Chapter 4 SOCIO-CULTURAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA Hills of Kerala are rich in natural resources that include water, timber, minerals, and biodiversity and equally important is the rich cultural heritage of the local community. As the desired destination of many tourists, migrants and pilgrims, hills of Kerala offer a place of rest, solitude, adventure, recreation and scenic beauty. For centuries, the relative remoteness and isolation of hills has resulted in less human impact and higher resource sustainability than in many lowland regions. With the combined advances in extractive resource technology and increase in leisure time, however, the impacts of human activity in hills have increased significantly since the invention of good transport vehicles. Once sheltered areas, are now, open to the tourism industry and an external population that can rapidly deplete or alter the resource base. The extraction of hill resources has advanced with little or no reinvestment into either the ecology or the local communities that are the traditional stewards of the ecosystems. Many of the primary issues in sustainability including biodiversity, traditional production systems, and social change are either directly or indirectly associated with the increased use of hills as tourist destinations. While controlled tourism can bring benefits to the local community, in normal practice, usually the bulk of economic benefits go elsewhere, leaving local people with depleted resources and inflated local prices. A sustained tourism industry is predicated on a number of factors; in particular, consideration should be given to the impact that tourism has on the community as a whole and the individuals who make up that community. The impacts of tourism require some monitoring in order to protect the well-being of the community, and to ensure the long term viability of the tourism product. The community, as hosts to the tourists, is vital in the visitor experience and
may affect tourism development by its willingness, or otherwise. Tourism impacts come in many shapes and forms. These are often discussed in terms of the socio-cultural, economic and physical environment of the destination areas. Socio-cultural relates to the issues of culture, lifestyle and human interaction; economic aspects concern issues of employment, foreign exchange, improvement in infrastructure, overall growth of the region; the physical environment concerns issues of landscape and land-use in both built-up and natural settings. Because of the rich wildlife diversity and scenic beauty, the hills of Kerala have in the past four decades attracted domestic and foreign tourists from various countries. The growth of tourism in the region also resulted in the establishment of tourist facilities in the area. Tourism in the hill destinations of Kerala is characterized by both consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife uses. As a result, significant tourist activities in the region include elephant safari, walking trails, motoring through woods and several other photographic tourist activities. The present chapter investigates the socio-cultural, economic and environmental impacts of hill tourism in Kerala. The assessment has been done by taking the perception of host communities in the selected hill destinations in Kerala based on some well refined variables (given in Chapter 1). For ease of analysis the chapter has been divided into three sections A, B and C. Section A is given for assessing the socio-cultural impact, Section B is devoted to assess the economic impact and Section C is given for assessing the environmental impact. Section A SOCIO - CULTURAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA The Socio-cultural aspects are one of the chief consumables of tourism, and experiencing unusual cultures can be educational for the visitor and highly 144
profitable for the community. But the influxes of tourists bring diverse values to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Interactions between residents and tourists can have an impact on creative expression either by providing new opportunities or by stifling individuality with new restrictions. Tourism is necessarily an invasive process that thrusts traditional communities into the modern world, threatening their distinct lifestyles and cultural products. Tourism employment brings new streams of income into a community but also inhibits individuals from performing traditional tasks, making families dependent on cash income from tourism and therefore less likely to participate in time-honoured work and social activities. It is possible to emphasize the recovery and conservation of cultural values that, but for the attractiveness which it offers to the visitors, would be forgotten. Many of the local customs have been revitalized like part of the plans for the tourist supply. In many places traditional customs have been found to be appearing again and assuming the charm that they had once lost viz folklore, crafts, festivals, gastronomy, etc. Further, one of the most important positive factors in the social aspect is the improvement in the facilities and services viz, sanitary attention, means of transport, parks etc. Tourism can improve the quality of life in an area by increasing the number of attractions, recreational opportunities, and services. Tourism offers the resident opportunities to meet interesting people, make friendships, learn about the world, and expose themselves to new perspectives. Experiencing different cultural practices enriches experiences, broadens horizons, and increases insight and appreciation for different approaches to living. But in spite of the undeniable socio cultural impulse that these positive aspects represent, it has got some negative impact also. The most remarkable negative aspect is the social differences between the host community and the tourists which create in the local populations certain resentment towards the tourists and which appear in the form of social tension. Again, another negative impact of tourism can be the social evils like the increase of 145
prostitution, drug abuse, criminal acts which might not have arisen without the appearance of tourists. Tourism also can cause a des-culturization of the destiny. The host community may consider the culture of the tourists as superior. Sometimes the indigenous cultures may try to adapt to the customs of the visitors and they will possible end up destroying the very elements that hold attractiveness for the tourist. Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts. The perception of the host community about the positive and negative impacts of hill tourism is assessed as under: 4.1 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects (a) Tourism Promotes Social Interaction Tourism promotes social interaction between different communities host and tourist, which will ultimately help to improve the social status of the region and also to get educated about the differences in the views and to improve the attitude towards each other. It also helps sharing of culture between host and tourists. While analysing this aspect, majority of the respondents (96.4%) agrees that the tourism promotes social interaction but 2.4 percent disagrees with the majority view and 1.2 percent does not respond (Table 4.1). The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation. But the chi-square finds a significant variation in the opinion among the respondents at 5 per cent level (p<0.05). Table 4.1: Tourism Promotes Social Interaction Destination Agree 44 (88) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 48(96) 241(96.4) Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4) No opinion - 1(2) - - 2(4) 3(1.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 29.848; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. 146
(b) Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education Tourism promotes cultural exchange between the host community and the tourists which contributes to mutual understanding between societies and people. The understanding of other cultures can prevent prejudice and hatred. Cultural exchange also enriches our own lives by inspiring new forms of artistic expression and providing fresh insights that broaden our horizons. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (88%) agree that tourism promotes cultural exchange and education, but 10 per cent disagrees with the statement and the rest does not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation except Wayanad (Table 4.2). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among respondents (p<0.05). Table 4.2: Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education Agree 49(98) 49(98) 42(84) 50(100) 30(60) 220(88) Disagree - 1(2) 5(10) - 19(38) 25(10) No opinion 1(2) - 3(6) - 1(2) 5(2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 64.900; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (c) Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement Tourism induces cultural exchange. Cultural exchange enriches our own lives by inspiring new forms of artistic expression and providing fresh insights that broaden our horizons. Cultural exchange and activities can exercise a more powerful influence than military task forces or political delegations, ultimately resulting in the cultural advancement of the community. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (82.4%) agree that tourism promotes cultural advancement among the local community, but 15.2 per cent disagrees with the statement and the remaining 2.4 per cent does not respond. 147
The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.3). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among respondents (p<0.05). Table 4.3: Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement Agree 37(74) 41(82) 47(94) 50(100) 31(62) 206(82.4) Disagree 11(22) 8(16) 2(4) - 17(34) 38(15.2) No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 32.879; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (d) Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Area Cultural identity is the identity of a group or culture of an individual as far as one is influenced by one's belonging to a group or culture. Cultural identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with, identity politics. Various cultural studies and social theories investigate the cultural identity. In recent decades, a new form of identification has emerged. This new form of identification breaks down the understanding of the individual as a coherent whole subject to a collection of various cultural identifiers. These cultural identifiers examine the condition of the subject from a variety of aspects including: place, gender, race, history, nationality, language, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, ethnicity and aesthetics. The division lines between diverse cultures are very fine in some parts of the world, especially in those places where there are people who are ethnically diverse with completely different ancestry but similar upbringings. Preserving one s cultural identity is very difficult since the new generation is least bothered about these factors and they like to live in a mixed culturization way. The 148
perception of the host community of the selected hill destinations on this is assessed as under: Table 4.4: Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Destination Agree 40(80) 49(98) 48(96) 50(100) 40(80) 227(90.8) Disagree 9(18) 1(2) 1(2) - 10(20) 21(8.4) No opinion 1(2) - 1(2) - - 2(0.8) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 27.756; p value =.001*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. Majority of the respondents (90.8%) agrees that the tourism helps to preserve the cultural identity of the destination since the tourists are coming for experiencing the varied culture, but 8.4per cent disagrees with the statement whereas 0.8 per cent did not response. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.4). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05). (e) Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture Experiencing different cultural practices enriches our experience, broadens horizons and increases insight and appreciation for different approaches to living. Increased interest in host cultures as a part of tourism, increases demand for historical and cultural exhibits. This interest by tourists in local art, craft and culture provides opportunities to support the revival of such historical artefacts and architecture. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (96.4%) agree that tourism supports the revival of traditional art, craft and culture, but 2.4 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.5). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05). 149
Table 4.5: Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture Agree 41(82) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 241(96.4) Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4) No opinion 3(6) - - - - 3(1.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 37.344; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (f) Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites Traditional architecture and historical infrastructure can be an important primary or secondary tourist attraction. Tourists can be housed in restored or traditional buildings and led along ancient trails. Infrastructure restoration can also revitalise other forms of economic activity. The restoration of traditional infrastructure, particularly if the original construction techniques and design are employed, is an excellent example of the link between conservation and enterprise in community based tourism. Table 4.6: Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites Agree 15(30) 13(26) 49(98) 50(100) 47(94) 174(69.6) Disagree 33(66) 36(72) - - 1(2) 70(28) No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 144.394; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. As a result of their relative isolation, some hill cultures retain traditional building skills which have been lost in more developed areas. The revenue 150
generated from tourism activity can be utilised to restore historical sites. While assessing this aspect majority of the respondents (69.6%) agree that tourism ensures restoration of historical sites, but 28 per cent disagree with the statement and 2.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from the general opinion except Ponmudi and Thekkady where majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table 4.6). The chi-square test also finds significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 4.2 Negative Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects (a) Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life In order to satisfy the traditional needs at the mass tourists visiting destinations, local cultural values have been used as a commodity and marketing tool and have been over-commercialised as a result of using them at the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong standards. Consequently, a false and dubious image has emerged, deliberately or not, about the local community. The perception of the host community at selected destinations on this impact is assessed as under Table 4.7: Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life Agree 42(84) 49(98) 42(84) 37(74) 46(92) 216(86.4) Disagree 5(10) - 5(10) 10(20) 3(6) 23(9.2) No opinion 3(6) 1(2) 3(6) 3(6) 1(2) 11(4.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 15.664; p value =.047*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. Majority of the respondents (86.4%) agree that tourism commodifies culture and traditional way of life, but 9.2 per cent respondents disagree with the statement and 4.4 did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows 151
no wide variation. But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). (b) Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival Tourism sometimes leads to the destruction of the social fabric of a community. The more the number of tourists comes to a place, the more is the perceived risk of that place losing its cultural identity. It leads to changes in the art, craft and festivals of the region. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (55.2%) disagree with the statement that tourism causes changes in art, craft and festivals, but 39.6 per cent respondents agree that tourism causes changes in art, craft and festival and 5.2 per cent did not respond to the question. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general opinion except Thekkady and Wayanad where majority agree with the statement (Table 4.8). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.8: Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival Agree 11(22) 50(100) 8(16) - 30(60) 99(39.6) Disagree 36(72) - 40(80) 46(92) 16(32) 138(55.2) No opinion 3(6) - 2(4) 4(8) 4(8) 13(5.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 139.538; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (c) Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect One of the most detrimental impacts of tourism on the culture of the host community is the demonstration effect. Influxes of tourists bring diverse values to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Individuals and the collective community might try to please tourists or adopt the tourist behaviour and the adoption of tourist s way of life may alter existing customs and usher in 152
unhealthy practices such as dating habits( especially those of a more structured or traditional culture). This demonstration effect may create family stress among the host community. While assessing this aspect, majority of the respondents (88.4%) agree that tourism leads to a demonstration effect in the local community, but 10.4 disagree with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.9). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.9: Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect Agree 50(100) 50(100) 38(76) 50(100) 33(66) 221(88.4) Disagree - - 10(20) - 16(32) 26(10.4) No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 53.786; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (d) Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes Crime rates typically increase with the growth and urbanization of an area, and growth of mass tourism is often accompanied by increased crime. The presence of a large number of tourists with a lot of money to spend, and often carrying valuables, increases the attraction for criminals and brings with it activities like robbery and drug dealing. While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (67.6%) agree that tourism activities increase the number of crimes in the destination, but 30.8 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general opinion except Neliampathy and Wayanad where majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table 4.10). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 153
Table 4.10: Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes Agree 50(100) 49(98) 38(76) 9(18) 23(46) 169(67.6) Disagree - 1(2) 11(22) 41(82) 24(48) 77(30.8) No opinion - - 1(2) - 3(6) 4(1.6) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 122.750; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (e) Tourism Results in More Vandalism Mass tourism leads to vandalism. Vandalism is the behaviour of ruthless destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or venerable and also includes criminal damage to cultural monuments and things such as paintings, buildings, and places etc., which will adversely affect the image of the historically important place. Table 4.11: Tourism Results in More Vandalism Agree 17(34) 32(64) 44(88) 39(78) 34(68) 166(66.4) Disagree 32(64) 16(32) - 9(18) 12(24) 69(27.6) No opinion 1(2) 2(4) 6(12) 2(4) 4(8) 15(6) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 57.885; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. While assessing this aspect among the host community of selected destination majority of the respondents (66.4%) agree that tourism activities results in more vandalism in the area, but 27.6 per cent respondents disagree with the statement and 6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis shows no variations from general opinion except in Ponmudi where majority 154
disagrees with the statement (Table 4.11). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). (f) Tourism Exploits Host Community What began long ago as a practice of travellers visiting and engaging their hosts by residing with them and abiding by the customs and practices of the place, tourism has transferred into an impersonal experience where intimate contact and relationships with the host community are almost non-existent and managed by a wall of commerce where the traveller no longer subscribes to the customs of the place but has become accustomed to customized experiences. This has turned a once welcoming hosting culture into a reluctant service-oriented community where the host is treated like a servant who in turn is expected to deliver well-choreographed experiences that are more contrived than genuine, and where sense-of-place is valued less than the mechanics and standard operating procedures associated with brand recognition. In short, the prevailing customer-focused paradigm has not only fostered a dynamic tourism that compromises the identity of the place, but the local communities are being exploited and their resources are taken over by outside interests for tourism. Table 4.12: Tourism Exploits Host Community Agree 42(84) 33(66) 40(80) 50(100) 15(30) 180(72) Disagree 8(16) 17(34) 9(18) - 35(70) 69(27.6) No opinion - - 1(2) - - 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 74.606; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. While analyzing this aspect most of the respondents (72%) agree that tourism exploits the host community, but 27.6 per cent disagree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation, except 155
Wayanad, where majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.12). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). (g) Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism Increased tourism can push a community to adopt a different moral conduct such as increased underage drinking especially in the areas with festivals involving alcohol, increased illicit drug use etc. While analysing this aspect among the host community of the selected hill destinations, majority of the respondents (74.4%) agree that increased tourism activities leads to drug use and alcoholism, 25.6 per cent disagree with the statement. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.13). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.13: Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism Agree 29(58) 42(84) 35(70) 49(98) 31(62) 186(74.4) Disagree 21(42) 8(16) 15(30) 1(2) 19(38) 64(25.6) No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 28.646; p value =.000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (h) Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young women has paralleled the growth of tourism in many parts of the world. Though tourism is not the cause of sexual exploitation, it provides easy access to it. Tourism also brings consumerism to many parts of the world previously denied access to luxury commodities and services. The lure of this easy money has caused many young people, including children, to trade their bodies in exchange for T-shirts, 156
personal stereos, bikes and even air tickets out of the country. While analysing this aspect among the respondents most of them (56.8%) disagree that mass tourism leads to sexual abuse and prostitution, but 42.8per cent respondents agree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation except Ponmudi and Wayanad, where majority agrees with the statement (Table 4.14). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.14: Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution Agree 27(54) 16(32) 11(22) 25(50) 28(56) 107(42.8) Disagree 23(46) 34(68) 39(78) 24(48) 22(44) 142(56.8) No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 22.735; p value =.004*. *Significant at 5 per cent level. (i) Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease Because of our global interconnectedness through transportation, tourism and trade, infectious diseases emerge more frequently; spread greater distances; pass more easily between humans and animals; and evolve into new and more virulent strains. International travel is often cited as a major factor in the global spread of disease. From the annoying common cold to more serious SARS infections, travellers are exposed to more germs and disease than ever before. While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (72%) disagree on the statement that tourism spreads the intensity of diseases, but 26.8 per cent agrees with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not response. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.15). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the respondents (p>0.05). 157
Table 4.15: Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease Agree 18(36) 11(22) 17(34) 14(28) 7(14) 67(26.8) Disagree 32(64) 39(78) 31(62) 36(72) 42(84) 180(72) No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 13.782; p value =.088**. **Not Significant at 5% level (j) Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language Tourism means more transportation networks and links, which can blight the hill environment, disrupt traditional ways of life and threaten the existence of local languages. If the hill regions become the world s playgrounds, there is a risk that mountain people will lose their own cultural identity. Table 4.16: Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language Agree 21(42) 2(4) 21(42) - 16(32) 60(24) Disagree 29(58) 47(94) 28(56) 50(100) 30(60) 184(73.6) No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 4(8) 6(2.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 56.743; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. While analyzing this aspect among the selected respondents most of them (73.6%) disagrees with the statement that tourism leads to degradation of local language, but 24per cent agrees with the statement and 2.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.16). However, the chi-square test reveals a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 158
(k) Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding for each other s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and other crimes committed against the tourists. While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (77.2%) agrees that increased tourism activities create a friction between the host community and the tourists on the utilisation of resources, but 21.2 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.17). However, the chi-square test reveals significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.17: Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists Agree 35(70) 49(98) 27(54) 50(100) 32(64) 193(77.2) Disagree 15(30) - 22(44) - 16(32) 53(21.2) No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 4(1.6) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 52.657; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. (l) Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community s Way of Life Tourism development projects propagated as eco-friendly and employment generating often adversely affect the local community's rights, livelihood and access to resource and thus adversely affect the host community as a whole. While analysing this aspect among the selected respondents most of them (70.4 %) agree that increased tourism had adverse effect on the community s way of life but, 26.4 per cent disagrees with the statement and 3.2 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide 159
variation from general opinion (Table 4.18). However, the chi-square test reveals significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.18: Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community s Way of Life Agree 26(52) 48(96) 36(72) 34(68) 32(64) 176(70.4) Disagree 24(48) 2(4) 12(24) 13(26) 15(30) 66(26.4) No opinion - - 2(4) 3(6) 3(6) 8(3.2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 31.856; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. (m) Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community Displaced communities are groups of people who have literally been uprooted and forced to migrate from their homelands in search of new livelihoods. This can be the result of any number of factors, which affect different groups in different ways. One of the undesirable impacts of tourism is that of the extent of land lost from the local community. Despite loss of their land, employment favours only better educated workers. Furthermore, the investors in this area are not local and do not put profits back into local economy. In some cases new projects are launched without informing or consulting local people, who come to know about the situation only when an eviction notice is delivered. Table 4.19: Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community Agree 50(100) 48(96) 38(76) 29(58) 28(56) 193(77.2) Disagree - 2(4) 11(22) 21(42) 18(36) 52(20.8) No opinion - - 1(2) - 4(8) 5(2) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 56.541; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. 160
While analysing this majority of the respondents (77.2%) agree that increased tourism activity leads to the displacement of community, but 20.8 per cent respondents disagree with the statement and 2 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.19). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 4.3 Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism at the Hill of Kerala- Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards sociocultural impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion of the hosts on all the 19 variables are consolidated. The response was recorded on a three-point scale with a maximum value of three for agree two for no opinion and a minimum value of one for disagree, for the positive variables and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables. The compiled data is depicted in Table 4.20. Table 4.20: Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community) Opinion Positive impact 25(50) 14(28) 26(52) 42(84) 35(70) 142(56.8) No impact 1(2) - 4(8) 1(2) 1(2) 7(2.8) Negative impact 24(48) 36(72) 20(40) 7(14) 14(28) 101(40.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Compiled data. Regarding socio-cultural impact of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, majority (56.8) of the respondents viewed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of Kerala, but 40.4 per cent stated that tourism has negative socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of Kerala. 161
TESTING THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS H 0 : Not more than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P 0.50). H 1: More than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P>0.50). The opinion of host community regarding the socio-cultural impact of tourism on the hill destinations of Kerala is also put to hypothesis testing. Binomial test is used for testing the hypothesis with hypothetical mean value as cut off point (38.00). While applying the test, respondents having the perception of mean value are grouped as no positive impact and the rest are grouped as positive impact. The binomial test result (given in Table 4.21) depicts the observed proportion as 0.57, which is more than the test proportion of 0.50, and the p-value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis stating that not more than one half of the host community observed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala stands rejected. Category Table 4.21: Socio Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill of Kerala (Binomial Test) Observed Proportion Group 1( 38.00) 0.43 Group 2 (>38.00) 0.57 Source: Compiled data. Test Proportion p Value 0.50 0.037* 4.4 Relationship between Socio Cultural Impact and Personal Traits of Host Community The distribution of host community on the basis of socio-cultural factors (19 variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic characteristics is depicted in Table 4.22. 162
Table 4.22: Relationship between Socio Cultural Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community Sex Age Variables Category N Mean S.D 250 39.1320 4.63037 F Sign. Male 192 39.4375 4.86426 Female 58 38.1207 3.60836 3.641 0.058** 25 48 39.4375 4.54250 26-35 101 39.0396 4.78732 36-45 66 39.1818 4.30709 0.117 0.950** >45 35 38.8857 5.03967 SSLC 53 39.6891 4.77004 Plus Two 106 38.8019 4.06007 Graduate 84 39.1786 5.19768 0.446 0.720** Post Graduate 7 39.2857 5.05682 Salaried 152 39.2829 4.40412 Business 46 38.7391 4.77230 Agriculture 13 38.0000 6.12372 0.459 0.711** Others 39 39.3846 4.88076 Upto Rs.5,000 66 39.2424 4.35735 5,001 10,000 99 39.3636 4.56798 10,001 15,000 37 38.0000 5.16074 15,001 25,000 34 39.8235 4.62844 0.865 0.505** 25,001 40,000 6 37.1667 4.21505 Above Rs.40,000 8 39.1250 5.96268 Born 209 39.2057 4.40943 Migrated 41 38.7561 5.67354 0.322 0.571** Employed 73 39.7260 4.66744 Family member 57 38.1404 3.89798 employed Tourism 37 39.0541 4.87024 1.329 0.266** Entrepreneur No relation 83 39.3253 4.91416 Source: Compiled data. **Not Significant. Educational Qualification Occupation Monthly Salary Place of birth Relation with tourism ANOVA was applied to find out whether there is any significant variation in the perception of host community on socio-cultural impact. No significant variation is seen in any of the seven variables viz. sex, age, educational qualification, occupation, monthly income, place of birth and relation with tourism. 163
Section B ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA Tourism is a major social phenomenon of the modern society with enormous economic consequences. Its importance as an instrument for economic development and employment generation particularly in remote and backward areas and a positive step for poverty elimination has been accepted all over the world. One of the chief reasons that governments support and promote tourism is that it has a positive impact upon economic growth and development. Tourism increases employment opportunities, generate income and raise standards of living. As tourism grows, additional opportunities are created for investment, development and infrastructure spending. Tourism often induces improvements in public utilities such as water, sewer, sidewalks, lighting, parking, public restrooms, litter control and landscaping and such improvements benefit tourists and residents alike. Tourism also stimulates the supplying sectors of tourism, and lead to a generally increased level of economic activities in the country. Thus tourism should have an impact on the frequently used quantitative measure of the economic development and GDP. On the other side the tourism has negatives also - it will increase the price level of products; increase the price of land, lead to increased tax burden to the host community and will also indirectly prevent the development of other industries. Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative economic impacts. The perception of the host community about the positive and negative impacts of hill tourism in Kerala is assessed as under: 4.5 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Economic Aspects (a) Tourism Provides Job Opportunities The rapid expansion of tourism has led to significant employment creation. Tourism generates jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, taxis, souvenir sales, and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed by tourism-related businesses. While analysing this factor among the selected 164
respondents all of them agree that tourism provides job opportunities to the local people (Table 4.23). Table 4.23: Tourism Provides Job Opportunities Destination Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) (b) Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing Units Tourism businesses and tourists purchase goods and services directly from the enterprises situated in the tourism spots. This creates opportunities for the setting up of new micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and the expansion of existing enterprises especially those situated in the tourism destinations by which they can satisfy the demand of tourism industry. Table 4.24: Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing Units Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 49(98) 249(99.6) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value =.404**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level. While analysing this aspect majority (99.6%) of the host community agree that tourism motivates new business units and motivates the expansion of existing units, 0.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also 165
shows no wide variation (Table 4.24). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05). (c) Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy Tourism can be a significant, even essential, part of the local economy. There are revenues that are not easily quantified, as not all tourist expenditures are formally registered in the macro-economic statistics. Money is earned from tourism through formal employment like shops, hotels, taxis, registered guides etc., and informal employment such as street vendors, informal guides, rickshaw drivers, etc., and the income of the local bodies also increases from additional revenues in the form of taxes, license fees etc. In addition to this, revenue is also collected from tourists visiting protected areas in the form of user fees. The economic contribution of the tourism sector to the local economy shows that the sector provides the potential for diversifying the local economy and also reduces its dependence in other sectors. The perception of the host community regarding this is depicted as under (Table 4.25). Table 4.25: Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) All respondents are of the opinion that tourism increases the income of the community. (d) Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure The construction of roads and tracks to remote areas for tourists also improves access for school-age children and for teachers. Tourism also help local resource mobilisation, part of which can be spent on improvement of 166
education facilities in the region. While assessing this among the selected respondents, majority of them (87.6%) agree that tourism induces the authority and other agencies to set new and advanced educational institutions where the locals can provide better education to their children, but 11.6 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from the general opinion (Table 4.26). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.26: Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure Agree 33(66) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 36(72) 219(87.6) Disagree 17(34) - - - 12(24) 29(11.6) No opinion - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 60.340; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. (e) Tourism Improves the Standard of Living As tourism supports the creation of community facilities and services that otherwise might not have been developed, it can bring higher living standards to a destination. Benefits can include upgraded infrastructure, health and transport improvements, new sport and recreational facilities, restaurants, and public spaces as well as an influx of better-quality commodities and food, which can also be assessed by the local community. While assessing this majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism development provides better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the standard of living of the host community. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05). 167
Table 4.27: Tourism Improves the Standard of Living Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 49(98) 249(99.6) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value =.404**. **Not Significant at 5 per cent level. (f) Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women The tourism industry employs a high proportion of women and creates micro enterprise opportunities for them. It promotes women s mobility and provides opportunities for social networking thus helping to reduce inequality in gender. Table 4.28: Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women Agree 39(78) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 239(95.6) Disagree 11(22) - - - - 11(4.4) No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =4) = 46.025; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. While assessing this among the selected respondents most of them (95.6%) agree that tourism promotes gender equality and empower the women in the area. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.28). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 168
(g) Tourism Improves the Infrastructure Tourism provides funds and, can induce the local government to make infrastructure improvements such as better water and sewage systems, roads, electricity, telephone and public transport networks, all of which can improve the quality of life of the local community as well as facilitate tourism. The perception of the host community regarding this aspect is depicted as under (Table 4.29). Table 4.29: Tourism Improves the Infrastructure Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) All the respondents agree that the tourism provides funds for the improvement of the infrastructure in the region. (h) Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities The increased demand for various products from the tourists and tourism related business organisations leads to the setup of new shops and even super stores in the area. This will ultimately help the local community by providing them with new and developed shopping opportunities in the area. While assessing this majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism development provides better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the standard of living of the host community. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05). 169
Table 4.30: Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 43(86) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 243(97.2) Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4) No opinion 1(2) - - - - 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 28.807; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. (i) Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas The increased demand for the accommodation facilities and tourism related goods forced the entrepreneurs to set up new lodges, resorts and other business units producing tourism related goods. But because of the lack of enough space for the setting up of such structures in the spots due to congestion or some other reason; they are forced to set up such units related to tourism in the nearby areas. This ultimately helps the nearby areas of a destination to develop. The perception of the host community on the selected destination is depicted as under (Table 4.31). Table 4.31: Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) All the respondents are of the opinion that tourism also leads to the development of nearby areas. 170
(j) Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange Tourism expenditures, the export and import of tourism related goods and services generate income to the host economy. The increased flow of international tourists to the region helps the economy to improve the foreign exchange earnings. While assessing this aspect among the selected respondents, majority of the respondents (72.8%) agrees that tourism increases the foreign exchange earnings in the region, but 25.6 per cent disagrees with the statement and 1.6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general opinion except Neliampathy, where the majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.32). However, the chisquare test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). Table 4.32: Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange Agree 39(78) 42(84) 39(78) 14(28) 48(96) 182(72.8) Disagree 11(22) 7(14) 9(18) 36(72) 1(2) 64(25.6) No opinion - 1(2) 2(4) - 1(2) 4(1.6) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 79.152; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. 4.6 Negative Impact of Hill Tourism on the Economic Aspects (a) Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and Essential Commodities Increasing demand for basic services and goods from tourists will often cause price hikes that negatively affect local residents whose income does not increase proportionately. Tourism development and the related rise in real estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values. Not only does this make it more difficult for local people to meet their basic daily needs, it can also result in dominance by outsiders in land markets and in 171
migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually disempowering residents. While analysing this among the host community all of them agree that tourism leads to increase in price of land, houses and essential commodities (Table 4.33). Table 4.33: Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and Essential Commodities Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Disagree - - - - - - No opinion - - - - - - 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) (b) Tourism leads to Shortage of Consumables Increased tourism activity in the area leads to an increased demand for the consumables from the hotels and other tourism related industries in the region. This will ultimately lead to increase in the price of the products and shortage of products in the market and make it difficult for the host community to get the essential products from the market. Table 4.34: Tourism Leads to Shortage of Consumables Agree 33(66) 29(58) 33(66) 42(84) 34(68) 171(68.4) Disagree 17(34) 21(42) 17(34) 7(14) 16(32) 78(31.2) No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 13.527; p value =.095**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level. 172
While assessing this aspect among the selected respondents, majority of them (68.4 %) agrees that tourism leads to shortage of consumables in the local market, but 31.2 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.34). The chi-square test also confirms the findings at 5 per cent lever (p>0.05). (c) Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry Due to increased pressure from the tourism related industries for the setting up of new units and also due to the attraction and quantity of income generated by the tourism industry, the local community as well as the local authorities think in favour of tourism industry. This will discourage those who are basically interested in setting up other industries, and force them to set up some tourism related industry. This will ultimately prevent other industries to function in the tourism destination. Table 4.35: Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry Agree 36(72) 11(22) 41(82) 29(58) 21(42) 138(55.2) Disagree 14(28) 36(72) 8(16) 21(42) 27(54) 106(42.4) No opinion - 3(6) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) χ 2 (df =8) = 48.947; p value =.000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (68.4%) agree that tourism prevents setting up of other productive industries in the region, but 42.4 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation except Thekkady and Wayanad where the majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.35). The chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05). 173