tourism product experience Infrastructure and Tourism Development supply chain Manoj Dixit The Indian tourism industry did not have it so good since the early 1990s. Though the Indian economy has slowed, it is still growing faster than the rest of the world. With Indian economy growing at around 5 per cent per annum and rise in disposable incomes of Indians, an increasing number of people going on holiday trips within the country and abroad is resulting in the tourism industry growing wings. The potential for India to attract tourists is unlimited and tourism can play an increasingly beneficial role in the Indian economy in the years to come T ourism product is a co m p l e x c o n s u m p t i v e experience that results from a process where tourists use multiple of services (information, relative prices, transportation, accommodation, and attraction services (Gunn 1988). Tourist experiences are also shaped by economic and political conditions and structural features which contribute to the nature of the destination product. Murphy et al (2000) related this type of product to a supply and demand analysis and described how the various components of the destination interact with travelers during their trip. The pioneer in acknowledging the role of service infrastructure in creating a product experience was Smith (1994). He suggested that service infrastructure is housed within the larger macro-environment or physical plant of the destination (Smith, 1994). He also stressed the fact that the level, use, or lack of infrastructure and technology in a destination are also visible and determining features that can enhance the visitors' trip experience. Others who supported his views were Choy (1992); Buharis (2000); and Crouch and Ritchie (2000). They summarized that tourists overall impression develops their image of a destination after their visitation and that infrastructure may play an important role in that respect. The tourist destination product is also better understood in the context of comparative and competitive advantage. Crouch and Ritchie (1999), argued that factor conditions are important determinants of attractiveness as tourists travel to a destination to receive the destination experience. E v e r y e l e m e n t h a s b e e n categorised under core attraction and supporting element. The destination s general infrastructure services in this category in fact, represent one of the most important factors. The tourism phenomenon relies heavily on public utilities and infrastructural support. Tourism planning and development would not be possible without roads, airports, harbours, electricity, sewage, and potable water. The infrastructural dimension is thus, a necessary element for tourism development and the above factors are all basic elements for attracting visitors to a destination. Generally, infrastructure has not been included in empirical works because it is expected to be available at a destination and has not been promoted as an attraction The author is the Director, Institute of Tourism Studies, University of Lucknow, Lucknow. He has written more than 10 books on tourism and has conducted training programs in capacity building in tourism and hospitality related areas. He is on the advisory/ research boards of several universities for tourism all across India. He had widely traveled and was Adjunct Professor in the University of Science & Technology of China, Chengdu, PR of China. 6 YOJANA May 2015
factor. Smith (1994), and Crouch and Ritchie (1999) provide a good theoretical treatment of the role of service infrastructure in creating a tourism product experience. Indian Infrastructure and Tourism Tourism infrastructure is the supply chain of transport, social and environmental infrastructure collaborating at a regional level to create a destination including: Transport infrastructure which provides the visitor access from international and domestic source markets to destinations; and includes airports, major roads and rail. Social infrastructure which is the stock of rooms to accommodate visitors and physical structures for exhibitions, events and services that attract visitors. This infrastructure includes hotels, convention centres, stadiums, galleries and tourist precincts in a destination. Environmental infrastructure which is the natural estate of national parks, marine parks and reserves, including visitor facilities. Collaborative Infrastructure which is the network of regional, state and national tourism organizations that market destinations and distribute tourism products. The supply chain of tourism infrastructure and product is illustrated in Figure 1. This tourism infrastructure is primarily built on private capital, with the private sector contributing 78 per cent of total Figure 1: Tourism Supply Chain tourism investment. International airports and accommodation room stock is private Road, rail and seaports are typically public Infrastructure such as convention centres and national parks are public assets provided for social and environmental policy objectives. Conde Nast ranked India amongst the top 10 tourist destinations. India is probably the only country that offers various categories of tourism. These include mountains, forests, history, adventure tourism, medical tourism (including ayurveda and other forms of Indian medications), spiritual tourism, beach tourism (India has the longest coastline in the East), etc. It has been said that destinations in India are more diverse than the countries elsewhere. Each region of India has a unique culture, festivals/ dress, monumental heritage and edification. The Indian tourism industry did not have it so good since the early 1990s. Though the Indian economy has slowed, it is still growing faster than the rest of the world. With Indian economy growing at around 5 per cent per annum and rise in disposable incomes of Indians, an increasing number of people going on holiday trips within the country and abroad is resulting in the tourism industry growing wings. The potential for India to attract tourists is unlimited and tourism can play an increasingly beneficial role in the Indian economy in the years to come. Despite the numerous problems, tourism industry was the secondlargest foreign exchange earner for India. Tourism contributed 6.6 per cent of India's GDP and created 39.5 million jobs in 2012. The total number of inbound tourists has grown at 16 per cent in the last five years and is expected to grow at 12 per cent in the next decade. During 2013, travel and tourism industry contributed Rs 63,160 crore to the economy. International tourists account for a little over 5 million visitors, while domestic market is seen at more than 500 million. The growth pattern suggests that Indian tourism growth is not solely based on foreign tourist arrivals alone as due to global reasons and disturbances, this phenomenon is always affected adversely. However, domestic tourism has been growing in a settled way. Fairs and festivals of India are continuous phenomena. Events like Kumbha in north and Onam and mahamastakabhisheka in the south are events that fetch a lot of tourists almost every year. A look at the Figure-3 will denote explicitly that despite potential and abundance of natural beauty, many states have failed to attract tourism like north-eastern states, Lakshadweep and Chhattisgarh not because of any reason other than lack of tourism According to Deloitte Touche, the Indian tourism sector is likely to generate nearly $42.8 billion by 2017. Despite the challenges being faced in terms of a slowing economy, sluggish demand and security concerns, the country was fighting back and tourism developments were taking place. Despite the deepening world economic crisis, India's economy remains in decent shape and is still experiencing some of the strongest growth rates in the world, the Deloitte report said. It is fast turning into a volume game where, an ever-burgeoning number of participants are pushing up revenues of industry players (hotels, tour operators, airlines, shipping lines, etc). This will result in greater room occupancies and average room revenues (ARRs) in the country. ARRs have moved up and room occupancy rates have also shot up. Thus, the tourism sector is expected to perform well in future and the industry offers an interesting investment opportunity for long-term investors. Realizing the potential in India, international and domestic hotel YOJANA May 2015 7
Figure 2: Foreign Tourist Arrivals in India: 2001 13 Year FTAs in India Annual Growth ( per cent) 2001 2537282-4.2 2002 2384364-6.0 2003 2726214 14.3 2004 3457477 26.8 2005 3918610 13.3 2006 4447167 13.5 2007 5081504 14.3 2008 5282603 4.0 2009 5167699-2.2 2010 5775692 11.8 2011 6309222 9.2 2012 6577745 4.3 2013 6967601 5,9 chains were rushing to cash in on it. Medical tourism was poised for rapid development in the future and India is busy developing first-class facilities to attract this multi-billion dollar niche market. The sudden boom in tourism in India took the tourism industry by storm forcing everyone to think how to sustain the growth. in fact, tourism is a trillion dollar industry making it one of the largest foreign exchange earners and generator of employment in India. Accommodation, transport and Source: Bureau of Immigration, India Figure 3: Domestic and Foreign Tourists in India (2012-13) S. No. State/UT 2012 2013 Growth rate Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign 1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands 238669 17538 243703 14742 2.10-15.94 2. Andhra Pradesh 207217952 292822 152102150 223518-26.60-23.67 3. Arunachal Pradesh 132243 5135 125461 10846-5.13 111.22 4. Assam 4511407 17543 4684527 17638 3.84 0.54 5. Bihar 21447099 1096933 21588306 765835 0.66-30.18 6. Chandigarh 924589 34130 22801031 936922 1.33 17.56 7. Chhattisgarh 15036530 4172 22801031 3886 51.64-6.86 8. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 469213 1234 481618 1582 2.64 28.20 9. Daman & Diu 803963 4607 819947 4814 1.99 4.49 10. Delhi 18495139 2345980 20215187 2301395 9.30-1.90 11. Goa 2337499 450530 2629151 492322 12.48 9.28 12. Gujarat 24379023 174150 27412517 198773 12.44 14.14 13. Haryana 6799242 233002 7128027 228200 4.84-2.06 14. Himachal Pradesh 15646048 500284 14715586 414249-5.95-17.20 15. Jammu & Kashmir 12427122 78802 13642402 60845 9.78-22.79 16. Jharkhand 20421016 31909 20511160 45995 0.44 44.14 17. Karnataka 94052729 595359 98010140 636378 4.21 6.89 18. Kerala 10076854 793696 10857811 858143 7.75 8.12 19. Lakshadweep 4417 580 4784 371 8.31-36.03 20. Madhya Pradesh 53197209 275930 63110709 280333 18.64 1.60 21. Maharashtra 74816051 2651889 82700556 4156343 10.54 56.73 22. Manipur 134541 749 140673 1908 4.56 154.74 23. Meghalaya 680254 5313 691269 6773 1.62 27.48 24. Mizoram 64249 744 63377 800-1.36 7.53 25. Nagaland 35915 2489 35638 3304-0.77 32.74 26. Odisha 9052871 64719 9800135 66675 8.25 3.02 27. Puducherry 981714 52931 1000277 42624 1.89-19.47 28. Punjab 19056143 143805 21340888 204074 11.99 41.91 29. Rajasthan 28611831 1451370 30298150 1437162 5.89-0.98 30. Sikkim 558538 26489 576749 31698 3.26 19.66 31. Tamil Nadu 184136840 3561740 244232487 3990490 32.64 12.04 32. Tripura 361786 7840 359586 11853-0.61 51.19 33. Uttar Pradesh 168381276 1994495 226531091 2054420 34.53 3.00 34. Uttarakhand 26827329 124555 19941128 97683-25.67-21.57 35. West Bengal 22730205 1219610 25547300 1245230 12.39 2.10 Total 1045047536 18263074 1145280443 19951026 9.59 9.24 Source: Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, Tourism Statistics 2013 8 YOJANA May 2015
recreation facilities are the key components of any major tourism destination. The competitiveness of these facilities at a national or international scale determines whether they become valuable assets for, or likely impediments to, attracting visitors to a destination. Plans for improving the overall attraction of a destination need to be based on detailed information highlighting the current state of such It is quite obvious that India does not possess good roads. Only 12 per cent meet world class criteria. This is far too less to attract international tourists. Entire Europe loves to travel by road for tourism purposes; but Indians have to think multiple times before travelling on roads. Moreover, undisciplined driving makes it even more dangerous. India has one of the highest rankings in road accidents. About 28 per cent of the route kilometer, 39 per cent of running track kilometer and 41 per cent of total track kilometer is electrified. Inland Water Transport India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprises rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. About 50 million tonnes of cargo corresponding to 2.82 billion tonne was transported in 2006-07 by Inland Water Transport (IWT). Its operations are currently restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathi- Figure 4: Foreign Tourist Arrivals from Top 15 markets (2013) (Numbers in Million and Percentage share) S. No. Country of Origin Number and Share 1. USA 1.085 (15.58 per cent) 2. UK 0.809 (11.62 per cent) 3. Bangladesh 0.525 (7.53 per cent) 4. Sri Lanka 0.262 (3.77 per cent) 5. Russian Federation 0.259 (3.72 per cent) 6. Canada 0.255 (3.66 per cent) 7. Germany 0.252 (3.62 per cent) 8. France 0.248 (3.56 per cent) 9. Malaysia 0.243 (3.48 per cent) 10. Japan 0.220 (3.16 per cent) 11. Australia 0.219 (3.14 per cent) 12. China 0.175 (2.51 per cent) 13. Singapore 0.143 (2.05 per cent) 14. Thailand 0.117 (1.68 per cent) 15. Nepal 0.114 (1.63 per cent) 16. Share of top 10 countries 4.160 (59.70 per cent) 17. Share of top 15 countries 4.927 (70.72 per cent) Source: Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, Tourism Statistics 2013 Figure 5: Tourism Receipts, Rs million, (2009-2013) Fee in rupee terms Fee in US$ Terms Year Rs in Crore per cent Change over previous year US$ Million per cent Change over previous year 2009 63700 4.5 11136-3.7 2010 64889 20.8 14193 27.6 2011 77591 19.6 16564 16.7 2012 94487 21.8 17737 7.1 2013 107671 14.0 18445 4.0 Source: Ministry of Tourism, Government, Government of India, Market Research Division, Tourism Statistics 2013 Hooghly Rivers, The Brahmaputra, the Barak River, the rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters in Mumbai and the deltaic regions of the Godavari-Krishna rivers. Besides the organized operations by mechanized vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate in various rivers and canals. Data of cargo and passenger movement in unorganized sector (i.e. by country boats, etc.) has not been compiled but it is a fact that substantial quantum of cargo and passengers are transported in the unorganized sector as well. Airports in India India has 46 airports; however, there are not many which connect with the rest of the country. Due to this, the time taken for travelling by air is many times more than what is taken by train. For example, if one wishes to travel from Agra to Varanasi or Jaipur by air, he or she will have to go to Delhi before boarding any other flight. If India does not take advantage of this tourism revolution, it will have only herself to blame. With just a few initiatives, India can really take benefits of this sunrise sector. The lack of infrastructure is visible in all segments of tourism be it related to airports, railway, surface transport, accommodation trained manpower, shopping with ease, traveling in style, medical tourism, tourism education, sustainable development norms etc. The tourism industry can maximize on the infrastructure development part by providing priority to tourism tax incentives to private sector, specialized norms for single window clearance for foreign investments, creating land, bank financial assistance mainly long term loan on low rate of interest, free flow of foreign exchange in the country, involving professionals and less interference by bureaucrats or free from red-tape. This is the right approach and only way to boost YOJANA May 2015 9
Figure 6: No. of Hotels and Hotel Rooms in India (Govt of India recognized) Number of Approved Hotels and Availability of Hotel Rooms During 2013 Category of Hotels Number of Hotels Number of Rooms One Star 82 2086 Two Star 121 3154 Three Star 637 26617 Four Star 111 7738 Five Star 85 10128 Five Star Deluxe 106 21820 Apartment Hotels 3 249 Time Share Resorts 1 31 Heritage Hotels 46 1322 B & B Establishments 31 158 Guest House 4 61 Unclassified 30 1989 Source: Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, Market Research Division, Tourism Statistics 2013 Figure 7: Indian Roads National Highways/Expressways State Highways Major and other Disctric Roads Rural Roads http://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india.aspx The challenge is to identify circuits for integrated development and select centers where facilities to come up in terms of popularity as in all infrastructural development financial crunch is the issue. So a very selective approach is also needed. India's infrastructure problems arise not just from its inability to create facilities as has been seen in the National Highways Development programmes, railway, expensive programmes for airport developments. Equally frustrating is the failure of most images of these infrastructure projects to identify the last minute problems and fix them before they become unmanageable. Despite the high voltage official Incredible India campaign to sell the country as an alternative destination, the Tourist footfalls are rather modest for a continent sized country. The only way we can progress is Improve Infrastructure deficiency and till we become proactive, our tourist arrivals will stagnate at 5 or 6 million only. It is 65,590 km 1,28,000 km 4,70,000 km 26,50,000 km heartening that the Union Ministry of Tourism (MOT) has issued guidelines for tourism infrastructure so that all states can create world class tourism Some outlines of this guideline indicate that there is a move the right direction. 1. State/UT Administration should, as far as possible, employ architects, including conservation and landscape architects following codal formalities and these should be funded from their own resources. 2. Efforts should be made by the State/ UT Administration to have one window clearance for tourism related projects. 3. While formulating the schemes under Mega Destination Projects/ circuits by the States/UTs, attempts should be made to bring convergence with the JNNURM. Urban Civic Amenities 1. States should create all weather circulation networks and connectivity including creation of barrier free environment in and around tourist destinations for all users. 2. Proper attention would need to be given to the following: Design Codes, Aesthetics and Anthropometrics, choice of materials, fabrication, durability, weathering and maintenance. S i g n a g e : A d e q u a c y a n d Placement. Litter/recycling bins. Information/way finding. Information and Tourist Facilitation/ Convenience centre Public toilets. Parking units, including parking for two-wheelers and parking facilities for the physically challenged. 3. S t a t e s / U n i o n T e r r i t o r y Administrations should encourage free and frequent distribution of high quality tourist maps, guides, CDs, posters, tourism calendars, fold and take along maps; also very strong graphic display to promote India s vibrant and diverse culture. 4. Detailed project report must make clear that the land is available with the implementing agency. If a project sanctioned by the Ministry has not been started due to nonavailability of land even after one year, the project will be dropped and the funds will be recovered or adjusted. 5. Wayside amenities should be located after about every 50kms on the way leading to the tourist destinations/ circuits. 6. Signages must conform to, as far as possible, international code (World Tourism Organisation websites for Signages). 7. States/UT Administrations should make effort to upgrade and strengthen existing tourist facilities as a part of the tourism policy from their own resources. 8. States should put in place, as far as possible, institutional mechanism for management through any 10 YOJANA May 2015
Figure 8 : Railways in India Gauge Route in Km Running Track in Km Total Tack in Km Borad Guage (1.676 mm) 49,820 71,015 93,386 Meter Guage (1.000 mm) 10,621 11,487 13,412 Narrow Guage (762 mm and 610 mm) 2,886 2,888 3,198 Source: http://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india.aspx appropriate agency, of public conveniences after following codal formalities. Built Heritage & Signages 1. S t a t e s / U n i o n T e r r i t o r y Administrations should formulate, as far as possible, a Comprehensive Conservation Master Plan including research, documentation, valuesignificance, damage assessment, conservation, management, tourism infrastructure, risk assessment (carrying capacity), site interpretation, safety/first aid and security, universal access, waste management, community consultations and engagement implementation strategy, business plan etc. 2. S t a t e s / U n i o n T e r r i t o r y Administrations may follow international norms and guidelines/ UNESCO Charters for World Heritage Sites in particular and for other heritage sites/monuments in general <http://whc.unesco.org/en/ guidelines>. 3. For signages, UNWTO guidelines and NHAI guidelines (directional signages) are recommended to be followed. 4. The conservation and tourism development plans of the States/ Union Territory Administrations should have sound financial and maintenance plans. 5. S t a t e s / U n i o n T e r r i t o r y Administrations should put in place some appropriate institutional mechanism for timely completion and post implementation maintenance of the project/ destination. 6. For operation and maintenance, public private partnership (PPP) mode should be encouraged. Climatically Responsive and Vernacular Architecture 1. Attempts should be made to design climatically responsive and location sensitive tourism architecture. 2. Emphasis should be given on available local material and technology, vernacular design principles. 3. Efforts should be made for capacity building of all tourism personnel regarding location, environment and contextual characteristics of tourist spots. This could be funded from the Ministry of Tourism s CBSP Scheme. Urban Landscape 1. Local ambience should be reflected in landscape with the use of local materials. 2. Use of Indigenous species/ Native species should be encouraged in plantscape. 3. Use of traditional methodology in construction techniques if found appropriate, should be explored and encouraged. 4. States/Union Territories should try to ensure that: Bare minimum earthwork should be resorted to by retaining existing land profile as far as possible. Rainwater harvesting, ground water recharging and zero discharge should be adopted. Appropriate designs for the boundary work should be evolved keeping in view the aesthetics, security and cost factor. The cost should not generally exceed 20 per cent of allocated budget of a particular scheme. Solar lighting and use of renewable energy are encouraged. Minimal use of Hardscape materials. 5. States/Union Territories should: Discourage fountains and such water-based elements in areas with water paucity. Discourage large scale illumination in areas with electricity shortage without compromising security. Ensure that water source, required quantity of water and irrigation system are available before commencing the project. Promote accessible Prepare and present maintenance Plan and maintenance budget to be presented for 5 years to ensure sustainability of projects. This should be funded through State Government/UT Administration or Public-private partnership. Food Craft Institutes and Hotel Management Institutes 1. Areas of future expansion should be undertaken but no auditorium should be constructed. 2. Master plan of the whole complex should be planned. 3. Landscape for project should be only to meet the essential requirements. India s tourism is at a threshold of a quantum jump. However, she has to realize that no country is going to wait YOJANA May 2015 11
for her. It is a cut throat competition among all developing nations as it is the backbone of their economy. Countries like China, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are spending heavily on building tourism infrastructure so as to attract more and more; and they are successful in their efforts. India, on the other hand, is still setting its priorities right. To conclude, I must say that all attractions are meaningless if accessibility is not smooth. Indian planners will have to understand this. the sooner, the better. Roads and rails are not going to serve tourists alone; India s economy too will get a big boost if this is done. Readings 1. COHEN, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences. 2. CROUCH, G. I., & RITCHIE, J. R. B. 1999 Tourism competitiveness and societal prosperity; Journal of Business Research. 44(3): 137-152. 3. CROUCH G.I. AND RITCHIE, J.R.B. 2000 The competitive destination: a sustainability perspective. Tourism Management: 21 4. GEARING, C.E. 1974 Establishing a measure of touristic attractiveness. Journal of Travel Research 12: 1-8. 5. GUNN, C.A, EDS. 1988 tourism planning (second edition). New York: Taylor & Francis 6. KAUL, R. N, EDS. 1985 Dynamics of tourism: a trilogy (vol. 111) Transportation and Marketing. New Delhi 7. KIM L, CROMPTON J, L, BOTHA, P. 2000 Responding to competition: a strategy for Sun/Lost City. South Africa Tourism Management.21 (41) 8. LIM C. 1997 Review of international tourism demand models. Annals of Tourism Research. 24, (4): 835-849 9. MCELROY J, L. 2003. Small island tourist economies across the lifecycle, Paper prepared for the International Conference, Beyond MIRAB: The Political Economy of Small Islands in the 21st Century, School of Economics and Finance, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand, 23-25 February 2004 10. MO, HOWARD AND HAVITZ 1993 Testing a tourist role Typology. Annals of tourism research. 20: 319-335 11. PRIDEAUX B. 2000 the role of the transport system in destination development. Tourism Management 21 12. SMITH, S. L. J. 1994. The tourism product. Annals of tourism Research. 21(3): 582-595. 13. TANG AND ROCHANANOND. 1990 Attractiveness as a tourist destination; a comparative study of Thailand and selected countries. Socio-Econ Planning 24(3) 14. WITT S AND WITT C. 1995 Forecasting tourism demand: A review of empirical research. International Journal of Forecasting: 11:447-475 15. http://www.safariplus.co.in/kanjilalarticle.aspx?gid=22 16. http://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india.aspx 17. Ministry of Tourism, Government of India website Endnotes 1. Courtesy: Mr. Gour Kanjilal, Tourism Professional, Former Dy. Director General/Regional Director, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. q (E-mail:manojdixit23@gmail.com) YE-8/2015 12 YOJANA May 2015