The Design of Nature Reserves

The Design of Nature Reserves

Goals Maintenance of MVP s for targeted species Maintenance of intact communities Minimization of disease

Considerations of reserve design 1. Disturbance regime Fire Insect outbreaks Floods Small reserves are vulnerable to disturbances 2. Concerns in reserve development Biological considerations Anthropological or cultural effects Political and economic constraints Threats and opportunities 3. Goals of reserve (first three were proposed by Michael Soulé and Dan Simberloff, 1986) Preservation of large and functioning ecosystems (e.g. watersheds) Preserve biodiversity (e.g. Biodiversity hotspots, first proposed by Norman Myers) Protection of particular species or groups of species (e.g. California condors) Protection of ecological or evolutionary process (e.g California evolutionary hotspot project)

Disturbance Regimes: Fire Rim Fire 28 Aug 2013

Rim Fire August 26,2013 255,858 acres burned

Rim Fire September 2, 2013

Disturbance Regimes: Insect Outbreaks Due to warmer temperatures, mountain pine beetles are devastating whitebark pine trees in the Northern Rockies. Whitebark pine is a keystone species, its seeds are a critical food source for grizzly bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), and the disappearance of whitebark pine from the GYE will have catastrophic consequences for GYE grizzlies.

Concerns in Reserve Development: Cultural Considerations

Cultural Considerations: Tiger Reserves in India

The reserve is 1100 square kilometers including the buffer zone. The core area is 460 square kilometers.

Goals of the Reserve: Preserve Large Functioning Ecosystems Such as Watersheds

Goal of The Reserves: Protect Biodiversity 34 Biodiversity Hotspots comprise only 2.3 % of the earths surface Over 50 percent of the world s plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the 34 biodiversity hotspots Biodiversity Hotspots

Goals of the Reserve: Preserve Biodiversity Biodiversity Hotspots By preserving and financially supporting 34 biodiversity hotspots (2.3% of the earth s surface) we can protect half of the world s vascular plant species and 42 percent of the worlds mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian species. Cost to manage them would be $500 million/year. (Less than 1% of the funds the U.S. paid out for the Troubled Asset Relief Program TARP to stabilize banks.)

The value of protected areas in maintaining biodiversity is obvious in tropical countries. Inside the park there are trees and animal life. Outside the park the land has been cleared, fires are common, and few animals are seen.

Protection of ecological or evolutionary process requires large reserves. 10,000 km 2 Only 3.5% of the national parks in the world are larger than 10,000 km 2. Even reserves of this size are too small to maintain a minimal viable population of the largest carnivores. Therefore, active management is necessary to maintain genetic diversity.

Population studies show that large parks and protected areas in Africa contain larger populations of each species than small parks

SLOSS Single Large or Several Small?

Area to Perimeter Ratio (A/P) Low A/P Ratio High Exposure High A/P Ratio Low Exposure Average distance from any interior point to nearest edge is small Average distance from any interior point to edge is increased

Location of Reserves Research migration patterns of animals Presence of riparian areas or other habitats characterized by exceptional species diversity. Areas with a high degree on endemism or keystone species. Potential edge effects

Metapopulations Corridors can potentially transform an isolated reserve into a linked network within which populations can interact as a metapopulation

Metapopulations: Grizzly Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem At the present time this is an isolated populations Greater Cascades Ecosystem North Cascades grizzly is a deme. It fits the land differently than a Yellowstone grizzly. Its genes provide some defense against local pests and pathogens Canada Corridors between these populations could transform the GYE from an isolated reserve into a linked network within which grizzly Populations could interact as a metapopulation.

Kaziranga: A Conservation Success Story Species Estimated Number (2010 Census) Greater One Horned Rhinoceros 2,290 Asian Elephant 1,165 Asiatic Wild Buffalo 1,937 Bengal Tiger 106 Barasingha (Eastern Swamp Deer) 1168 Hog Deer 9,000 Kaziranga also has sambar deer, sloth bears, and leopards. There were fewer than 200 rhinos in Assam a century ago. 488 bird species 25 of which are globally threatened.

Classified by the IUCN Redlist as Vulnerable to extinction. Threats include: Poaching Disease spread by domestic livestock Conflicts with humans (They are agricultural pests in tea plantations) Illegal grazing Inbreeding

Kaziranga Has a High Tiger Density

Kaziranga is a hub in a network of migration corridors that supports a crucial breeding population of tigers. Highway 37

An overpass (wildlife corridor) divided highway in Canada allows migration safely between two forested areas.

Corridors Corridors can facilitate movement of pest species The risk of predation is greater along corridors

Reserve Network Design: Methods Gap Analysis: conservation planning process 1. Data are compiled for a region, or conservation unit. 2. Conservation goals are identified (e.g. area, species) 3. Identify existing protected areas and gaps in coverage 4. Identify areas to fill the gaps 5. Additional areas are identified and conservation management plan is developed 6. Conservation areas are monitored to see if attaining goals Geographic Information System 1. System of storing, analyzing, and mapping spatially explicit data. 2. Key to Gap analysis and reserve design in general

Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a method for integrating a wide variety of data for analysis and display on maps

Biosphere Reserves In 1971 UNESCO embarked on a program to identify, recognize, and promote the conservation o representative examples of the world's major ecosystems.

Biosphere Reserves Biosphere reserves perform three main roles: Conservation Sustainable use Conservation in situ of natural and semi-natural ecosystems and landscapes Logistic support Demonstration areas for ecologically and socio-culturally sustainable use; and Logistic support for research, monitoring, education, training and information exchange

Biosphere Reserves

These functions are associated through a zonation system including: Core area(s) Buffer zone(s) Transition area(s) T E T R M R R Research station or experimental research site M Monitoring E Education/training T Tourism This schema can be adapted to various ecological, socio-cultural and legal contexts Core Area: Pristine Strictly Protected Ecological Monitoring Buffer Zone: Human Settlement Areas of Traditional Use Degraded Areas to be Rehabilitated Tourism

These functions are associated through a zonation system including: Core area(s) Buffer zone(s) Transition area(s) T E T R M R R Research station or experimental research site M Monitoring E Education/training T Tourism This schema can be adapted to various ecological, socio-cultural and legal contexts Transition Zone: A dymanic, ever-expanding cooperation zone where the work of the biosphere reserve is applied directly to the needs of the local people. Lacks definite borders. Conservation pursued through cooperation with local people.

The Most Successful Protected Areas Have Community Involvement

SLOSS

Ecosystems Have Thee Composition Primary Attributes Species abundance (gene pool abundance) Structure An ecosystem dominated by old growth trees has a different structure than one comprised of short quaking aspens Function Decomposition by micro-organisms Fire to reset successional clock Mychorrhizal fungi