AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD HISTORY ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, AND MODERN CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED Compiled and Edited by WILLIAM L. LANGER Coolidge Professor of History, Emeritus Harvard University Fifth Edition Revised and Enlarged with Maps and Genealogical Tables HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON
Third Printing c Copyright 1940, 1948, 1952, and 1968, 1972 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Copyright renewed 1968 by William L. Langer. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN: 0-395-13592-3 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-14147 Printed in the United States of America
Arbenz government. The U.N. security council, seeking to bring about a cease-fire T H E W E S T I N D I E S 1245 between rebel and government forces, at last (June 25) postponed further action pending the completion of an OAS investigation. June 28. A military junta, headed by Col. Castillo Armas, ousted President Arbenz, but on the following day yielded power to a government under Col. Elfego Monzon, which arranged a cease-fire and ordered the arrest of all Communist leaders in the country. July 8. Col. Castillo Armas was chosen president of the ruling military junta. 1957, July 26. Castillo Armas was assassinated, and on July 27 Vice-President Luis Arturo Gonzales was installed as provisional president. Oct. 24. Charges of fraud in the presidential election of October 20, won by Miguel Ortiz Passarelli, touched off a national crisis which brought a three-man junta to power. On October 26 the military junta annulled the October 20 election and ordered congress to install a provisional president and arrange for new elections. Guillermo Flores Avendano took office as interim president on October 27. 1958, Mar. 2. General Miguel Ydigores Fuentes was inaugurated as president for a sixyear term. 1963, Mar. 30. The government of President Ydigores Fuentes was overthrown by a rightist anti-fidelista rebel group, led by Defense Minister Col. Enrique Peralta Azurdia. Apr. 10. The new military government issued an interim basic government law giving public power to the army. The United States April 17. recognized the new government on July 24. The government broke diplomatic relations with Britain, because of the latter's announcement, on July 22, of plans for giving limited autonomy to British Honduras, claimed by Guatemala. 1966, July 1. Inauguration of Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro, a civilian, as president. The CONSTITUTION OF SEPT. 15, 1965, restored a democratic regime, but led to further polarization between the radical (mostly Communist) elements and the conservative associated with the army. groups 1966, Nov. 2. Proclamation of a state of siege, due to the rapid spread of terrorist activity. 1968, Jan. 16. Two U.S. military attaches were slain by Communist terrorists. On Aug. 28 the U.S. ambassador, John G. Mein, was kidnaped and slain by a Communist guerrilla organization. Urban terrorism became widespread. 1970, Feb. 26. Kidnaping of the Guatemalan foreign minister, Alberto Fuentes Mohr, for whose release (Mar. 1) the government freed the guerrilla leader Giron Cavillo. Kidnapings continued. Mar. 31. The kidnaping of the West German ambassador, for whose release the terrorists demanded release of 17 political prisoners. On refusal by the government, the ambassador was murdered, whereupon the West German government broke off diplomatic relations (Apr. 6). July 1. Carlos Arana Osorio, a conservative, inaugurated as president, following his election on Mar. 1. Nov. 13. In the struggle against terrorists a state of siege was again imposed, all party activities were suspended, and the president was given dictatorial powers for a period often days. (From p. 1072) a. CUBA 3. THE WEST INDIES 1940, July 14. Col. Fulgencio Batista was elected president of Cuba. 1941, Dec. 9. Cuba declared war on Japan and also (Dec. 11) on Germany and Italy. 1942, Oct. 16. Cuba established diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R. 1944, May 31. Ramon Grau San Martin was elected president for a four-year term. 1948, June 1. Carlos Prio Socarras was elected president to succeed Grau San Martin, who finished his four-year term. Both were members of the Autentico Party and anti-communist. 1952, Mar. 10. General Fulgencio Batista overthrew President Prio Socarras. Batista assumed the titles of chief of state and premier. The presidency was left vacant pending elections. 1954, Oct. 30. On the eve of presidential elections, Gen. Batista's only rival for the presidency, Ramon Grau San Martin, withdrew from the contest, charging that the election was completely rigged. November 2, Batista was declared elected. 1957, May 20. Rebel leader Fidel Castro, from
1246 L A T I N A M E R I C A his mountain hideout, appealed to the States to stop sending arms to Batista. United May 30. The army declared an intensified war against rebel troops in Oriente Province. 1958, Mar. 17. Rebel leader Fidel Castro issued a manifesto calling for "total war" against the Batista regime, beginning April 1. 1959, Jan. 1. After Castro's capture of Santa Clara, capital of Las Villas province (Dec. 31, 1958), President Batista resigned and fled. On the same day Castro forces took Santiago, and two days later Havana. Jan. 5. Manuel Urrutia, named provisional president by Castro (Jan. 3), named Jose Miro Cardona premier, and the following day announced rule by decree for eighteen months. The United States recognized the new regime, January 7. Feb. 16. Castro took office as premier following the sudden resignation of Cardona and his cabinet. Apr. 15. Castro arrived in Washington for an unofficial visit. On April 17 he declared that his regime was not Communist, and characterized his revolution as "humanistic." June 4. An agrarian reform law was promulgated, providing for state appropriation large landholdings. Under this law, United States sugar companies were expected to lose 1,666,000 acres of land within a year. July 17. President Urrutia resigned in a dispute with Premier Castro over Communist influence in the government. Osvaldo Dorticos Torrado succeeded to the presidency. Nov. 3. The U.S. State Department declared it would not tolerate the by Cuban refugees, government in the United of establishment, of an exiled, provisional States. 1960, Feb. 13. Premier Castro and Soviet first deputy premier Anastas I. Mikoyan signed an agreement in Havana for the Soviet purchase of five million tons of sugar and for $100 million of Soviet credit to Cuba. June 23. Castro threatened to meet "economic aggression" by the United States with the seizure of all American-owned property and business interests in Cuba. July 6. President Eisenhower, citing Cuba's policy of hostility to the United States, cut Cuba's sugar quota by about 95 per cent. On July 9 Eisenhower declared that the United States would never allow the establishment in the Western Hemisphere of a regime "dominated by international communism." July 9. Soviet Premier Khrushchev, in a Moscow address, threatened Soviet use of rockets if the U.S. intervened militarily in Cuba. At a news conference on July 12, Khrushchev declared that the United States' Monroe Doctrine had died a "natural death." On July 14 the U.S. state department reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine, and charged Khrushchev with seeking to set up a "Bolshevik doctrine" for world-wide Communist expansion. Oct. 14. The Cuban government nationalized all banks and all large industrial and commercial enterprises. Oct. 19. The United States imposed an embargo on all exports to Cuba except for medical supplies and most foodstuffs. Oct. 28. The United States, in a note to the OAS, charged that Cuba was receiving substantial arms shipments from the Soviet bloc. 1961, Jan. 3. The United States severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, after Castro demanded that the United States cut its embassy personnel in Havana to eleven persons. Mar. 22. In New York, the Democratic Front and the Revolutionary Movement of the People, the two major Cuban opposition groups, announced agreement on setting up a revolutionary council with ex-premier Jose Miro Cardona as president. He urged (Apr. 9) all Cubans to revolt against the Castro regime. Apr. Rumors became rife of anti-castro forces, under the leadership of the Cuban revolutionary council, stationed in Guatemala, Louisiana, and Florida. At the U.N., April 15, Cuban Foreign Minister Raul Roa accused the United States and Latin American nations of preparing an invasion. Apr. 17-20. A CUBAN REBEL FORCE of about 1600 men INVADED SOUTHERN CUBA and established a beachhead near Bahia de los Cochinos (Bay of Pigs), but was driven off with heavy losses. Apr. 18. Soviet Premier Khrushchev demanded that the United States halt its invasion of Cuba and promised aid to the Castro government, to which President Kennedy replied that the United States would not permit outside military intervention. Two days later he asserted that the United States would take steps, if necessary for its security, to halt Communist expansion. May 17. Castro declared his willingness to exchange Cuban rebel prisoners taken in April for 500 United States bulldozers. On May 22 a Tractors for Freedom Committee was set up in the United States. Negotiations broke down, however, June 30, over the total sum to be involved. Dec. 2. Premier Castro declared himself a Marxist-Leninist and announced the formation of a united party to bring Communism to Cuba. 1962, Aug. 18. Following disclosure on August 14 that Cuba would have no sugar to sell on the world market in 1963 or 1964 because of
production failures, Castro announced that henceforth agriculture would be based completely on collectives and that the co-operatives owned by peasants would be turned into state farms. Sept. 2. The U.S.S.R. announced an agreement to supply arms and technical specialists to Cuba. Sept. 11. The U.S.S.R. accused the United States of preparing aggression against Cuba, and warned that this would mean war. T H E W E S T I N D I E S 1247 Khrushchev declared that Soviet arms were being sent to Cuba "exclusively for defensive purposes." Sept. 13. President Kennedy declared that United States military action was not "required or justified" at this time, but said that the United States would act if its security were imperiled. Oct. 10. The United States government head in a U.S.-U.S.S.R. confrontation over the installation in Cuba of Soviet offensive missile and bomber bases. President Kennedy announced a U.S. air and naval "quarantine" to prevent arms shipments, and asked the U.N. security council to meet at once to discuss the crisis. On October 23 the OAS authorized the use of armed force to impose the quarantine, which went into effect on October 24. Oct. 25. The proposal of U.N. acting secretary general U Thant to conduct negotiations between the principals involved in the Cuban crisis was accepted by President Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev. Oct. 28. President Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev reached agreement, substantially on terms proposed by President Kennedy the previous day: (1) the Soviets to halt construction of missile bases in Cuba and remove weapons under U.N. supervision; and (2) the United States to end the quarantine and give assurances that it would not invade Cuba, as soon as Soviet forces and weapons were withdrawn. Nov. 1. Fidel Castro, after a failure of U Thant's effort in conference with him to arrange a U.N. inspection of missile bases (Oct. 30-31), rejected proposals for international inspection of Soviet missile sites. Nov. 7. Following an announcement that all Soviet rockets had been removed from Cuba, a U.S.-U.S.S.R. agreement revealed that U.S. naval vessels would verify the missile withdrawals by counting them at sea. The following day, the U.S. Department of Defense reported that all known offensive missile bases in Cuba had been dismantled. Nov. 16. After Castro, November 15, threatened to shoot down U.S. reconnaissance planes, the United States announced that it would continue the flights and defend the planes, until a better method was devised for checking upon Cuba's offensive military buildup. Nov. 20. President Kennedy announced the end of the United States blockade of Cuba, since Khrushchev had agreed to withdraw Soviet jet bombers from the island within thirty days. Dec. 23-24. The remaining 1113 Cuban rebels, who had been captured in the invasion attempt of April 1961, were returned to the United States in exchange for foods and medicines valued at $53 million. 1963, Jan. 7. The United States and the Soviet Union announced that their negotiations on the Cuban crisis were ended and that the mat agreed to help pay the $60 million ransom set ter was closed. by Castro for the release of 1113 Cuban Feb. 18. The Soviet Union informed the prisoners. United States that "several thousand" of its Oct. 22. A CUBAN CRISIS came to a 17,000 troops in Cuba would be withdrawn by March 15. Mar. 30. The U.S. departments of state and justice announced that the United States would "take every step necessary" to see that U.S. territory was not used as a base for Cuban refugee raids on Cuba or on Soviet shipping. 1964, Jan. 11. T h e C a s t r o g o v e r n m e n t p u r chased $ 11 million worth of buses from Great Britain. Jan. 22. Concluding a visit by Castro to Moscow, Cuba and the Soviet Union a signed long-term trade agreement calling for increased Soviet purchase of Cuban sugar. Castro agreed to support the limited test ban treaty. Feb. The seizure of four Cuban fishing boats in U.S. territorial waters (Feb. 3) led to the announcement (Feb. 6) that the water supply to the U.S. Guantanamo naval base would be limited to one hour a day. The United States took countermeasures against Cubans working in the base and to insure its own water supply (Feb. 7). Feb. 26. Minister of Industry Che Guevara announced a reduction in industrial investments to allow for more production of consumer items. July 21-26. Isolation of Cuba, following condemnation by the Organization of American States for supplying pro-communist Venezuelan guerrillas with arms. The OAS voted to invoke sanctions and called on members to sever diplomatic and trade relations. Only Mexico and Jamaica refused to do so (Aug. 3). 1965, Oct. Castro announced that Cubans were
1248 L A T I N A M E R I C A free to leave. On Nov. 6 an agreement was reached with the U.S. government to air-lift 3000-4000 Cuban refugees monthly. In the next five years several hundred thousand, including many members of the educated classes, left the island. Oct. 3. Departure of Major Ernesto (Che) Guevara, former Cuban minister of industry, for unspecified South American destination. Guevara, who renounced Cuban citizenship, was to lead the revolutionization of Latin America. He was killed on Oct. 8, 1967, by Bolivian troops while operating in the field. 1966, Feb. A new trade agreement was signed with the U.S.S.R. Cuba, with an economy based largely on the sugar crop, was unable to overcome the economic handicap created the boycott of the American states, and by was therefore dependent on Soviet Russia for both direct and indirect aid. 1967, June 27-29. Visit of Soviet Premier Kosygin to Cuba, followed by the cancellation (Oct.) of President Dorticos' projected visit to Moscow. Serious friction had developed between the two countries, which was reflected in a savage attack in Pravda on the Cuban ideology. 1968, Jan. Eleven old-guard Communist leaders tried for treason and sentenced to long prison terms, apparently because of their to Cuban revolutionary activity abroad. (From p. 1073) b. HAITI objections 1941, Dec. 8. Haiti declared war on Japan and later (Dec. 12) on Germany and Italy. 1946, Jan. 11. A military group under Col. Paul Magloire ousted President Elie Lescot, took over the government, and installed Dumarsais Estime as president. 1948, Feb. 11. The Communist Party was outlawed. 1950, May 10. President Estime was overthrown by a military junta under Col. Paul Magloire, who was subsequently elected president. 1956, Dec. 12. Under the pressure of a general strike, Magloire gave up the presidency. 1957, Feb. 7. The legislature elected Franck Sylvain provisional president, and invalidated a constitutional provision under which a presidential vacancy was filled by the ranking member of the supreme court. Sylvain's predecessor, Joseph Nemours Pierre-Louis, had assumed the presidency in accord with this provision. Apr. 2. Under accusations of trying to "fix" the elections scheduled for April 28, provisional President Sylvain resigned. On April 26 a provisional executive council took over, to rule until after the presidential election, postponed for three months. May 26. Following a flareup of civil war between the executive council and the forces of army chief of staff Cantave, Daniel Fignola took over as provisional president. June 14. The army, led by Brig. Gen. Antonio Kebreau, quietly ousted provisional President Daniel Fignola, and proclaimed a state of emergency. Sept. 22. The presidential election resulted in victory for Francois Duvalier. Oct. 22. Amidst a crisis with the United States over the fatal beating of an citizen by police, Duvalier became and the military junta resigned. American president 1963, May 2. An OAS commission began investigating the Haitian-Dominican conflict which concerned the violation of diplomatic immunity after armed soldiers surrounded the Dominican embassy in Port-au-Prince in April. Haiti refused to grant safe conduct exits for some of the twenty-two foes of Duvalier who had taken refuge in the Dominican embassy. May 15. President Duvalier's constitutional right to office ended, as his legal term expired. May 17. United States suspension of diplomatic ties with Haiti. Aug. 5-7. An invasion by a small force of Haitian exiles attempting to overthrow President Duvalier failed. 1964, Apr. 1. Francois Duvalier became president for life. June. A new constitution, while it provided for universal suffrage and an elected onechamber legislature, concentrated all executive power in a president elected for life. Duvalier's power could not be seriously threatened, since he posed as the champion of the povertystricken Negro masses, had broken the power of the army, and was loyally protected by a personal guard. 1968, May. Another attempt to invade Haiti, staged by opposition elements in exile, was easily defeated, as had been previous efforts. 1969, June 2. A bombing raid on Port-au-Prince resulted in wholesale arrests and numerous disappearances. c. THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (From p. 1073) 1941, Dec. 8. T h e Dominican Republic declared war on Japan and shortly after (Dec. 11) on Germany and Italy.