LATIN AMERICA AND ITS PEOPLE Cheryl E. Martin University of Texas at El Paso Mark Wasserman Rutgers University PEARSON Longman New York San Francisco Boston London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal ( & )
List of Features xvi List of Maps and Color Plates xviii Map ofnational Capitals xx Preface xxi About the Authors xxviii t THE FIRST PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS 1 The First Americans 2 Coming to America 2 Subsistence Strategies and the Development of Agriculture 2 Sedentary Communities and Ceremonial Centers 5 Ceremonial Centers in Mexico and Peru 8 The Olmec: "Mother Culture" of Mexico? 8 Chavin de Huantar in Peru 10 The Cities of Classic Mesoamerica 12 Monte Alban 12 Teotihuacan 13 Maya Civilization in the Classic Era 15 Peru After Chavin 19 The Moche 19 TheNazca 21 Tiwanaku 22 The Wari Empire 23 Mesoamerica and Peru, 900-1400 C.E. 24 The Toltecs 24 The Mixtecs of Oaxaca 26 The Post-Classic Maya 26 Peru after Tiwanaku and Wari 11 The World of Early Americans 29 People and Their Environment 30 III
IV CONTENTS Early Americans and Their Beliefs 31 Communities, States, and War 32 Conclusion 33 Learning More About Latin Americans 34 How Historians Understand ARCHAEOLOGY, LITERACY, AND THE STUDY OF HISTORY 6 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES PACAL THE GREAT, KING OF PALENQUE, 603-683 C.E. 16 Slice oi Lite THE CRAFT WORKERS OF CHAN CHAN, 1400 C.E. 28 2 AMERICANS AND IBERIA ON THE EVE OF CONTACT Mesoamerica in the Fifteenth Century 35 The Rise of the Mexica 36 Mexica Statecraft 39 g Mexica Religion 40 (fer HaiiSeStadt HdmbUM Everyday Life in the Time of the Mexica 41 Mesoamerica on the Eve of the Spanish Invasion 43 The Andes in the Fifteenth Century 46 The Rise of the Incas 46 Inca Statecraft 48 Andean Religion in the Time of the Incas 50 Everyday life in the Time of the Incas 51 The Aztecs and Incas Compared 54 The Diversity of American Peoples 57 The Tainos and Caribs 58 The Tupi of Coastal Brazil 60 The "Pueblo" Peoples of New Mexico 60 The Spanish and the Portuguese 61 Centuries of Conquest 62 Medieval Iberia and the Reconquista 63 Iberian Monarchies in the Fifteenth Century 65 The Breakdown of Iberian "Convivencia" 65 Iberian Society in the Fifteenth Century 67 Iberia and the Beginnings of Overseas Expansion 68 Conclusion 69 Learning More About Latin Americans 71
How Historians Understand COUNTING PEOPLE IN PAST SOCIETIES 44 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES TANTA CARHUA, BRIDE OF THE SUN 52 Slice ot Life THE MARKETPLACE AT TLATELOLCO 56 THE EUROPEAN CONQUEST OP AMERICA 72 The Europeans Arrive 73 Columbus and the First Encounters 73 The Caribbean Colonies 75 The Portuguese in Brazil 76 The Spanish in Mesoamerica and the Andes 80 Cortes and the Aztecs 80 The Search for "Otro Mexico" 85 The Pizarros and the Incas 86 Military Conquest or Strategic Alliance? 87 Building a Colonial Society 89 The Ecological Conquest 90 Conquistadors, Encomenderos, and Native Peoples 91 A Multiracial Society in Formation 93 The "Spiritual Conquest" of Latin America 96 Early Evangelization 96 The Impact of Evangelization 98 Resistance to Christianity 99 The Consolidation of Colonial Empires 101 The Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru 101 The Spanish Colonial Bureaucracy 102 Royal Government in Brazil 104 The Church in Spanish America and Brazil 104 The Spanish and Portuguese Empires 106 Conclusion 107 Learning More About Latin Americans 108 How Historians Understand MALINCHE AND THE USES OF HISTORICAL MEMORY 82 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES BARTOLOME DE LAS CASAS, 1474-1566 77 Slice of Lite THE CUZCO CABILDO FOUNDS A CONVENT, 1551 95
VI CONTENTS THE IBERIANS' NEW WORLD 110 The Lure of Precious Metals 111 The Silver Boom 111 Labor and Technology in Silver Mining 112 Procuring a Labor Supply 113 Gold Mining in Brazil 117 Agriculture 118 Sugar Plantations 118 Haciendas and Ranches 123 Landownership 125 Landed Elites 126 Rural Society 131 Trade and Transportation 132 International Commerce 132 Overland Transport 134 Merchants 134 Mercantile Restrictions 135 Cities and Towns in the Iberians' New World 136 Capital Cities 137 Provincial Capitals and Other Towns 138 Urban Amenities 139 Urban Working Classes 140 Conclusion 141 Learning More About Latin Americans 142 How Historians Understand DOCUMENTING COLONIAL ENTERPRISE 128 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES ANTONIO LOPEZ DE QUIROGA, BOLIVIAN ENTREPRENEUR 114 Slice ol Lite THE SAFRA IN COLONIAL BRAZIL 121
VII THE AMERINDIANS' CHANGING WORLD 144 Native Communities in Mesoamerica and the Andes 145 Shifting Populations in the Republica de Indios 146 Local Government in the Republica de Indios 148 Subsistence and Survival in the Republica de Indios 150 Native Communities and the Cash Economy 153 Families and Households in the Republica de Indios 154 Religion and Community Life in the Republica de Indios 155 Natives as Catholics 156 Belief and Practice in the Republica de Indios 157 Religion and Community Identity 159 Mission Indians 162 Jesuit and Franciscan Missions 162 Native Peoples in the Jesuit and Franciscan Missions 166 Mission Indians and Colonial Society 166 Native Peoples and the Colonial Order 167 Indians in the Republica de Espanoles 168 "Indios Barbaras" 170 Regional Revolts 171 Native Historical Memory and the Colonial Order 172 Conclusion 175 Learning More About Latin Americans 176 How Historians Understand MEASURING ACCULTURATION USING INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE SOURCES 160 LATIN A M E R I C A N LIVES FELIPE GUAMAN POMA DE AYALA 174 Slice of Life THE INDIANS OF OAXTEPEC DEFEND THEIR LAND AND WATER 151
VIII CONTENTS A NEW PEOPLE AND THEIR WORLD 177 The Making of Multiethnic Societies 178 Spanish and Portuguese Immigrants 178 Creoles 180 Mestizos and Mamelucos 180 African Slaves 181 Slave Resistance 182 Maroon Communities 183 Free Blacks and Mulattos 184 Race and Class in Colonial Latin America 186 Social and Cultural Definitions of Race 186 Class and Ethnicity 190 Honor, Gender, and Patriarchy 191 Honor and the Patriarchal Family 192 Marriage and the Family 193 Honor and Sexuality 194 Honor and Homosexuality 195 The Limits of Patriarchy 196 Convents: "Islands of Women" 199 Convents and Colonial Society 202 Conformity and Defiance in Colonial Society 203 The Social Etiquette of Everyday Life 204 The Administration of Justice 205 The Inquisition and Deviant Behavior 206 Rituals of Rule 207 Scatological Songs and Dances of Defiance 208 Conclusion 210 Learning More About Latin Americans 211 How Historians Understand PARISH REGISTERS AND THE STUDY OF COLONIAL SOCIETY 188
IX LATIN AMERICAN LIVES JUANA DE COBOS, BAKER IN CHIHUAHUA 198 Slice of Life CORPUS CHRISTI IN CUZCO 209 7 THE SHIFTING FORTUNES OF COLONIAL EMPIRES 212 The Spanish and Portuguese Empires in Eighteenth-Century Politics 213 Great Britain and Latin America 213 The Seven Years' War 216 The American Revolution and Latin America 217 The French Revolution and Latin America 218 The Haitian Revolution 220 The Bourbon and Pombaline Reforms 221 Defending the Spanish Empire 222 Administrative Restructuring and New Viceroyalties 223 The Power of the Church 224 Economic Development 227 Latin American Peoples in the Age of Revolution 231 Social Change in the Late Colonial Period 232 The Changing Face of Colonial Cities 234 The Enlightenment in Latin America 235 Resistance and Rebellion in the Late Colonial Period 237 Developing Creole Consciousness 238 Resistance to the Bourbon Reforms 239 Conspiracies in Brazil 239 The Great Rebellion in Peru 241 Conclusion 243 Learning More About Latin Americans 244 How Historians Understand REVISIONISM AND THE DEBATE OVER COMPARATIVE SLAVERY 228 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES JOSE GABRIEL CONDORCANQUI, TUPAC AMARU II 240 Slice of Life THE ROYAL TOBACCO FACTORY IN MEXICO CITY 225
THE NEW NATIONS OF LATIN AMERICA 245 Spanish America and the Crisis of 1808 246 Spain and the Napoleonic Invasion 247 Representative Government in Spain and America, 1808-1814 247 The "American Question" 251 Spanish American Grievances and the Crisis of 1808 252 Mexico 253 Venezuela 255 Argentina 255 Spanish American Independence 256 The Final Campaigns 256 Regional Conflicts in the Spanish American Struggle for Independence 262 The Independence of Brazil 264 The Portuguese Monarchy in Brazil 264 Popular Unrest in Brazil 265 The Culmination of Brazilian Independence 266 The Meaning of Independence 267 Conclusion 271 Learning More About Latin Americans 272 How Historians Understand WERE THE WARS OF INDEPENDENCE THE TURNING POINT? 248 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES JOSE ANTONIO APONTE, SCULPTOR OF HAVANA 258 Slice of Life THE 16TH OF SEPTEMBER: INDEPENDENCE DAY IN MEXICO 268 REGIONALISM, WAR, AND RECONSTRUCTION: POLITICS AND ECONOMICS, 1821-1880 274 Dilemmas of Nationhood 275 Who Governs and What Form of Government? 275 Federalism/Centralism and Liberalism/Conservatism 277
XI The Challenge of Regionalism 278 Argentina, Mexico, Colombia, and Central America 279 Brazil and Chile 284 A Century of War 285 Wars of Political Consolidation 285 Intra-Regional Wars 287 Foreign Wars 288 Civil Wars 289 The Impact of War 292 Popular Participation 295 Caudillos 298 The Challenge of Economic Recovery 303 Obstacles to Development 303 Export Economies 304 Conclusion 306 Learning More About Latin Americans 308 How Historians Understand BENITO JUAREZ: THE MAKING OF A MYTH 280 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES DR. FRANCIA 300 Slice of Life THE PARIAN Riot MEXICO CITY, 1828 296 EVERYDAY LIFE IN AN UNCERTAIN AGE, 1821-1880 309 The People 310 The Large Estates: Haciendas, Estancias, Plantations, Fazendas 311 Work Life 312 Domestic Life 317 Plantations and Slavery 319 Villages and Small Holders 323 Religion 326 Urban Life and Societal Transformation 326 The Cities 327 Transformations 329
XII CONTENTS Food, Clothing, Shelter, and Entertainment 332 Food 332 Clothing 333 Shelter 334 Entertainment 336 Conclusion 338 Learning More About Latin Americans 338 How Historians Understand THE CONSTRUCTION OF RACISM 320 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES THE GAUCHO 314 Slice of Life URBAN SLAVES 318 11 ECONOMIC MODERNIZATION, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS, 1880-1920 340 Economic Modernization 342 Exports 342 The Downside of Export-Led Modernization 344 Railroads 346 Modernization and Social Change 347 Population Increase 347 New Classes, New Voices 348 Rural Discontent 352 Mass Movements of People 353 Politics in the Age of Modernization 354 A Modernized Military 355 The Rule of the Ranchers and Planters: Argentina and Brazil 356 Democracy in Chile 358 The Aristocratic Republic: Peru 359 Dictatorship: Mexico 361 Modernization and Resistance 363 Indigenous Peoples 364
XIII Resistance in the Countryside 364 The Mexican Revolution 365 Conclusion 368 Learning More About Latin Americans 369 How Historians Understand WHY DO PEOPLE REBEL? 366 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES LUIS TERRAZAS, CATTLE BARON OF CHIHUAHUA, MEXICO 360 Slice of Life A CHILEAN MINING CAMP 350 12 BETWEEN REVOLUTIONS: THE NEW POLITICS OF CLASS AND THE ECONOMIES OF IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRIALIZATION, 1920-1959 370 Three Crises and the Beginnings of Intensified Government Involvement in the Economy, 1920-1945 372 The Aftermath of World War I 372 The Great Depression 373 World War II 377 Peacetime Economies 377 Dictators and Populists 379 The 1920s 380 Depression and War 387 Peacetime Politics 392 Failure of the Left and Right 393 Women's Suffrage 395 Conclusion 396 Learning More About Latin Americans 398 How Historians Understand RECONSTRUCTING THE SEMANA TRAGICA (TRAGIC WEEK) IN ARGENTINE HISTORY 382 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES ELVIA AND FELIPE CARRILLO PUERTO 386 Slice of Life COLOMBIAN COFFEE FARM IN 1925 374
XIV CONTENTS PEOPLE AND PROGRESS, 1910-1959 399 Socialization in the Factory and the Mine: Proletarianization and Patriarchy 401 A Miner's Day at El Teniente 408 Urbanization and Social Change 410 The Cities 410 Life on the Edge: The Middle Class 411 La Chica Moderna 415 Popular and High Culture 417 Conclusion 423 Learning More About Latin Americans 423 How Historians Understand THE VOICE OF THE LOWER CLASSES 412 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES FRIDA KAHLO 421 Slice of Life VILLAGE LIFE IN PERU 403 REVOLUTION, REACTION, DEMOCRACY, AND THE NEW GLOBAL ECONOMY, 1959 TO THE PRESENT 425 The Revolutions: Cuba, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala, Peru, and Colombia 427 Cuba 427 Nicaragua 430 El Salvador 432 Guatemala 433 Peru 433 Colombia 436 The Tyrannies: Brazil, Argentina, and Chile 436 Brazil 438
XV Argentina 440 Chile 444 The Exception: Mexico 448 Resurgent Democracy and the "Pink Tide" 449 The Struggle for Control of Everyday Life 452 The New Global Economy 453 Conclusion 457 Learning More About Latin Americans 457 How Historians Understand THEORIES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND HISTORY 454 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES AN ARGENTINE MILITARY OFFICER 445 Slice of Life ON THE STREETS OF NEUVO LAREDO 441 EVERYDAY LIFE: 1959 TO THE PRESENT 458 The Reign of Terror 459 The Quality of Life 462 What Does It Mean to Be Poor? 463 Informal Economy 468 The Great Migrations 472 The Cities 473 To Be Poor in the Cities 476 An Urban Migrant's Story 477 The Environment 477 The Globalization of Culture 478 Art 481 Conclusion 481 Learning More About Latin Americans 483 How Historians Understand FROM THE COUNTRYSIDE TO THE CITY 474 LATIN AMERICAN LIVES WOMEN REBELS 460 Slice of Life THE BARRIO/FAVELA 471 Glossary 485 Credits 489 Index 491