MOUNTAIN SAFETY MANUAL 18 New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014
ABOUT THE NEW ZEALAND MOUNTAIN SAFETY COUNCIL The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council was formed in 1965 in response to the increasing number of mountain, bush and firearms fatalities. Today, NZMSC is a national organisation responsible for safety in land based outdoor activities. We facilitate the setting of standards, facilitate training, distribute resources, lead public awareness campaigns and foster positive support in the community so that more people can discover and enjoy New Zealand's outdoors safely. MSC s Constitution includes our mission to: Enable people to participate safely in land-based outdoor recreation activities Foster positive community support for outdoor safety in the community Promote the development and maintenance of national outdoor safety standards for land-based activities. The Council gratefully acknowledges the ongoing support of: The New Zealand Lottery Grants Board New Zealand Police New Zealand Mountain Safety Council PO Box 6027, Wellington, 6141 Tel: 04 385 7162 Fax: 04 385 7366 Email: info@mountainsafety.org.nz www.mountainsafety.org.nz www.avalanche.net.nz www.incidentreport.org.nz www.adventuresmart.org.nz New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations First published in 1983 Revised 1993, 2000, 2003, 2004 This edition revised 2015 New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 2
Table of contents 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Background 5 1.3 The legislative context 6 2.1 The Hazard Management Process 7 2.2 Hazard Identification 8 2.3 Hazard Management 9 2.4 Emergency Management 11 2.5 Competent Staff 12 2.6 System Review Process 16 Appendix A Definitions for Snow Safety Advisor (SSA), Snow Safety Consultant (SSC), and Experienced Stage one profile. 17 Appendix B Example pages of current avalanche atlas pages 20 Appendix C Login address for Avalanche Information Exchange (InfoEx) 22 Appendix D Login address for National Incident Database (NID) 22 Appendix E Conceptual model of Avalanche Forecasting 23 New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 3
Section 1 1.1 Introduction This guideline has been developed to provide practical guidance for commercial and club ski areas to actively manage avalanche hazards for their staff and members of the public. The scope of these guidelines is limited to the management of avalanche risk and forms part of the Ski Area Management Safety Strategy (SAMSS). The documents contained in the SAMSS cover all operational aspects of a ski area. These can be accessed via the SAANZ website www.saanz.org.nz Although this document focuses on avalanche risk management within a ski area boundary, it can also be applied to other organisations or individuals operating in avalanche terrain. Avalanche forecasting is an inexact science much like weather forecasting. However, by using a snow safety management system based on international standards it is possible to minimise the avalanche hazard to ensure the safety of skiers, snowboarders, staff and facilities. New Zealand ski areas are subject to avalanche hazards and as a result must have an on-going snow safety management programme in place to monitor the weather, record snow pack observations and minimize the risks associated with snow pack and snow stability. Although club skifields may feel it too costly to provide professional snow safety management the cost of not providing this service in terms of human lives is very high. The process of industry standardisation and the expectations of the public require that personnel with the appropriate skills and qualifications are employed. The Department of Conservation has general concession requirements in terms of safety on the conservation estate. As well, the department's Detailed Guidelines for Ski Area Concessions states: "it is the concessionaire's responsibility to provide or obtain expertise for avalanche hazard management at its own expense." Fatal avalanches in New Zealand have highlighted the need for an effective snow safety programme and particularly the need for; twice daily weather observations, suitably trained and experienced personnel, regular snow pack analysis and daily avalanche hazard evaluation. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 4
1.2 Background New Zealand has a rich but relatively young history of snow sports that was pioneered by immigrants from Europe and driven by a can do kiwi mentality. Organised ski clubs started as far back as 1913, the first of which was the Ruapehu Ski Cub in the North Island. By the 1930 s clubs had been organised across the country including Mt Egmont, Mt Ruapehu, Mt Cheeseman, Temple Basin, Fox Peak, Mt Olympus, Rock and Pillar range and the Hector mountains. The post war period saw a large jump in development with New Zealand s first commercial ski area at Coronet Peak and the fixed ski rope tows across the country. By 1954 New Zealand s first chairlift had been installed at Whakapapa and the T-Bar lift followed shortly after. This period also saw the new development of Broken River, Ohau and Craigieburn ski club in the South Island and Tukino in the North Island. Over the late 1960 s and 1970 s commercial ski area development began to bloom with new ski areas opening every few years including Porter Heights, Mt Hutt, Treble Cone, Cardrona, Dobson, Turoa and the Remarkables. The public demand for skiing was exploding and large numbers of people were now regularly recreating in the alpine environment. By 1976 the growth of the industry prompted the first Avalanche safety seminar, jointly convened by the National Parks Authority and Mountain Safety Council (MSC), for the purpose of discussing the avalanche hazard and organising a safety programme. The outcome of this seminar was the formation of the Avalanche Safety Committee (later to become the Snow and Avalanche Committee SAC) and two Task Force groups. One to work on research, planning and monitoring, the other group was to focus on field techniques for measuring and recording snowpack and avalanching and instruction in avalanche safety. In 1979 American snow and avalanche scientist, Dr Edward La Chapelle visited New Zealand and published a report on avalanche problems in New Zealand that highlighted the shortcomings in the administrative policies and management programmes related to public safety. This led to a further seminar held in Christchurch that year which agreed resolutions that: the MSC consult and create a Guideline policy for snow safety related to all ski operations that all ski operations establish or review their plans in accordance with the guidelines that the MSC actively supports programmes of snow training for all those involved in areas where skiing takes place. In response to these resolutions, the MSC formed a Skifield Safety Working Group, with representatives from Lands & Survey, NZ Ski Association and individual ski areas, National Parks, NZ Forest Service and MSC. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 5
In 1984 the first Guidelines to Safety in Skifield Operations was published by the MSC and documented best practice for safety management of a wide range of operational areas within a commercial skifield, from roads, buildings and lifts to slopes, ski patrol and avalanche. Four further updates were published up until 2010 when the document was revised and edited for electronic publishing on a new SAANZ website. This section on avalanche hazard management has been produced by the MSC in consultation with SAANZ and other avalanche risk management experts. 1.3 The Legislative Context In New Zealand all workplaces are subject to the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992. In November 2011, the Adventure Activities Regulations came into force to improve safety and reduce harm in the adventure activities sector. Ski area operations are currently exempt from the regulations if their activities occur entirely within a defined ski area boundary. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 6
Section 2 2.1 The Hazard Management Process The minimum criteria for an effective snow safety management system are based on the following four components: Hazard Identification Hazard Management Avalanche Safety Management Emergency Management Competent Staff The contents of these 4 components are detailed below with examples from current NZ operations contained in the referenced appendix. Hazard identification and assessment: Systematic mapping of all avalanche paths recorded in an Avalanche Atlas. A daily weather, snowpack and avalanche data collection process and recording system. A daily avalanche hazard assessment process and recording system. Hazard Management: An avalanche hazard management process detailed in an: o Avalanche hazard management plan. o Avalanche control plan. o Explosives plan. Emergency Management: An Avalanche Rescue plan including a training plan and recording system. An incident and near miss reporting process and recording system. Competent Staff: Qualified staff at all levels of operation. See Table 2 (page 15) for minimum staff qualifications per risk levels at specific operations. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 7
Hazard Identification In order to effectively manage avalanche safety, operations must first identify and quantify the hazards they may be exposed to. Operations need the following three tools as a minimum to achieve this. Avalanche atlas This will detail all avalanche paths on and affecting the ski area and its access road. This is to be developed by an appropriately qualified person, and signed off by a Snow Safety Consultant (SSC - see Appendix A for definitions). It will detail: History of the document, including version details, creation and review dates, authors and reviewers names and sign off. Methodology This must include how paths were mapped, maximum run out distances calculated, and slope angles measured. An ordered sequential catalogue of each individual avalanche path. A set of definitions explaining the parameters described for each avalanche path. That the document will be reviewed annually by internal audit completed by a Snow Safety Advisor (SSA - Appendix A for definitions), and externally every three years by an SSC. See Appendix B for an example of a current Avalanche Atlas: Plan for data collection and recording systems This plan will outline and describe the data collection and recording systems. It will detail: Observations and recording will be done to the New Zealand Guidelines and Recording Standards for Weather, Snow pack and Avalanche Observations (NZ Mountain Safety Council, latest edition) How records are made and where they are stored. This will be for both hard copy and digital records. The use of the NZ Info-Ex programme to share daily observations and review other operations data. NOTE: Significant snowpack and avalanche observations must be entered into Info-Ex by the end of the day. Weather observation location of both manual and automatic sites, instruments used at each site, types and frequency of observations. Snowpack observation - type and frequency of observations, location of test plots and common indicator areas. That all avalanche observations made inside and outside the ski area boundary are recorded. NOTE: Avalanche involvements Any avalanche involving the public, staff, building or plant will be investigated, a report written and submitted to INFOEX by the end of that working day. This may be a summary at first, and can be later augmented. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 8
Produce a daily avalanche hazard assessment An avalanche hazard assessment will be completed and documented daily. The method will follow the Conceptual model (Statham, et al 2010) (Appendix E) It will be communicated to safety staff at a daily morning briefing It will be reviewed by snow safety staff upon completion of control work Once identified, Hazards must be managed. The following 3 plans contain details of how this will be implemented from both an overall strategic viewpoint, as well as daily proceedures and routines. Avalanche Management Plan Hazard Management This plan will state a programme summary of the Mountain Operation detailing it s: Geography Typical weather cycles Snowpack development Avalanche activity This plan will outline and describe the training program: Preseason Ongoing Internal Ski Patrol and other departments External - SAR, Police, Polytechnic Search dogs Identify appropriately skilled assessors and mentors Recording methods This plan will outline and describe each of the personnel roles detailing their: Qualifications Skills Experience Duties Responsibilities Lines of communication New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 9
These roles can include but may not be limited to Snow safety officer (SSO), assistant SSO, Duty forecaster (DF), assistant DF, Control Route leader, Avalanche technician, Ski Patroller, Trail Crew Avalanche Control Plan This will describe the detail and sequence of both passive and active control work. It will include: An overview Activities prior to control day Overnight duties if applicable Morning duties Control work strategy Methodology/sequence with rationale explained. Detail normal Control Route practice and common variations. Post control work duties Explosives Plan This plan will describe all details of explosive use and be written to encompass the NZ SOP s (Latest version & Date) Personnel qualification and ongoing training Storage Transport Assembly Deployment Disposal Record keeping, tracking New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 10
Emergency Management Even with the best planning, accidents can occur. Contingency planning is vital to achieve a timely response and a favourable outcome. Avalanche Rescue Plan This will detail training, procedures and resources. It will include: Current and dated pre plan response, detailing CIMS roles and responsibilities, who will fill these roles and contingencies An efficient robust communication system listing type, coverage and limitations Well equipped rescue caches that are strategically located An efficient system for recruiting and equipping volunteers and getting them on the site. Procedures for recruiting back up support including search dog teams, medical supplies, police and helicopters. Provision for efficient evacuation of victims, rescuers and equipment. A schedule and record of training for both small party and large scale response involving all ski area resources as well as external agencies Incident and near miss reporting system Investigation of near miss/accident events is critical in a health and safety system. Identifying gaps in current hazard management as well as new hazards strengthens a system by increasing awareness, and decreasing chances of repeat events. Internal systems used to do this: Internal operational Health and Safety System based on Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992: HSE Act 1992, and the Health and Safety in Employment Regulations 1995: HSE Regulations 1995 External systems used to share and compare safety information between operations: Avalanche Information Exchange (INFOEX) http://infox.avalanche.net.nz/ National Incident database (NID) http://www.incidentreport.org.nz/ All incidents and near misses should be documented, investigated and the resulting findings and conclusions should be shared with all staff and the wider sector as soon as possible. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 11
Competent Staff All of the components of Hazard identification, Hazard management, Emergency management and Competent staff must be part of a Safety Management System but there are varying degrees of complexity required depending on the level of avalanche risk faced by staff and visitors. TABLE 1 below, divides ski area operations into categories according to their exposure to Avalanche Hazard and the associated risks. Avalanche Paths Frequency of natural and artificial event. Minimal avalanche terrain. May contain a number of individual paths less than size 2 Run infrequently. Use Any use level. Low to moderate use level TABLE 1: Exposure to Avalanche Hazard. Minimal avalanche terrain but several paths size 1 & 2 Size 2-10 year return period or greater. High use Multiple avalanche paths which may include size 3 or above. Size 2 are possible in most years but Greater than 2 infrequent. Low to Moderate use level. High use Multiple avalanche paths including size 3 and above. Size 2 are likely in most years. Greater that size 2 are possible in most years Low use level. Moderate to High use level. Risk Level I II III III IV III IV Further influences that may raise the risk level. Current information available Documented every day Once a week One a month Once a year Historical information available Comprehensive records greater than 30yrs. Comprehensive records greater than 10yrs. Limited records. No recorded information Risk Level Stay the same Stay the same Up 1 Up 2 New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 12
Professional New Zealand avalanche qualifications New Zealand Professional Avalanche qualifications are managed by the New Zealand Mountain Safety Council through the Snow and Avalanche Committee (a sector wide technical committee) and the Avalanche Education Working Group. The courses are delivered by tertiary institutes throughout the country and the qualifications reported to NZQA. The qualifications are recognised as analogous by the Canadian Avalanche Association (CAA) and moderated against international syllabus and best practice. The following are short strategic description statements of terms/roles used in this document. Further detailed definitions including the minimum training and experience for some of these are contained in Appendix A. New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management (Stage 1) This qualification will provide the outdoor snow sector with individuals who are able to manage personal risk from avalanche hazards while carrying out activities in dynamic outdoor contexts. Graduates of this qualification are able to contribute to the daily operation of, and work under the broad guidance of, a Safety Management System (SMS). It is intended that they do this under the guidance of a New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management Stage 2 graduate. New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management (Stage 2) This qualification will provide the outdoor snow sector with individuals who hold advanced skills for managing avalanche risk. Graduates of this qualification may undertake a supervisory role and have responsibility for others within a professional avalanche risk management programme. This qualification is comparable to the Canadian Avalanche Association (CAA) Avalanche Operations Level 2 course. It is also recognised by International Federation of Mountain Guides Associations (IFMGA). New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management (Stage 3) This qualification will provide the outdoor snow sector with individuals who hold leadership/ supervision skills for people managing avalanche risk. Graduates of this qualification will operate in a leadership role with responsibility and accountability for others within a professional avalanche risk management programme. Snow Safety Advisor (SSA) this term describes an experienced post Stage 2 practitioner. They have achieved an industry agreed upon level of training and experience in avalanche risk management. * Snow Safety Consultant (SSC) this term describes an avalanche safety practitioner with a very high level of experience and depth of knowledge in a wide range of avalanche hazard and risk management practices. * * See Appendix A for further details New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 13
The amount and quality of the weather, snowpack and avalanche information available to the Snow Safety officer, further influences the minimum staff competencies. This applies to current and historical information. Two snow safety officers, (with minimum qualifications indicated in TABLE 2) will need to be employed to run an effective programme and ensure that on the primary staff s days off, the role is covered. TABLE 2 on the next page shows the required Snow Safety Management Components for operations of different risk levels, including minimum competencies for those overseeing the snow safety function. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 14
TABLE 2: Required Snow Safety Management Components for Operational Risk levels - derived from TABLE 1 Risk Level I Risk Level II Risk Level III Risk Level IV Avalanche Atlas Yes Yes Yes Yes Snow safety management Yes Yes Yes Yes plan Atlas review sign off. Every 5 years or if significant changes occur. SSC SSC SSC SSC Minimum competencies for individuals overseeing the snow safety functions. Stage 1 with a SSA as an on call advisor. Stage 1 (experienced*) with a SSA as an on call advisor or a Stage 2 on site. Stage 2 with a SSA as an on call advisor or an SSA on site. SSA Minimum competencies for team members undertaking mitigation work. Collection of data and daily recording into a national collection centre (Info-ex). A daily avalanche hazard assessment Avalanche rescue capability. (all plans/pre plans to be integrated with Local Police District Plan) Review and update requirements Stage 1 Stage 1 At least one Stage 2 when conditions could produce avalanches, along with stage 1 s Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes A plan and pre plan. Some rescue equipment and documented training. Annual review and updates by SSA. Independent, external review every 3 years by SSC or equivalent. A plan and pre plan. Some rescue equipment and documented training. Annual review and updates by Snow safety Team. Independent, external review every 3 years by SSC or equivalent. A plan and pre plan. High level of rescue and medical equipment and documented training. Annual review and updates by Snow safety Team. Independent, external review every 3 years by SSC or equivalent. At least one SSA when conditions could produce an avalanche. Always at least 1 Stage 2 on site. along with stage 1 s A plan and pre plan. High level of rescue and medical equipment, documented training. A dog desirable on site on all operational days. Annual review and updates by Snow safety Team. Independent, external review every 3 years by SSC or equivalent. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 15
System review process The ongoing process of reviewing, analysing and updating each component of the safety management system is critical to its effectiveness, accuracy and usability. A review process (post and pre-season) should be an integral part of the plan and be part of the snow safety team s usual business. The documentation of the review process, updates, sign-off and version control, is an important step to include in any safety management system Annual review and updates by SSA and Snow safety Team. Independent, external review every 3 years by SSC or equivalent. HOG ASG- Regular internal and external safety system reviews or audits are a crucial part of running a safe heli-skiing operation. Heli-skiing operations are required by the Adventure Activity Regulations to undergo an external audit before operations begin, and at regular intervals as defined by the MBIE adventure activities certification scheme requirements. Conduct an internal safety system review after an incident that caused serious harm, or might have. Consider conducting an external review as well. Schedule internal reviews as part of the yearly safety routine before and after the busy season are often good times. Reviews should check that: safety systems and procedures are at or above industry good practice the safety management plan accurately reflects the operator s systems and procedures everyone in the operation follows the agreed safety systems and procedures. One person should have responsibility for ensuring that reviews take place, but everyone in the operation is responsible for being part of the process. Use a competent person with suitable technical expert knowledge to conduct the review. Record the process and the results, and share any relevant learning with staff and other heli-skiing operators. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 16
APPENDIX A: Details of training and experience requirements for staff managing avalanche safety Minimum Training and Experience for Snow Safety Advisor (SSA). The term Snow Safety Advisor (SSA) describes an experienced Stage 2 practitioner who has applied theory and experience to the following minimums outlined in this matrix. Training and Experience Requirements Notes New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management Stage 2 International equivalency can be checked by comparing learning outcomes from overseas qualifications. YES CPD As per Avalanche Instructor guidelines YES Certified/Approved Approved Handler for Snowblasting explosive handling Experience: (approx. 10 seasons) Professional Development Snow Safety related work (documented snowpack and avalanche observations including Hazard analysis, control work, guiding in uncontrolled avalanche terrain, develop and lead staff training) Advanced Forecasting Course* Avalanche Mapping Course* Avalanche Rescue Course* including Site Management, CIMS structure, Search theory, Accident investigation Data Management Course* YES unless operation does not use Explosives. 300 logged days Actively working towards this or RCC and RPL Actively working towards this or RCC and RPL Actively working towards this or RCC and RPL Actively working towards this or RCC and RPL Likely to also hold Helibombing and Avalauncher endorsements. * These courses form part of the NZ Certificate in Avalanche Management Stage 3 New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 17
Minimum Training and Experience for Snow Safety Consultant (SSC) SSC: Snow Safety Consultant. This describes an avalanche safety practitioner with a very high level of experience and depth of knowledge in a wide range of avalanche hazard and risk management practices. Training and Experience Requirements Notes New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management Stage 3 International equivalency can be checked by comparing learning outcomes from overseas qualifications. YES or RCC and RPL CPD As per Avalanche Instructor guidelines YES Certified/Approved Approved Handler for Snowblasting explosive handling Experience: (approx. 10 seasons) Experience (approx. 5 seasons) Professional Development Snow Safety related work (documented snowpack and avalanche observations including Hazard analysis, control work, guiding in uncontrolled avalanche terrain, develop and lead staff training) Snow Safety programme management. Studies and qualifications in related studies including auditing, engineering, risk management and hazard planning. YES unless operation does not use Explosives. 300 logged days 150 logged days Likely to also hold Helibombing and Avalauncher endorsements. New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 18
Minimum Training and Experience for an Experienced Stage 1 practitioner. This definition of an experienced stage 1 qualified person has been developed for operations that have a calculated low risk, and are clearly unable to attract Stage 2 qualified staff to manage their snow safety operation. This is an attempt to match an achievable and sufficient resourcing, to appropriate risk exposure. In reality there are only a few of the smaller mountain operations that this applies to as the majority require Stage 2 or higher qualified personnel to match their risk level. The following matrix describes an experienced post Stage 1 practitioner. Training and Experience Requirements Notes New Zealand Certificate in Avalanche Risk Management Stage 1 International equivalency can be checked by comparing learning outcomes from overseas qualifications. YES CPD As per Avalanche Instructor guidelines YES Experience: (approx. 5 YES, 150 logged days seasons) Professional Development Snow Safety related work (documented snowpack and avalanche observations including Hazard analysis, control work, guiding in uncontrolled avalanche terrain, develop and lead staff training) Either min 2 years working in operation led by full time SSA, or has been critically and directly involved in the development of the safety plans (incl atlas) for the operation they will oversee On-line sections of Stage 2 YES Completed or working towards completion New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 19
APPENDIX B: Avalanche Atlas example pages New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 20
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 21
APPENDIX C: InfoEx can be found at the web address http://infox.avalanche.net.nz/ APPENDIX D: NID can be found at the web address http://www.incidentreport.org.nz/ New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 22
APPENDIX E: Conceptual Model of Avalanche Hazard New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 23
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 24
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 25
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 26
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 27
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 28
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 29
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 30
New Zealand Guidelines for Avalanche Risk Management in Ski Area Operations 2014 (V3 25/2/2015) Page 31