, it should include: (1) two to three archaeologists/paleoanthropologists; (2) one member from the Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB); (3) two members from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism; (4) two to three members from tour and safari operators; (5) two to three members from Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA); (6) two to three members from lodging and hotel establishments (e.g., Serena Lodges, Sopa Lodges, etc.);

19 Strategy for Cultural Heritage Management in Africa 229 (7) one legal advisor; (8) two to three members from Nongovernmental Organizations (NGO) interested in CHM and rural community developments; (9) one member each from the Antiquities Department, the National Museum in Dar es Salaam and the National Natural History Museum in Arusha; (10) one member from the local government of each village nearby the cultural heritage resources; and (11) one member from the friends of museums. Second, an effective advisory committee/council should be set up to manage the funds resulting from cultural tourism. As we know, improperly managed public funds may end up being misappropriated. One way to alleviate the problem of the misappropriation of funds is to include professionals and nonprofessionals interested in CHM in the committees/councils that manage the cultural tourism revenue. I recommend that the committee/council for managing funds and property from cultural tourism, donations, grants, and other contributions should include: (1) two archaeologists/paleoanthropologists with experience in CHM; (2) the directors of the Antiquities Department and the National Museums of Tanzania; (3) one certified accountant from the Treasury Department; (4) two accountants each from the Antiquities Department and the National Museums of Tanzania; (5) one member each from TTB, TANAPA, and NCAA; (6) one member from the Tanzania Association of Archaeologists and Paleoanthropologists (TAAP); (7) one member from NGOs interested in CHM and rural community developments; (8) two members representing all the communities near the cultural heritage resources; and (9) one member from the friends of museums. CONCLUSION Given current economic difficulties, CHM in Tanzania will continue to receive less funding than do areas perceived as issues of immediate concern. Yet there is no doubt that heritage resource loss in Tanzania continues at an alarming rate (Karoma, 1996; Mabulla, 1996; Mturi, 1996). As our natural and cultural environments bring irreparable damage to the resources that document our human history, we need to preserve and protect them for present and future generations before they vanish. CHM projects are long-term undertakings that require constant supplies of funds. Unfortunately, such funds are not forthcoming from the Government of Tanzania or other international donors. Because developed countries are also

20 230 Mabulla facing approximately similar problems in managing their past heritage resources, Tanzania should raise funds for the management of her heritage resources. Carefully planned cultural tourism is one way Tanzania can gain funds for CHM. Sites and field museums that present an attraction to tourists should be developed for cultural tourism. The major goal of cultural tourism should be management of the heritage resources for the present and future generations. Within their itineraries, tourists should be educated on their impact on the cultural resources to increase their awareness of the irreparable damage they can bring. The income that is generated by cultural tourism should be used to preserve, conserve, and manage the resources and to sponsor protection and recovery research projects. The development of participatory approaches and partnerships with local communities and other sectors of the tourist industry will benefit tourists, local communities, the public, the tour industry, and environmental and wildlife conservation. Cultural tourism in Tanzania is an essential approach to achieving CHM goals without degrading the heritage resources or depleting society s cultures. Prior to its implementation, the proposed cultural tourism program requires empirical research in the areas of tourist industry, governance, community participation and organizational life and public and private institutional assessments. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank S. A. Brandt, S. Thomas, A. L. Omar, B. B. Mapunda, P. Rogers, R. Tuttle, C. Magori, J. Buikistra, A. A. Mturi, and C. Musiba for their useful comments. Moreover, I thank the three anonymous reviewers for their useful criticisms and comments. Different versions of this paper were presented at two international workshops: Preservation and the Use of Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli, Rock Art and Other Palaeoanthropological Resources in Tanzania, Bellagio, Italy, June 5 9, 1995, and Urban and Monuments Conservation, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, May 14 16, REFERENCES Agnew, N., and Demas, M. (1998). Preserving the Laetoli Footprints. Scientific American September: Anati, E. (1986). The State of research in Rock Art: the rock art of Tanzania and the East African sequence. Bollettino del Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici XXIII: Anati, E. (1994). World Rock Art: The Primordial Language, 3rd Ed., Edizioni Del Centro, Studi Camuni, XII, Rome. Bower, J. (1973). Seronera: Excavations at a Stone Bowl site in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Azania 8: Bower, J. R. F., and Chadderdon, T. J. (1986). Further excavations of Pastoral Neolithic sites in Serengeti. Azania XXI: