Environmental Protection Agency August 2007

Report on Koala Coast Koala Surveys 2005-2006 Environmental Protection Agency August 2007 Executive Summary The koala population in the Koala Coast from the 2005-06 survey is estimated at 4611 animals. Based on the estimate of 6246 koalas (Dique et al. 2004) from the 1996-99 surveys, this represents a 26% decline in abundance of the regional koala population. The estimated population declined in the Redlands Shire by 27%, Logan City by 26% and Brisbane City by 21% The largest declines in abundance were in strata associated with the Urban Footprint. Other studies indicate this is because of factors such as vehicle strikes, dog attacks and disease associated with urban habitat loss. Urban habitat loss is attributable to both the loss of koala food trees and a decline in urban matrix permeability associated with the elimination of open space, grass, unfenced areas, and other vegetation. The largest proportion of koalas was found in the bushland areas with urban areas of the Koala Coast containing 33% of the total koala population. There is now evidence to suggest that there is a dynamic process operating between urban and bushland koala populations and those bushland koalas cannot persist without the urban koala population. Background information Koalas are widely distributed throughout much of Queensland and generally occur at low, but significant densities across their range (ANZECC 1988; White and Kunst 1990; Patterson 1996; Melzer et al. 2000; Sullivan et al. 2003, 2004; Gordon and Hrdina 2005). The highest density populations generally occur in the south-east of the state, with the Koala Coast recognised as one of the most significant natural koala populations in Australia, due to the relatively large numbers of koalas, the high density of animals and the close proximity to Queensland s capital city of Brisbane. In general, koala habitat is poorly protected because the majority of koala habitat occurs on freehold land (ANZECC 1998, Reed and Lunney 1990; Lunney et al. 2000) with only small populations of koalas represented in Queensland s conservation reserves. Rapid human population growth, particularly in South East Queensland, is increasingly threatening the persistence of koalas throughout the region. As Australia s fastest growing region, South East Queensland attracts 55 000 new residents each year (Qld Government 2005). However, as a consequence of ongoing urban development, koala populations are increasingly under pressure from habitat loss and the additional threats associated with vehicles, dogs and disease - compounded by the stress of living in an urbanising area. In March 2004 the koala was listed as a species vulnerable to extinction in the South East Queensland Bioregion, under the Nature Conservation Act 1992 (NCA). This listing was in response to significant threatening processes impacting on koala populations in South East Queensland and a perceived decline in the South East Queensland koala population based on mortality data collected by an incidental monitoring program run by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since the 2005-2006 survey, the Nature Conservation (Koala) Conservation Plan 2006 and Management Program 2006-2016, known as the Koala Plan, was enacted in October 2006 to protect the koala throughout its range in Queensland and to stop the decline and recover the South 1

East Queensland population (Queensland Government 2006). The Koala Plan is subordinate legislation under the NCA. The key legislative component of the Koala Plan deals with identification and protection of koala habitat through a statutory and policy framework that is linked to other state government legislation. Koala Habitat Areas (KHA) are identified in the South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-2026 (Queensland Government 2005) and include Koala Conservation Areas (KCA), Koala Sustainability Areas (KSA) and Urban Koala Areas (UKA). KCA are KSA are critical to the ongoing viability of the koala population and have a non-urban planning intent, while UKA are also important habitat areas, but with a recognised urban intent. The Koala Plan also includes a non-statutory management program that identifies a range of management approaches relating to issues such as vehicle and dog related koala mortality, habitat loss for extractive industry, translocation, research and monitoring, rehabilitation and public education. It also provides management direction for non statutory Koala Living Areas that have an education focus. Policies such as koala sensitive development; habitat offsets for net benefit to koalas and koala habitat; vegetation clearing practices; and koala habitat assessment and mapping have been developed to provide guidance for interpreting and implementing the Koala Plan. Strategies for the protection of habitat in relation to development control have also been incorporated into the South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-2026, known as the SEQ Regional Plan. The Regional Plan identifies two major regional land use categories: the Regional Landscape and Rural Production area (RL/RP), with a non-urban intent; and the Urban Footprint, broadly identifying potential urban development areas but also encompasses land that is not available or appropriate to develop such as national parks, wetland and areas with other constraints such as significant biodiversity values. Some of the most significant koala areas located on the RL/RP and have been identified as KCA while those on the Urban Footprint have been identified as KSA and UKA. Koala research To better understand and manage koalas, the EPA initiated a five-year koala research program in the Koala Coast between 1996 and 2000. Information relating to koala distribution, abundance, comparative ecology and population dynamics was obtained. This enabled the collection of key baseline data on which to assess koala management programs of the day and to direct future management programs. (Thompson 2001). Major findings established that koalas occurred throughout the region in bushland, remnant bushland and urban environments, at densities from 0.02 to 1.26 koalas ha -1 (Dique et al. 2004). Urban areas had significant densities of koalas, sometimes exceeding densities found in some bushland areas. the Koala Coast koala population was estimated at 6246 (±1444) animals from the 1996-99 surveys (Dique et al. 2004). However, a downward trend in density was observed at a number of remnant bushland sites in urban areas which has necessitated additional studies to determine the nature and extent of declines in koala abundance between 1996 and 2006. This study reports the results of a comprehensive survey of the Koala Coast koala population in 2005-06, six years after the finalisation of the initial intensive five-year research program conducted from 1996-2000. Population assessment method Study area 2

The Koala Coast is located 20 km south-east of Brisbane, Queensland, and covers an area of ~ 375 km 2 (Figure 1). It is the largest population of koalas residing in such close proximity to a capital city anywhere in Australia. The region falls within the South East Queensland Bioregion where the koala is listed as vulnerable (Nature Conservation Act 1992) and also within the SEQ Planning Region (SEQ Regional Plan). The Koala Coast encompasses portions of three local government authorities: the mainland portion of Redland Shire, the eastern portion of Logan City and the south-eastern portion of Brisbane City. The Koala Coast is delineated by Manly Road and Lota Creek to the north; the Gateway and Pacific Motorways to the west; Logan River to the south; and Morton Bay to the east effectively isolating the resident koala population as a geographically independent group. Western Australia Northern Territory AUSTRALIA South Australia 0 300 600 1,200 km Queensland Victoria NSW ACT Tasmania ± 0 2550 100 km South East Queensland Bioregion SEQ Planning Region Brisbane ^ Koala Coast Figure 1 Distribution of koalas in Australia (main box); and location of the Koala Coast study area (inset) showing the South East Queensland (SEQ) planning region and the South East Queensland Bioregion. Distribution based on Martin (1995). The Koala Coast is a rapidly urbanising landscape characterised by its semi-rural setting with large areas of relatively contiguous bushland. Increasingly the pressures of human population expansion are impacting on the area with extensive residential, light industrial and commercial development fuelled by high rates of human population growth. Stratification of study area and survey site selection The Koala Coast was stratified using the same approach described for the earlier abundance estimate by Dique et al. (2004). The region was first stratified into four broad koala habitat strata (bushland; remnant bushland; urban and other), then further post stratified into six strata. This was achieved by dividing the bushland and remnant bushland strata into high or low koala density substrata. Koala habitat was derived from a four class (forest, urban, grass and non-habitat) landcover classification produced from Landsat satellite imagery for 1997 and 2005. Fragmentation patch analysis was used to spatially evaluate the landscape and allocate forest patches according to their size to the appropriate stratum (Table 1). Details of the habitat mapping and abundance estimation method are given in Appendix 1. 3

Table 1. Description of koala habitat strata. Habitat Strata Urban Habitat Remnant Bushland Habitat Bushland Habitat Other Survey method Description Urban landcover including small-lot residential development, schools and small parks, grass landcover and forest patches less than 10 ha in the urban zone Isolated forest landcover patches greater than 10 ha in the urban zone or isolated forest landcover patches between 10 ha and 100 ha in the non-urban zone Forest landcover patches larger than 100 ha in the nonurban zone Isolated forest landcover patches smaller than 10 ha, grass landcover and non-habitat landcover in the non-urban zone or non-habitat landcover in the urban zone Further stratification of strata based on koala density (Sub-strata) N/A High density remnant bushland Low density remnant bushland High density bushland Low density bushland N/A Estimates of koala density in 2005-06 were obtained from the same sites that were surveyed during the 1996-1999 survey period. Surveys were conducted at a total of 25 sites, consisting of 15 bushland; 7 remnant bushland; and 3 urban sites, between September and December in both 2005 and 2006 (identified as the 2005-06 survey). The survey method utilised systematic searches of strip transects in bushland and remnant bushland sites; total counts in urban sites; and followed the same approach implemented during the 1996-99 surveys, as described by Dique et al. (2004). Results Koala surveys There were 272 koalas sighted in 1301 ha of bushland, remnant bushland and urban areas during the 2005 survey period. Density estimates at sites ranged from 0 0.81 koalas ha -1. Unlike the 1996-99 survey period where densities were as high as 1.42 koalas ha -1, no site recorded a koala density above 0.81 k ha -1 (Figure 2a&b). Nearly half of the sites in the region have declined in density. Declines in koala density were observed in 29% of bushland sites, 71% of remnant bushland sites and 33% of urban sites. Koala density in more than 80% of Brisbane and Logan sites remained consistent with previous survey results. In contrast, 53% of the survey sites in Redlands recorded declines in koala density. The greatest proportional change in density occurred at sites located on the Urban Footprint, with three sites recording declines in density of 76% - 86% (Figure 2c). 4

1997 2005 Change Figure 2 Koala density (koalas ha -1 ) of survey sites in the Koala Coast (a) 1996-99 and (b) 2005-06 surveys shown over koala habitat. (c) change in koala density shown over regional landuse categories designated under the South East Queensland Regional Plan. RL/RP = Regional Landscape and Rural Production. Current population estimate a b c Very High High Medium Low Very Low 0.82 1.25 0.44 0.81 0.24 0.43 0.13 0.23 0.01 0.12 Regional landuse categories The koala population in the Koala Coast in 2005 is estimated at 4611 animals (Table 2). Based on the estimate of 6246 koalas by Dique et al. (2004), this represents a 26% decline in abundance of the regional koala population. The largest proportion of the koala population continues to persist in the bushland strata which also experienced the smallest decline in abundance. The strata with the greatest declines have been those associated with the Urban Footprint delineated in the SEQ Regional Plan i.e. low density remnant bush, high density remnant bush and urban. Between the survey periods the koala population declined: in the low density remanent bush strata by 69% or 435 koalas, in the high density remnant bush stratum by 52% or 514 koalas; and in the urban stratum of 48% or 715 koalas. RL/RP Urban Footprint Investigation Area Change in density -0.86 - -0.76-0.75 - -0.60-0.59 - -0.36-0.35 - -0.11-0.10-0.54 5

Table 2. Comparison of koala density and abundance per stratum for 1996-99 and 2005-06 survey periods. Stratum Mean koala density (koalas ha -1 ) Estimated abundance (koalas) 1996-99 2005-06 1996-99 2005-06 Urban 0.17 0.10 1493 778 High density remnant bush 0.70 0.29 988 474 Low density remnant bush 0.20 0.09 626 191 High density bushland 0.30 0.26 2328 2282 Low density bushland 0.11 0.09 811 886 Other 0 0 0 0 Total 6246 4611 Spatial distribution: Planning regions (LGA, SEQ Regional Plan and Koala Plan) The estimated population is 1635 koalas less than the previous survey. Table 2b provides an analysis of the decline by Local Government Area. Table 2b. Comparison of koala abundance per Local Government Area for 1996-99 and 2005-06 survey periods Local Government Area Total number Koalas lost since 1996-99 survey % of total 2005-06 numbers % of total 2005-06 numbers lost on a per hectare basis Redlands 1114 68.5% 44% 27% Logan 335 20.5% 37% 26% Brisbane 186 11% 19% 21% Total 1635 % Decline from previous survey The Urban Footprint delineated in the SEQ Regional Plan, which sustained 42% of the koala population in the 1996-99 survey period now supports only 33% of the koala population (Figure 3a). The loss of 1115 koalas from the Urban Footprint was the primary cause of the decline in abundance of the Koala Coast koala population. 6

Koalas 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 a 1997 2626 3619 1511 3100 2005 Urban footprint RL/RP Figure 3 Change in koala abundance (a) on the Urban Footprint and the Regional Landscape and Rural Production area (RL/RP); and (b) in each local government area. In previous survey the highest densities of koalas were found in the geographic centre of the Koala Coast, with very high densities (0.24 0.33 koalas ha-1) in four suburbs and high density (0.18 0.23 koalas ha-1) in seven suburbs. However, in 2005-06 only two suburbs had very high densities and three suburbs had high densities of koalas (Figure 4a&b). The two suburbs with the largest decline in koala density (in the range of between 11% and 14%), Capalaba and Alexandra Hills are urbanised suburbs the Redland Shire (Figure 4c). Koalas 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 b 906 1997 1286 4053 2005 6246 720 951 2939 4610 Logan Brisbane Total Redland 1997 2005 Change a b c Very High High Medium Low Very Low 0.24 0.33 0.18 0.23 0.12 0.17 0.06 0.11 0.01 0.05 Density change -0.14 - -0.11-0.10 - -0.07-0.06 - -0.05-0.04 - -0.02-0.01-0.01 Figure 4 Koala density (koalas ha -1 ) in suburbs of the Koala Coast (a) 1996-99; (b) 2005-06; and (c) change in density between 1996-99 and 2005-06. 7

Koala Habitat Areas (KHA) designated under the Koala Plan are estimated to incorporate 60% of the region s koala population. Specifically: The KHA encompasses 67% of the Koala Coast with 96% of the RL/RP is designated as KCA 26% of the Urban Footprint has a KHA designation, (13% KSA and 13% UKA). 84% of Brisbane s koalas; 49% of Logan s koalas; and 58% of Redland s koalas are within Koala Habitat Areas (Figure 5a&b). Conversely, 40% (2498) of koalas are not within designated koala habitat under the Koala Plan. Brisbane Brisbane Redland Redland Logan Logan a b Koala Habitat Areas (KHA) Koala Conservation Area (KCA) Koala Sustainability Area (KSA) Urban Koala Area (UKA) SEQ Regional Plan 2005-2026 Regional Landscape and Rural Production Area Urban Footprint Rural Living Area Investigation Area Mt Lindesay/North Beaudesert Study Area Figure 5 (a) Koala Habitat Areas (KHA) designated under the Koala Plan. (b) Landuse categories designated under the SEQ Regional Plan. 8

Habitat changes Satellite image processing and GIS-based habitat assessment was used to calculate the area of habitat. There was a 23% increase in bushland (~ 3000 ha); attributable to a 12% increase in the area of forest landcover detected by the satellite in 2005; and the apparent restoration of some connectivity between smaller remnant patches resulting in more patches exceeding the bushland threshold of 100ha (Figure 6). Offsetting this positive result there was a 17% decrease in remnant bushland (~ 650 ha); and an 11% decrease in urban habitat (~ 1000 ha). Consequently there was a small 5% increase in the aggregated amount of bushland, remnant bushland and urban koala habitat (~1250ha) between 1997 and 2005 (Figure 6). Koala Habitat 40000 (ha) 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 12227 8779 3786 10974 7780 3131 Other Urban Remnant Bushland 10000 5000 12610 15517 0 1997 2005 Figure 6 Koala habitat in the Koala Coast (1997 2005). Discussion A significant koala population remains in the Koala Coast; however the 26% reduction in koala abundance (1635 koalas) since the completion of the last surveys represents a significant threat to the long term persistence to koalas in the region. The largest decline has occurred within the Urban Footprint, with the loss of 1115 koalas compared with the loss of 519 koalas in the Regional Landscape and Rural Production area (RL/RP). Mortality on the Urban Footprint was 4 times higher per hectare than in the RL/RP (Preece 2007). Anthropogenic threats associated with development such as vehicles, dogs and disease, were the leading contributors to this mortality. The annual anthropogenic mortality rate for urban koalas was in excess of 19% per annum. This very high rate of human-induced mortality represents a significant loss to the resident population and is un-sustainable in the long-term. High rates of mortality and the decline in koala numbers, further demonstrates that urbanisation is threatening the persistence of koalas throughout the region. 9

The largest proportion of koalas was found to inhabit the bushland areas. The importance of conserving and expanding contiguous areas of bushland habitat cannot be over-emphasised. However, it appears that the bushland habitat on its own is not sufficient to maintain the Koala Coast koala population. This is because secure bushland areas rely on high immigration rates to maintain population levels (Thompson, 2006). The high level of anthropogenic mortality caused by vehicles, dogs and disease in urban areas reduces the availability of immigrants and restricts movement of koalas in an increasingly fragmented and hostile urban matrix. It appears that the importance of the urban koala population in bolstering the bushland population has previously been underestimated. In addition, the direct impact of urbanisation through the loss of forest habitat has been compounded by the indirect impacts associated with highly elevated levels of anthropogenic koala mortality to exacerbate the population decline. Change in abundance and nature of decline Koalas, or recent evidence of koalas, were found at all survey sites, confirming that the distribution of koalas has remained relatively unchanged despite the 26% decline in abundance. However, results from the 1996-99 survey period identified potential downward trends in density at sites located in the urban matrix (Dique et al. 2004). This survey has confirmed these trends and it is now likely that there will be imminent localised extinctions of koalas at some sites in the Urban Footprint. The declines have been so great that only a single koala was detected at two sites during the 2005-06 surveys that previously supported as many as 7 and 15 koalas. The nature of these declines cannot be attributed to habitat loss, because the majority of the survey sites are secure bushland reserves and consequently very few of the survey sites have been subject to habitat disturbance or lost vegetation through clearing. Recent work has demonstrated that bushland sites are relying on immigration of koalas to maintain their viability (Thompson 1996). This suggests that fewer koalas are successfully dispersing between habitat areas; landscape permeability has decreased as the urban matrix becomes more hostile; and that high levels of anthropogenic mortality has eliminated most of the potential recruits. Habitat changes While a small increase in the amount of forest in the Koala Coast was detected, there has been a loss of urban koala habitat in the urban zone. Urban habitat loss is attributable to both the loss of koala food trees and a decline in urban matrix permeability associated with the elimination of open space, grass, unfenced areas, and other vegetation. The cumulative effect of losing individual trees in residential lots, the removal of roadside vegetation for road upgrades or the development of remnant patches of bushland for housing estates and commercial precincts has severely impacted on both the quantity and quality of available urban habitat. Tree removal over time has lead to further fragmentation of habitat, a reduction in habitat linkages, and an increased exposure of koalas to threats in the landscape. Management implications Urbanisation, leading to conflict with vehicles and dogs and greater susceptibility to disease, continues to be the key threat to the survival of koalas throughout the region. All threatening processes can be linked to urbanisation; vehicle strikes are heightened where arterial and other roads bisect bushland, remnant bushland or urban habitat areas, resulting in high mortality of resident koalas, or limited success of dispersing animals that must cross roads to reach suitable habitat and mates (Dique et al. 2003 a); dog attacks on koalas are more frequent in residential areas where habitat is very fragmented and koalas are forced to move greater distances across the ground between suitable food trees; and diseases such as Chlamydia are exacerbated by the stress 10

associated with habitat clearing and living in urban areas and leads to infertility and reduces the size of the breeding population. Vehicle strikes represent 34% of koala mortality in the Koala Coast and have been associated with all classes of road. State-controlled roads are the single largest contributor to koala mortality and accounted for 26% of all koala deaths (Preece 2007). Many of these koalas are the potential recruits to the bushland areas and are young healthy animals (Dique et al. 2003 a). The loss of these individuals compounds the impact on population viability by removing otherwise healthy individuals and reducing fecundity rates. Mitigation measures directed at roads, such as fauna crossing structures, have the potential to conserve 269 koalas annually. To put this in perspective, more than 1240 ha of habitat would need to be acquired each year to offset this loss of individuals from the koala population. Domestic dog attacks are highest in urban areas with 85% of attacks occurring within the Urban Footprint. This is attributable to the high density of dogs and the fragmented habitat which forces koalas to spend more time on the ground while searching for suitable food or shelter trees and thereby increases their susceptibility to attack. As all local governments within the Koala Coast have some bylaws governing dog ownership and registration, dog attacks are potentially one threatening process that has a high prospect for successful mitigation. The responsible management of domestic dogs could prevent the death and injury of up to 100 koalas each year. Disease in the koala population contributes directly to mortality and also lowers breeding capacity. This two-fold impact further reduces the long-term viability of the population by reducing the effective population, or the number of individuals who contribute offspring to the next generation. The exact nature of the impact of disease is currently unclear. Further epidemiological studies and population modelling are required to assess this threatening process and to develop strategies to address this issue. Urban areas of the Koala Coast contain a significant proportion of the total koala population with the Urban Footprint encompassing 42% and 33% of the koala population in 1996-99 and 2005-06 surveys respectively. There is now evidence to suggest that there is a dynamic process operating between urban and bushland koala populations and that bushland koalas cannot persist without the urban koala population. As a consequence, these populations should be managed collectively. The persistence, viability and role of these urban koala populations needs further investigation. While intact forest is crucial to providing feeding habitat/food source, recent research has demonstrated that dispersal habitat which sustains koala immigration and recruitment is also vital to maintaining koala population viability (Lunney et al. 2002; Thompson et al. 2006). Habitat linkages, sparsely vegetated, or cleared areas provides landscape permeability and allow koalas to safety traverse the landscape. Open areas that facilitate koala movement across the ground must also retain their permeability. Consequently the incorporation of koala sensitive design to mitigate threatening processes in association with habitat retention is vital to enhance the safe movement and allow for the persistence of koalas throughout the region. Studies have suggested that conservation programs for wild populations need to be designed to conserve habitat capable of supporting approximately 5000-7000 animals in order to ensure longterm persistence (Begon et al. 1996; Smith 1996; Reed 2003). To conserve this number of koalas in the Koala Coast, the area of RL/RP would need to be increased by between 12% (24 550 ha) and 57% (34 440 ha) based on habitat composition in 1997. Improving the landscape composition through bush rehabilitation to fully vegetate the RL/RP would not provide sufficient habitat by itself to maintain a viable koala population of 5000-7000 animals. Consequently, functional habitat 11

must also be conserved on the Urban Footprint to secure sufficient resources to sustain a viable koala population in the long term. The introduction of the Koala Plan in October 2006 provides for the long term protection of key Koala Habitat Areas and has elements addressing the threatening processes of vehicle and dog related koala mortality through education and koala sensitive development policy. Close monitoring of the effectiveness of strategies in the Koala Plan is essential to ensure that management measures are successful and to incorporate improvements if the koala population rate of decline continues. References ANZECC (Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council) (1988). National Koala Conservation Strategy. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. Begon, M., Harper, J. L., and Townsend, C. R. (1996). 'Ecology.' (Blackwell Science: Oxford.) Dique, D.S., Thompson, J., Preece, H.J., de Villiers, D.L. and Carrick, F.N. (2003a). Dispersal patterns in a regional koala population in south-east Queensland. Wildlife Research 30, 281-290. Dique, D.S., Thompson, J., Preece, H.J., Penfold, G.C., de Villiers, D.L. Leslie, R.S. (2003b). Koala mortality on roads in south-east Queensland: the koala speed zone trial. Wildlife Research 30, 419-426. Dique, D.S., Preece, H.J., Thompson, J. and de Villiers D.L. (2004). Determining the distribution and abundance of a regional koala population in south-east Queensland for conservation management. Wildlife Research 31, 109-117. Gordon, G and Hrdina, F. (2005). Koala and possum populations in Queensland during the harvest period, 1906-1936. Australian Zoologist 33, 69-99. Lunney, D., Matthews, A., Moon, C., and Ferrier, S. (2000). Incorporating habitat mapping into practical koala conservation on private lands. Conservation Biology 14, 669-680. Lunney D., O Neill, L., Matthews, A. and Sherwin, W.B. (2002). Modelling mammalian extinction and forecasting recovery: koalas at Iluka (NSW, Australia). Biological Conservation 106, 101-113. Martin, R. W. (1995). Koala. In 'The Mammals of Australia: the National Photographic Index of Australian Wildlife'. (Ed. R. Strahan.) pp. 112-114. (Reed Books: Chatswood, NSW.) Martin, R. and Handasyde, K. (1999). The Koala: Natural History, Conservation and Management (New South Wales University Press: Kensington.) Melzer, A., Carrick, F., Menkhorst, P., Lunney, D., and St. John, B. (2000). Overview, critical assessment, and conservation implications of koala distribution and abundance. Conservation Biology 14, 619-628. Patterson, R. (1996). The distribution of koalas in Queensland 1986-1989. In Koalas: Research for Management. Ed G. Gordon. World Koala Research Incorporated, Brisbane, pp. 75-81. 12

Preece, H.J. (2007). Monitoring and modelling threats to koala populations in rapidly urbanising landscapes: Koala Coast, South East Queensland, Australia. PhD Thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane. Queensland Government (2005). South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-2006. (Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation, Brisbane). Queensland Government (2006). Nature Conservation (Koala) Conservation Plan 2006 and Management Program 2006-2016 (Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane). Reed, P., and Lunney, D. (1990). Habitat loss: the key problem for the long term survival of koalas in NewSouthWales. In Koala Summit: Managing koalas in New South Wales. Eds D. Lunney, C. A. Urquhart, and P. Reed. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville, pp. 9 31. Reed, D. H., O'Grady, J. J., Brook, B. W., Ballou, J. D., and Frankham, R. (2003). Estimates of Minimum Viable Population Sizes for Vertebrates and Factors Influencing Those Estimates. Biological Conservation 113, 23-34. Smith, R. L. (1996 ). 'Ecology and Field Biology.' (Menlo Park: California.) Sullivan, B. J, Norris, W. M., and Baxter, G. S. (2003). Low density koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the mulgalands of south- west Queensland. II Distribution and diet. Wildlife Research 30, 331-338. Sullivan, B. J, Baxter, G. S, Lisle, A. T., Pahl, L., and Norris, W. M. (2004). Low density koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the mulgalands of south- west Queensland. IV Abundance and conservation status. Wildlife Research 31, 19-29. Thompson, J. (2001). The role of research in koala management: Case studies from South-East Queensland. In The research and management of non-urban koala populations. Eds K. Lyons, A. Melzer, F. Carrick, and D. Lamb. Koala Research Centre of Central Queensland, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, pp. 89-104. Thompson, J. (2006). The comparative ecology and population dynamics of koalas in the Koala Coast region of south-east Queensland. PhD Thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane. White, N.A. and Kunst, N.D. (1990). Aspects of the ecology of the koala in southeastern Queensland. In Biology of the Koala. (Eds A.K. Lee, K.A. Handasyde and G.D. Sanson.) pp. 109-116. (Surrey Beatty: Sydney.) 13

Appendix 1: Stages in koala habitat classification and abundance estimation. 1997 2005 2. Landcover classification 1. Satellite image Landsat TM false infra-red: bands 4,3,2 (R,G,B) Forest Urban Grass Non-habitat 14

4. Koala abundance (6 strata model) 3. Koala habitat High density sub-strata Bushland Remnant Urban Other Density: 1 Very High 2 High 3 Medium 4 Low 5 Very Low 15