FM (FM 1-240)

Transcription

1 FM (FM 1-240) Instrument Flight for Army Aviators April 2007 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. Headquarters, Department of the Army

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3 *FM (FM 1-240) Field Manual No Headquarters Department of the Army Washington, DC, 30 April 2007 Instrument Flight for Army Aviators Contents PREFACE...xii Chapter 1 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS Page Section I Pitot-Static Systems Altimeter Airspeed Indicator Vertical Speed Indicator Section II Compass Systems Magnetic Compass Radio Magnetic Indicator Section III Gyroscopic Systems Gyroscope Attitude Indicator Turn-and-Slip Indicator/Turn Coordinator Section IV Flight Management System Horizontal Situation Indicator Vertical Situation Indicator Chapter 2 ROTARY WING INSTRUMENT FLIGHT MANEUVERS Section I Maneuver Performance Instruments Performance Procedural Steps Primary and Supporting Methods Section II Flight Management System Cross-Check Instrument Interpretation Aircraft Control Section III Instrument Takeoff Preparing Performing From Hover/Ground DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. *This publication supersedes FM 1-240, 15 December April 2007 FM i

4 Takeoff Common Errors Section IV Straight-and-Level Flight Pitch Attitude Control Bank Control Power Control Common Errors Section V Straight Climbs and Descents Climbs Descents Common Errors Section VI Turns Predetermined Heading Timed Changing Airspeed Compass Thirty-Degree Bank Climbing and Descending Common Errors Section VII Other Maneuvers Unusual Attitudes Autorotations Chapter 3 FIXED WING INSTUMENT FLIGHT MANEUVERS Section I Instrument Takeoff Takeoff Common Takeoff Errors and Resolutions Section II Straight-and-Level Flight Pitch Control Bank Control Power Control Trim Technique Section III Straight Climbs and Descents Climbs Descents Common Climb and Descent Errors and Resolutions Section IV Turns Standard-Rate Turns Steep Turns Climbing and Descending Turns Change of Airspeed During Turns Common Turn Errors ii FM April 2007

5 Section V Other Maneuvers Approach to Stall Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries Chapter 4 AIR NAVIGATION CHARTS Section I Air Navigation Measuring a Position Using Latitude and Longitude Measuring Direction Navigation Charts Departure Procedure Chart Standard Terminal Arrival Route Charts Instrument Approach Procedure Chart Inoperative Components Section II Plotting and Measuring Plotter Measurements and Course Lines Chapter 5 AIR NAVIGATION HANDHELD COMPUTER Section I Calculator Side Values Indexes Time and Distance Short Time and Distance (Use of the 36 Index) Computing Time for Outbound Leg During Holding Fuel Consumption True Airspeed Distance Conversion True Altitude Calculation Multiplication and Division Calculations Converting Distance to Time Section II Wind Side Disk and Correction Scales Reversible Grid Determining Heading and Ground Speed Determining Unknown Wind Determining Altitude for Most Favorable Wind Determining Radius of Action Chapter 6 INSTRUMENT WEATHER Effects of Wind Turbulence Structural Icing Fog Volcanic Ash Thunderstorms Wind Shear April 2007 FM iii

6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 NAVIGATION AIDS Section I Basic Radio Principles Radio Wave Propagation Types of Waves Radio Wave Reception Disturbances Precautions Section II Navigation Systems NonDirectional Radio Beacon Very High Frequency OmniDirectional Range Tactical Air Navigation Very High Frequency OmniDirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation Distance Measuring Equipment Global Positioning System Inertial Navigation System Section III Navigation Procedures Application Homing to a Station Tracking to a Station Course Intercept Arc Interceptions Area Navigation Global Positioning System Navigation AIRSPACE Section I National Airspace System Airspace Classification Special-Use Airspace Other Airspace Federal Airway Section II International Civil Aviation Organization Safety Applicability Current Information and Procedures Terminal Instrument Approach Procedures Compliance Definitions Departure Procedures Approach Procedures Holding Altimeter Setting Procedures Transponder Operating Procedures AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM Communications Control Sequence Letters of Agreement iv FM April 2007

7 Chapter 10 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES INFORMATION AND PROCEDURES Section I Sources of Flight Planning Information Department of Defense Flight Information Publications Civil Publications Section II Instrument Flight Rules Flight Plan Filing Canceling Section III Clearances Separations Visual Flight Rules-on-Top Visual Flight Rules Over-the-Top Section IV Notice to Airmen System Notice to Airmen Notices to Airmen Types Internet Distribution System Section V Navigation Options in the National Airspace System On Airways Off Airways (Direct) Section VI Departures Departure Procedures Diverse Departure Radar Controlled Departure Departure From Airports Without an Operating Control Tower Section VII En Route Procedures Holding Procedures Section VIII Approaches Published Procedure Compliance Approaches to Airports Low-Altitude Approaches High-Altitude Approach Final Approach Other Approaches Missed Approaches Section IX Landing Land and Hold Short Operations Landing Fees Chapter 11 EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Section I Emergencies Unforecasted Adverse Weather Aircraft System Malfunctions Communication/Navigation Loss of Situational Awareness Inadvertent Instrument Meteorological Condition April 2007 FM v

8 Section II Air Traffic Control Requirements and Responsibilities Provide information Request Assistance Responsibility Appendix A INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES OPERATIONS... A-1 Appendix B INSTRUMENT FLIGHT IN A THEATER OF OPERATIONS... B-1 Appendix C WEATHER REPORTS AND RISK MANAGEMENT... C-1 Appendix D INTERNET ADDRESSES AND ACCESS... D-1 Appendix E AIRCREW COORDINATION AND INSTRUMENT FLIGHT... E-1 GLOSSARY... Glossary-1 REFERENCES... References-1 INDEX... Index-1 vi FM April 2007

9 Figures Figure 1-1. Pitot-static head Figure 1-2. Altimeter components Figure 1-3. Types of altitude Figure 1-4. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard temperature Figure 1-5. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard atmospheric pressure Figure 1-6. Temperature correction chart (height in feet) Figure 1-7. Encoding altimeter with a malfunction Figure 1-8. Mechanism of an airspeed indicator Figure 1-9. Vertical speed indicator Figure Instantaneous vertical speed indicator Figure Magnetic compass Figure Lines of magnetic variation Figure Pilot compass correction card Figure Turning error Figure Acceleration error Figure Radio magnetic indicator Figure Precession diagram Figure Attitude indicator Figure Turn indicator Figure Horizontal situation indicator Figure UH-60 vertical situation indicator Figure 2-1. Control instruments of a UH Figure 2-2. Performance instruments of a UH Figure 2-3. Navigation instruments on a UH Figure 2-4. Pitch control instruments Figure 2-5. Bank control instruments Figure 2-6. Cross-check pattern Figure 2-7. Instrument interpretation comparison Figure 2-8. Instrument takeoff indications Figure 2-9. Straight-and-level flight at normal cruise speed Figure Straight-and-level flight with airspeed deceasing Figure Climb entry Figure Stabilized constant airspeed climb Figure Stabilized constant-rate climb Figure Standard rate turn to the left Figure Compass turn correction diagram Figure Stabilized left climbing turn, constant airspeed Figure 3-1. Pitch attitude and airspeed in level flight Figure 3-2. Slip indication Figure 3-3. Skid indication Figure 3-4. Straight-and-level flight Figure 3-5. Airspeed deceasing Figure 3-6. Reduced airspeed stabilized Figure 3-7. Climb entry Figure 3-8. Stabilized constant airspeed climb Figure 3-9. Stabilized constant rate climb Figure Level-off Figure Constant airspeed descent, airspeed high reduce power Figure Level-off at descent airspeed Figure Standard rate turn Figure Steep right turn April 2007 FM vii

10 Figure 3-15.Change of airspeed in turn Figure Unusual attitude nose high Figure Unusual attitude nose low Figure 4-1. Longitude and latitude Figure 4-2. En route airport legend Figure 4-3. Navigational aid and communication boxes Figure 4-4. Air traffic services and airspace information Figure 4-5. Instrument approach chart Figure 4-6. Procedures and notes Figure 4-7. Basic T design of terminal arrival area Figure 4-8. Profile view features Figure 4-9. Landing minimums Figure Point in space approach Figure Remote altimeter settings Figure Inoperative components Figure East/west course reading, using outer/inner scale Figure North course reading, using inner scale Figure Drawing a course line from a known point Figure 5-1. CPU-26A/P calculator side Figure 5-2. Calculator side of CPU-26A/P computer Figure 5-3. Computing time and distance Figure 5-4. Computing speed Figure 5-5. Short time and distance Figure 5-6. Estimated outbound time more than one minute Figure 5-7. Estimated outbound time less than one minute Figure 5-8. Gallons and pounds conversion Figure 5-9. Computing time for fuel consumption Figure Fuel required Figure Rate of fuel consumption Figure True airspeed computation Figure Nautical, statute, and kilometer correlation Figure Inner scale computation Figure True altitude calculation Figure Multiplication Figure Division Figure Converting feet per nautical mile to feet per minute Figure Wind side of CPU-26A/P computer Figure Heading and ground speed Figure Determining unknown wind Figure Determining altitude for most favorable wind Figure Determining radius of action, part I Figure Determining radius of action, part II Figure Determining radius of action, part III Figure 6-1. Wind effect and ground speed Figure 6-2. Wind drift Figure 6-3. Wind drift angle Figure 6-4. Wind correction angle Figure 6-5. Instrument scan in severe turbulence (blurry instrument panel) Figure 6-6. Glide-slope deviations in wind shear Figure 7-1. Surface, space, and sky wave propagation Figure 7-2. Very (high frequency) omnidirectional range radials Figure 7-3. Homing to a station Figure 7-4. Push the head Figure 7-5. Pull the tail Figure 7-6. Tracking inbound viii FM April 2007

11 Figure 7-7. Tracking outbound Figure 7-8. Inbound course intercept of less than 45 degrees Figure 7-9. Inbound course intercept Figure Inbound course intercept of greater than 45 degrees Figure Outbound course intercept immediately after station passage Figure Outbound course intercept away from station Figure Arc interception from a radial Figure Localizer interception from a distance measuring equipment arc Figure Flying a distance measuring equipment arc Figure Area navigation computation Figure Aircraft/very (high frequency) omnidirectional radio range tactical air navigation aid/waypoint relationship Figure 8-1. Airspace classification Figure 8-2. Victor airways and charted information Figure 8-3. The 45-degree/180-degree procedure turn Figure 8-4. The 80-degree/260-degree procedure turn Figure 8-5. Base turn Figure 8-6. Comparison of Federal Aviation Administration and International Civil Aviation Organization protected airspace for a procedure turn Figure 8-7. Procedure turn entry Figure 8-8. Base turn entry Figure 8-9. Racetrack procedure Figure International Civil Aviation Organization holding pattern entry sectors Figure Types of aeronautical charts Figure Department of Defense Form Figure Department of Defense Form Figure Federal Aviation Administration Form Figure Departure procedure Figure Standard terminal arrival route Figure Standard holding pattern no wind Figure Standard holding pattern with drift correction Figure Holding pattern entry procedures Figure Holding and outbound timing Figure Facilities with standard approach procedures Figure Approach procedure without an operating control tower Figure Instrument approach procedure chart with maximum air traffic control facilities available Figure Teardrop pattern Figure /180 procedure turn Figure /260 procedure turn Figure Descent at the holding fix Figure Descent on the inbound leg Figure Procedural track approach arcing final Figure Procedural track approach teardrop turn Figure High-altitude instrument approach plate Figure Instrument landing system Figure Parallel and simultaneous instrument landing system approaches Figure Circling approach area radii Figure Circling approaches Figure Additional ATC information Figure C-1. Takeoff data... C-1 Figure C-2. En route and mission data... C-3 Figure C-3. Aerodrome forecasts... C-5 Figure C-4. Comments/remarks... C-6 Figure C-5. Briefing record... C-6 30 April 2007 FM ix

12 Figure C-6. Meteorological aviation report...c-8 Figure C-7. Terminal area forecast...c-16 x FM April 2007

13 Tables Table 2-1. Maneuver instrum Table 2-2. Compass turn computation Table 4-1. Distance conversions Table 4-2. Aircraft approach categories and circling limits Table 4-3. Runway visual range conversion table Table 5-1. Gallons and pounds conversion Table 6-1. Temperature ranges for ice formation Table 7-1. Standard wind drift correction Table 8-1. Aircraft category and maximum airspeed Table 8-2. Aircraft category and airspeed Table 8-3. Airspeeds Table 9-1. Air traffic control facilities, services, and radio call signs Table Air traffic control separation parameters Table Attention notice groups Table Holding altitudes and airspeeds Table Course reversal steps Table A-1. Sample instrument flight rules planning requirements... A-5 Table B-1. Initial air traffic control capabilities...b-2 Table B-2. Transition to sustained air traffic control operations... B-3 Table B-3. Service capabilities and references... B-4 Table C-1. Takeoff data block explanation... C-2 Table C-2. En route and mission data block explanation... C-3 Table C-3. Aerodrome forecasts block explanation... C-5 Table C-4. Comments/remarks block explanation... C-6 Table C-5. Briefing record block explanation... C-7 Table C-6. Special weather report criteria... C-8 Table C-7. Descriptor qualifiers... C-11 Table C-8. Precipitation types... C-12 Table C-9. Obscuration types... C-12 Table C-10. Other types of weather phenomena... C-12 Table C-11. Reportable descriptions for sky cover... C-13 Table C-12. Automated, manual, and plain language remarks... C-15 Table C-13. Automated weather observing system models... C-21 Table C-14. Weather briefing... C-24 Table C-15. Derived mission information... C-25 Table C-16. Radar system precipitation intensity levels... C-29 Table D-1. Internet resources for flight operation planning... D-1 Table E-1. Examples of standard words and phrases... E-8 Table E-2. Rotary and fixed wing instrument takeoff callouts... E-9 Table E-3. Climb/cruise/descent callouts... E-10 Table E-4. Examples of calls/responses for all phases of flight... E-10 Table E-5. Examples of instrument approach calls/responses... E-10 Table E-6. Examples of missed approach calls/responses... E-11 Table E-7. Examples of calls/responses for instrument reference to visual... E-11 Table E-8. Examples of calls/responses for approach deviations... E-12 Table E-9. Examples of emergency calls/responses... E April 2007 FM xi

14 Preface Field manual (FM) is specifically prepared for aviators authorized to fly Army aircraft. This manual presents the fundamentals, procedures, and techniques for instrument flying and air navigation. FM facilitates adherence to Army regulation (AR) 95-1 by providing guidance and procedures for standard Army instrument flying. Aircraft flight instrumentation and mission objectives are varied, making instruction general for equipment and detailed for accomplishment of maneuvers. Guidance found in this manual is both technique and procedure oriented. Aircraft operator manuals provide the detailed instructions required for particular aircraft instrumentation or characteristics. When used with related flight directives and publications, this publication provides adequate guidance for instrument flight under most circumstances but is not a substitute for sound judgment; circumstances may require modification of prescribed procedures. Aircrew members charged with the safe operation of United States Army, Army National Guard (ARNG), or United States Army Reserve (USAR) aircraft must be knowledgeable of the guidance contained herein. This manual applies to all military, civilian, and/or contractor personnel who operate Army aircraft, and adherence to its general practices is mandatory. The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) published by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is not regulatory; however, the AIM provides information that reflects examples of operating techniques and procedures required in other regulations. AIM is not binding on Army aircrews. Furthermore, the AIM contains some techniques and procedures not consistent with Army mission requirements, regulatory guidance, waivers, exemptions, and accepted techniques and procedures. However, AIM is the accepted standard for civil aviation and reflects general techniques and procedures used by other pilots. Much of the information contained in this manual is reproduced from AIM and adapted for Army use. If a subject is not covered in this manual or other Army regulations, follow guidance in the AIM unless mission requirements dictate otherwise. All figures and tables that display partial or complete navigational excerpts from other publications (such as instrument approach charts, legends, and low-altitude en route charts) are provided for reference only and should not be used in planning for or the conduct of any flight. This publication applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard/Army National Guard of the United States, and the United States Army Reserve unless otherwise stated. The proponent of this publication is Headquarters, United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Send comments and recommended changes, using Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to publications and Blank Forms) or automated link ( directly to Commander, U.S. Army Aviation Warfighting Center (USAAWC), ATTN: ATZQ-TD-D, Fort Rucker, AL ; or the Directorate of Training and Doctrine (DOTD) at av.doctrine@us.army.mil. Other doctrinal information can be found on the Internet through Army Knowledge Online (AKO) or by calling the defense switched network (DSN) or commercial (334) Note. For immediate assistance on issues affecting this FM, contact the Directorate of Training and Doctrine (DOTD), Doctrine Division, at DSN , commercial , or via at the following address: av.doctrine@us.army.mil. Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. This publication has been reviewed for operations security considerations. xii FM April 2007

15 Chapter 1 Flight Instruments and Systems The efficiency and utility of Army aircraft depend largely on flight instruments and systems accurately depicting what the aircraft is doing in flight and how well its power plants and components are functioning. Important navigation instruments are the magnetic compass, slaved gyro compass system, heading indicator, airspeed indicator, and altimeter. These instruments provide information concerning direction, airspeed, and altitude. The attitude indicator allows the aviator to control the aircraft by showing the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the natural horizon. The performance of an aircraft in a given attitude and with a certain power setting is indicated by the airspeed indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, vertical speed indicator/vertical velocity indicator, and turn-and-slip indicator. Flight instruments are grouped into three systems: pitot-static, compass, and gyroscopic. SECTION I PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS 1-1. Most aircraft instrument panels have three basic pressure-operated instruments: the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator (VSI). All three receive the pressures that they Contents measure from the aircraft pitot-static system. Flight Section I Pitot-Static Systems instruments depend on accurate sampling of ambient atmospheric pressure to determine the height and Section II Compass Systems speed of aircraft movement through the air, both Section III Gyroscopic Systems horizontally and vertically. Ambient atmospheric Section IV Flight Management System pressure is sampled at two or more locations outside of the aircraft by the pitot-static system Static pressure, or still air, is measured at a flush port where air is not disturbed. On some aircraft, this air is sampled by static ports on the side of the fuselage (Figure 1-1). A pitot-static head is a combination pickup used to sample pitot and static air pressures. Other aircraft pick up the static pressure through flush ports on the side of the electrically heated pitot-static head. These ports are in locations proven by flight tests to be in undisturbed air, and they are normally paired, one on either side of the aircraft. This dual location prevents lateral movement of the aircraft from giving erroneous static pressure indications. The areas around the static ports may be heated with electric heater elements to prevent ice forming over the port and blocking the entry of static air Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is taken in through an open-end tube pointed directly into the relative wind flowing around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to the airspeed indicator, and the static ports deliver pressure to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and VSI (Figure 1-1, page 1-2). 30 April 2007 FM

16 Chapter 1 Figure 1-1. Pitot-static head ALTIMETER 1-4. An altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of ambient air and displays that absolute pressure in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level. The sensitive element in an altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze wafers (Figure 1-2). The air pressure tries to compress the wafers against their natural springiness, which works to expand them. As a result, their thickness changes as air pressure changes. Figure 1-2. Altimeter components 1-5. An altimeter has an adjustable barometric scale that allows the aviator to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured. This scale is visible in the Kollsman window (altimeter setting window) and adjusted by a knob on the instrument. The range of the scale is from to inches of mercury (Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and altimeter pointers in such a way that a change in the barometric scale of 1 inch Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet. This is the 1-2 FM April 2007

17 Flight Instruments and Systems standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted to inches Hg, or 1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. To display indicated altitude, adjust the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The instrument then indicates the height above the existing sea-level pressure. TYPES OF ALTITUDE 1-7. The five types of altitude are indicated, absolute, true, pressure, and density. Figure 1-3 compares pressure, true, and absolute altitudes. Indicated altitude is altitude as read on the dial with a current altimeter setting (sea-level pressure) set in the Kollsman window. Absolute altitude is the altitude above the surface or terrain where the aircraft is flying, also called above ground level (AGL). True altitude is the altitude above mean sea level (MSL). Figure 1-3. Types of altitude 1-8. Pressure altitude is the height measured above the inches-of-mercury pressure level (standard datum plane). If the Kollsman window is set to Hg, the hands of the dial indicate pressure altitude. This setting is called the standard altimeter setting. In the United States, the use of pressure altitudes (standard altimeter setting) begins at 18,000 feet. These altitudes are referred to as flight levels (FLs). The following are examples of conversions of altitude in feet to flight levels. Examples of Conversions to Flight Levels 18,000 feet equals FL180; 35,000 feet equals FL Density altitude is the altitude for which a given air density exists in the standard atmosphere. If the barometric pressure is lower or the temperature is higher than standard, then density altitude of the field is higher than its actual elevation such as in the following example. Density altitudes can be obtained from many airfield towers or may be computed on the dead reckoning computer (CPU-26A/P). WARNING Because higher density altitude requires a greater takeoff distance and reduces aircraft performance, failure to calculate density altitude could be fatal. 30 April 2007 FM