Surrendering Secrecy: Freedom of Information and the Politics of Transparency in Latin America Gregory Michener, Ph.D. rgm@gregmichener.com
Questions 1. Why have FOI outcomes differed so greatly across countries, even those with so many similarities? 2. What factors bring about strong FOI laws?
Literature Explanations for how laws come about: Institutional Drivers Ideational Drivers Leadership Drivers International Drivers Democratic transitions Scandals Heads of State International Organizations e.g. UNESCO Party alternations Legitimacy Entrepreneurial Ministers or Politicians Regional Organizations e.g. OAS, EU Party Competition and Divided Government Political discourse Civil Society Organizations International Financial Institutions e.g. World Bank Separation of Powers Normative Emulation Elite Movements Transnational Movements e.g. Press Associations Bureaucratic Cultures of Secrecy, Openness, or Compliance International or Regional Integration Grassroots Movements Transgovernmental Pressure e.g. U.S. Pressure on Panama Timing The News Media Greg Michener 1st Global Conference on Transparency Research Legal and Business Associations
Preliminary Field Research Mexico 2003 (M.A. in Latin American Studies, UT Austin) 2006 Argentina, Uruguay 2005 Mexico, Argentina 2007 Brazil 2008-10 [ observingbrazil.com] Greg Michener 1st Global Conference on Transparency Research
Strong Laws What is it about civil society & political leadership that is decisive?
1. Degree of media coverage 2. Degree of agendasetting control of president (legislative and constitutional dominance)
Methodology Measuring the strength of laws 35 question index Measuring the strength of newspaper coverage content analyses Measuring negative agendasetting power of presidents partisan and constitutional powers
Index 35 Questions, Ordinal Scale 1=Unsatisfactory 2=Satisfactory 3=Strong Evaluation of legislation by category: 1. Scope (8 questions) 2. Procedures (7 questions) 3. Promotion and Duties to Publish (4 questions) 4. Exceptions (7 questions) 5. Appeals (6 questions) 6. Protections and Sanctions (3 questions) Benchmarks 1.0 1.4------------------1.5 1.9-----------------2.0 2.4-----------------2.5 3.0 Weak Moderately Weak Moderately Strong Strong
Findings: Legal Strength 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 Mexico (2002) El Salvador (2011) Guatemala (2008) Chile (2008) Nicaragua (2007) Peru (2002) Honduras (2006) Brazil (pending) Ecuador (2004) Panama (2002) Uruguay (2008) Dominican Rep. (2004) Colombia (1985) Argentina (decree 2003) Bolivia (decree 2005)
Alternative Explanations Bureaucratic Capacity, Professionalism of Legislators International or Regional Integration Ideology Age of Laws Civil Society-based Advocacy Leadership
Findings: News Media Agenda-Setting 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 News Items on Access to Information for 12 Months Prior to Legislative Enactment 2 Lines or less Mentioning FOI News focused Specifically on FOI Brasil Argentina Uruguay Guatemala México Chile
STRENGTH OF LAW LEGISLATIVE CONTROL Minority Majority Country Score Control of the Chamber of Deputies % Control of the Senate % President Mexico 2.7 41 40 Vicente Fox El Salvador 2.6 Nicaragua 2.4 37 (unicameral) 38 (unicameral) Chile 2.3 48 47 Guatemala 2.3 Peru 2 Honduras 1.9 30 (unicameral) 26 (unicameral) 50 (unicameral) Brasil 1.8 68 N/A Ecuador 1.7 9 Panama 1.7 54 Uruguay 1.7 52 52 Dominican Republic 1.5 52 82 Mauricio Funes Daniel Ortega Michelle Bachelet Álvaro Colom Alejandro Toledo Manuel Zelaya Inácio Luiz Lula da Silva Lúcio Gutiérrez Mireya Moscoso Tábare Vásquez Hipólito Mejia Party Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) El Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional Concertación de Partidos para la Democracia Unidad Nacional de Esperanza (UNE) Peru Posible Partido Liberal Coalição Partido Trabalhador e outros Partido Sociedade Patriotica Unión para Panama Frente Amplio Partido Revolucionario Gregory Michener 7th International Conference of Information Commissioners, Belsário Partido Ottawa, 2011 Conservador Colombia 1.4 41 43 Bittencourt Colombiano Findings: Presidential Negative Agenda-Setting
Findings: Presidential Negative Timing of reform: Agenda-Setting
A Few Examples Mexico 2002 Reform Argentina 2003 Decree Brazil 2011?
De Facto Performance Venciendo la Cultura del Secreto and Saber Más 2010 (Mute Refusal or No Response%) 6 Requests (Positive/Compliant) by CDL, AIE, IBP Argentina 27 5/6 Bolivia 56 4/4 Brazil (no law) Chile 5/6 Colombia (no modern law) 5/6 Costa Rica 5/6 Dominican Republic 5/5 Ecuador 5/5 El Salvador (law not yet in effect) 4/4 Guatemala 5/5 Honduras 3/3 Mexico 4/6 Nicaragua 33 0/0 Paraguay (no law) NA Panama Peru Uruguay 34
What is to be done? 1. More investment in archive, search, request systems, training, personnel: $,$$$,$$$,$$$ Prove the worth of FOI: Empirical Studies Re-conceptualize the institution: keep the spirit, modify the institution. 2. Free the media: competition, transparent concessions, advertising contracts. 3. Electoral Reform and Party Reform
rgm@gregmichener.com