TABLE OF CONTENTS...

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS................................ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................ v xi INTRODUCTION THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION The Phoenician expansion: problems and state of research............. Exchange in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.................. The semantics of terminology: Phoenician vs Levantine and colonial vs indigenous.................................. Classification of western Phoenician ceramics.................... xiii xv xvii xix CHAPTER 1 THE HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS The historical and archaeological contexts..................... 1 The historical context: Phoenicia and Phoenicians in the Early Iron Age.. 1 The archaeological context: the Phoenician expansion in the central and western Mediterranean................................. 3 Phoenician ethnicity and material culture in the Mediterranean......... 4 Chronology..................................... 6 CHAPTER 2 CULTURAL CONTACTS AND TRADE IN COLONIAL SETTINGS: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION On colonisation, colonialism, middle grounds and terrae nullius......... 9 Colonisation vs colonialism: the rhetorics of a post-colonial archaeology... 9 A terminological dead-end?.......................... 10 Ancient economy, trading posts and Phoenician trade............... 11 Ancient trade and trading posts........................ 11 Structures of the Phoenician economy.................... 13

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 EARLY EXCHANGES IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN: ON PRE-COLONIAL TRADE, GIFTS AND THEIR PERPETRATORS Introduction..................................... 15 Pre-colonial exchanges in the western Mediterranean: on trade, gifts and their perpetrators.................................. 15 Motives for the expansion, early contacts and the issue of aristocratic exchange 15 Exchanges in the central Mediterranean: Sardinia and the connections between East and West.............................. 19 East-West early contacts: from the pre-colonial period to enoikismoi..... 26 Greek pottery in the western Mediterranean and its carriers in the pre-colonial period..................................... 37 Early exchanges: the question of an elite gift-exchanging koine, travelling artisans and indigenous markets............................. 41 CHAPTER 4 THE COLONIAL FRONTIERS IN IBERIA. FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction..................................... 49 Settlement patterns in Iberia............................ 51 Pre-Phoenician and contact-time territorial organisation........... 51 Phoenician or Tartessian? Modern artificial lines in settlement patterns... 53 The topography of the Phoenician towns, trading posts and sanctuaries in Iberia.................................. 56 Settlements, trading posts and sanctuaries in Iberia: culture and society...... 59 The emergence of urbanism? Settlement types, urban-layout and architecture 59 Sanctuaries and cults in Iberia......................... 66 Language and cultural identity........................ 68 Burial customs and society............................. 70 Phoenician society in Iberia: social organisation, culture change and culture continuity 77 CHAPTER 5 THE COLONIAL FRONTIERS IN NORTH-WEST AFRICA: FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction..................................... 83 Settlement patterns and topography in north-west Africa.............. 85 Settlements and trading posts: spatial organisation, material culture and cultural identity.................................... 87

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Burial customs and culture............................. 91 Phoenician society in north-west Iberia: social organisation, culture change and culture continuity............................... 94 CHAPTER 6 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES. TRADE PATTERNS AND INTERACTION MECHANISMS IN IBERIA AND NORTH-WEST AFRICA Introduction..................................... 97 The use of agricultural land and trade in agricultural products........... 98 The issue of agriculture............................ 98 Evidence for exploitation of agricultural land and trade in agricultural products 99 The question of timber exploitation...................... 101 Pastoralism and the exploitation of marine resources................ 101 Animal husbandry............................... 101 The exploitation of marine resources..................... 102 The evidence for Phoenician involvement in the production and distribution of metals in Iberia................................ 103 Documentation, questions and problems................... 103 Geological formation and mining exploitation techniques.......... 104 Evidence for metalworking at Phoenician settlements............. 105 The procurement and processing of ores................... 106 Shipwrecks.................................. 108 The evidence for Phoenician involvement in the production and distribution of metals in north-west Africa.......................... 109 Organisation of production and trade: colonial and market economies....... 110 South Spain and the trade in manufactured products................ 113 Imports, copies and local developments.................... 113 A Phoenician trade in luxury products or local artisans?........... 115 Trade in the frontiers of Phoenician settlement in Iberia: central/north-east Spain. 116 The Valencian and Catalonian region: imports at indigenous sites...... 116 Trade patterns in the Valencian and Catalonian regions........... 117 Trade in Atlantic Iberia............................... 118 Andalusian imports in Atlantic Iberia..................... 118 Trade in Atlantic Iberia: aims and organisation................ 120 Trade in north-west Africa: Morocco and Algeria.................. 120 Phoenician settlements and traded commodities............... 120 Exchanges in north-west Africa: Cerne island, exotic goods and Mogador.. 121 Trade with the Greek world in the late 8 th and the 7 th c. in Iberia and north-west Africa..................................... 122 The question of Greek trade......................... 122 Greek pottery in Iberia, ca. 750 600 BC................... 123 Greek pottery in north-west Africa...................... 128

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS The evidence in the central Mediterranean.................. 129 Greek toponyms and trade routes....................... 130 Interaction mechanisms: modes and mechanism of commercial exchanges..... 132 The articulation of power........................... 132 Coercion: military operations and asymmetrical exchanges.......... 132 An agricultural revolution?......................... 135 Commercial networks and the articulation of power............. 135 An organic expansion and the specifics of power articulation: a working hypothesis................................ 136 CHAPTER 7 PHOENICIAN SOCIETY IN CENTRAL NORTH AFRICA: FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction.................................. 139 Settlement patterns and territorial organisation in central north Africa...... 140 Topography, urban layout and material culture.................. 143 Burial grounds and society............................. 145 The Carthaginian necropoleis: the egalitarian outlook of society in the 8 th c., the shift of the 7 th BC and the question of Egyptian cults....... 145 The sanctuary of Tanit at Salammbô: a contextual reconstruction and the debate on chronology.......................... 149 The necropoleis of Utica: cultural origin and social hierarchies........ 151 The tophet at Hadrumetum: chronology and cult.............. 152 The tophet and the issue of ritual infanticide................. 153 Phoenician society in Carthage, Utica and Hadrumetum: social organisation and social change.................................. 157 The foundation of Carthage and the formation of the early population... 157 Social implications of the tophet: an early civic institution?......... 161 Population synthesis and relations with the indigenous communities: Utica, Hadrumetum and Lepcis........................ 163 CHAPTER 8 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES. TRADE PATTERNS AND INTERACTION MECHANISMS IN CENTRAL NORTH AFRICA Introduction..................................... 165 The exploitation of natural resources and the artisanal production......... 165 Agriculture.................................. 165 Animal husbandry and the exploitation of marine resources......... 166 Other natural resources........................... 167

TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Craft production.................................. 168 Trade........................................ 169 Carthaginian maritime trade......................... 169 Utica and maritime trade........................... 173 Maritime trade and the foundation of Lepcis................. 173 Phoenicians in central north Africa: trading circuits and a heterogeneous process of expansion................................... 173 CHAPTER 9 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES AND EVOLVING SOCIETIES: INTEGRATION PATTERNS MERCHANTS, GUILDS AND FOREIGN LANDS: THE ORIGINS OF THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION REVISITED Agents and structure of commerce: guilds, the temple and metropolitan Tyre... 180 Structures of commerce............................ 180 Agents of commerce.............................. 183 Frontiers of expansion and cultural contacts: between permanent settlements and ephemeral outposts.............................. 185 Only commerce? The other factors behind the Phoenician expansion.... 185 Inter- and intra-phoenician identities: Phoenicians and others........ 186 CONCLUSIONS.................................... 189 APPENDIX...................................... 193 Sardinia....................................... 193 Sant Imbenia................................. 193 Spain........................................ 194 Huelva..................................... 194 Cádiz/Gadir.................................. 195 Castillo de Doña Blanca............................ 196 Las Cumbres................................. 196 Cerro del Prado................................ 197 Cerro del Villar................................ 198 Toscanos................................... 199 Cerro del Mar................................. 200 Morro de Mezquitilla............................. 200 Trayamar................................... 201 Chorreras................................... 203 Lagos..................................... 203 Almuñécar................................... 204 Cerro de San Cristóbal (Laurita)....................... 204

x TABLE OF CONTENTS Puente de Noy................................ 205 Adra/Abdera.................................. 206 La Fonteta................................... 206 Sa Caleta................................... 208 Puig de Mollins................................ 208 Ceuta..................................... 209 Portugal....................................... 211 Castro Marim................................. 211 Tavira..................................... 211 Alcácer do Sal: el Castillo........................... 213 Alcácer do Sal: the necropolis of Olival do Senhor dos Mártires....... 214 Abul...................................... 214 Lisbon..................................... 215 Quinta do Almaraz.............................. 216 Alçácova de Santarém............................. 217 Santa Olaia.................................. 218 Morocco....................................... 219 Lixus..................................... 219 Kach Kouch.................................. 220 Sala...................................... 221 Mogador.................................... 221 Tangier Peninsula: necropoleis........................ 222 Algeria........................................ 224 Rachgoun................................... 224 Tunisia....................................... 225 Utica..................................... 225 Carthage.................................... 226 Hadrumetum................................. 228 Libya........................................ 229 Lepcis..................................... 229 TABLES....................................... 231 FIGURES....................................... 237 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................... 317