1 The Incas used to recite and sing the legends about how they began. According to one of these legends, a family of four brothers and four sisters came out of a cave 15 miles South of Cusco. They were led by Manco Capac, and his sister, Mama Ocllo, whom he married. They persuaded ten ayullus (small tribes or extended families), who emerged from two other caves, to come with them to find somewhere to settle and grow crops. The Incas eventually arrived in the Cusco area. They made the people there accept them as their rulers. From time to time they attacked Chanca Sora Vilcapampa Quechua Aymara Parinacocha Cotapampa Yanahuara Omasayo Cuntisuyu Lare Paucartampu Incas Chilque Chumpivilca Cavina Kanche Kana Collagua Cavana Ubina The main tribes near the Incas neighbouring tribes, forcing them to hand over their wealth. 2. They had a custom where the ruler would marry his own sister. This may have been to keep power over the tribe within the royal family. 3. They thought that the best way to change their ruler was for him to choose his successor from among the sons of his chief wives. The idea was that he would choose the most capable of his sons to rule after him. Colla Azangaro Lupaca Each of these things may have helped the Incas to become stronger than their neighbours. While some of the details of the Inca legends are disputed by historians, the Incas must have started somehow, perhaps round about 1200 A.D. The legends do not provide us with firm facts about how the Incas began. But they do tell us at least three things about how the Incas wanted to remember their rulers: 1. They admired powerful warriors, but knew that cruel ones might lose the support of their own people. According to the Inca stories, the leaders who followed Manco Capac, Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, were not particularly warlike. As can be seen from the map, the Incas were just one of many tribes living in the central Andes.
2 A time of tribal warfare The Incas became more warlike under their fourth leader, Mayta Capac. One reason why the Incas became more aggressive may have been a change in climate resulting in less rainfall. More land was needed to grow the same amount of food. Mayta Capac led the Incas in a fight with their neighbours over water rights. The Incas won the war, looted their neighbours homes, and took over some of their land and water. According to some accounts the fifth leader, Capac Yupanqui, was the first one to fight outside the Cusco valley. He defeated two very small tribes, the Cuyumarca and Ancasmarca. His successor, Inca Roca, conquered land to the south east of Cusco. One of Inca Roca s young sons, Yahuar Huacac, was kidnapped and held captive for a number of years because of a quarrel between two chimu Coastal states colla Lupaca Farmers neighbouring tribes, the Ayarmaca and the Huayllaca. Yahuar Huacac s mother, Mama Mikaywas, was from the Huayllaca tribe. Yahuar Huacac was eventually released and became Chiefdoms chancas incas Hunters Organisation of states and peoples in 1430 Sapa Inca on the death of Inca Roca. The kidnapping shows that the Incas were not at this point any more powerful than their neighbours. During the reign of Viracocha Inca, in the early 15th century, the Incas began their permanent conquests, at first on a small scale. Viracocha s uncles, Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta, were able generals. They defeated the Ayarmaca kingdom by attacking it from two directions. But instead of just helping themselves to plunder they took the kingdom Farmers over. This set a pattern for future Inca conquests. Virococha was now the ruler of a powerful state, one of only 8 powerful states in the Andes area of South America. Two of these, the Colla and the Lupaca, lay to the south of Inca territory. The Incas became allies of the Lupaca, so the Colla were faced by enemies in two directions. But in the fighting that followed the Inca army arrived at the scene only to find that the Lupaca had already won the battle!
3 A time of tribal warfare To the West of the Inca kingdom, the Chancas seemed set to become the leading power in the Central Andes. They had already conquered the Quechua tribe, and in about 1438 attacked the Incas. According to one story Viracocha Inca and his chosen heir Inca Urcon left Cusco. They withdrew some miles to the north to Calca. However, another son, later to be known as Pachacuti or Earthshaker, remained in Cusco to defend the city, supported by generals Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta. Pachacuti successfully defended Cusco. (According to legend, stones turned into warriors in order to complete the Chanca defeat!) More Inca soldiers joined Pachacuti s army, and he was able to drive the Chancas away from Cusco. By now there were two Inca states, one in Cusco, led by Pachacuti, and the other in Calca, led by his father Viracocha Inca. As the power of the Cusco group grew, many people left the Calca group to join Pachacuti. Pachacuti had to deal with two enemies at the same time, the Chancas, and his father's forces at Calca. Pachacuti struck eastward, to the edge of the tropical rainforest, to add to the territory he controlled, and to hem in Viracocha s forces at Calca. At this point Viracocha Inca died, and Inca Urcon was killed shortly afterwards in a skirmish. Viracocha s and Urcon s followers accepted Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui as the new Sapa Inca, and the Inca nation was reunited. Pachacuti continued fighting the Chancas until he had completely subdued them. The Incas now had the resources of a large and powerful kingdom to add to their own, and in Pachacuti they had a Sapa Inca who had a vision of what he could do with that power. He believed the gods had given him the task of conquering the Andes.
4 2 - The conquests of Pachacuti Earthshaker Before 1438 the Andes had been occupied by a hundred or so larger tribal groups, and thousands of smaller ones. The kingdoms, chiefdoms, tribes and lordships of the Andes had many different languages and customs. Tribes sometimes traded with one another, but often they fought for scarce land and resources. From the reign of Pachacuti all this changed. Thousands of different peoples became one - The Land of Four Quarters, Tawantinsuyu. In theory, and sometimes in practice, the entire Andes was at peace. chimu Coastal states colla Lupaca Farmers Pachacuti Earthshaker began this change partly through defeating other tribes and partly through talking to them. He made special Give-and- Take agreements with neighbouring tribes, using age-old Andean customs. Give-and-Take meant that the Incas exchanged gifts with another tribe, in Organisation of states and peoples in 1430 the same way that Andean villages had already done over hundreds of years. Pachacuti would then ask the neighbouring tribe to provide him with troops or labourers, in return for the gifts he had given. Overall, although both sides in the agreement did both giving and Chiefdoms chancas incas Farmers Hunters taking, in practice the Incas did most of the taking! Even so, when the Incas later became more powerful, they still had to request help in this way, and if the custom was forgotten it could cause trouble. But it was an effective way of raising very large armies. As the Incas conquered more tribes, they gained more and more goods, which in turn allowed them to have even larger armies. The first important group the Incas conquered were the Chancas. By using the wealth gained in this victory, the Incas were able to start out on their programme of conquest.
5 The conquests of Pachacuti Earthshaker The Chancas were the first major tribe to come under Inca control. It happened gradually. Pachacuti defeated them in battle on several occasions. At one point the two tribes agreed not to attack one another, leaving them both free to gain more territory. There was then something like a competition between the two tribes to see who could conquer the most land. The Chancas army moved south, conquering the Colla people in the area of Lake Titicaca. Pachacuti and the Incas marched west through Quechua territory to conquer the Vilcas and the Sora tribes. Pachacuti then sent his brother Capac Yupanqui southwards. He reached as far as the Pacific Ocean, and on his return journey to Cusco even captured a few Chanca villages. Somehow, through threats, bribes and military pressure, the Chancas were forced into a Give-andtake agreement with the Incas, under which the Chancas became the junior partners. With the resources of these two super-tribes Pachacuti was able to send Capac Yupanqui on a joint Inca-Chanca expedition to the north. He had orders not to go too far north. Pachacuti probably did not want him to stir up the powerful northern kingdom of Chimu. It turned out that the Chancas did most of the fighting. This made the Incas look foolish. Pachacuti became worried that the Chanca army would attack their Inca allies. He sent an order to Capc Yupanqui to kill the Chanca leaders. Warned of this, the Chanca army fled The conquests of Pachacuti further to the north east into the rainforest. CapacYupanqui tried to follow them, but eventually gave up. But Capac Yupanqui had now broken Pachacuti s orders not to go too far north. He captured the city of Cajamarca, even though the city was an ally of Chimú, and he left an Inca garrison there before starting the long return journey to Cusco.
6 3 - The conquests under Pachacuti Earthshaker Pachacuti s general Capac Yupanqui, caused problems for Pachacuti.by capturing Cajamarca. Cajamarca was an ally of the Chimu Empire, the largest and most powerful state in South America. Pachacuti was angry that his brother had disobeyed his orders. He was also afraid that he might use his victorious army to replace him as Sapa Inca. Pachacuti ordered him to be killed before he arrived in Cusco. Pachacuti now had to face enemies from two directions. In the north there was Chimu. In the south, his Chanca allies, smarting from the execution of their generals, rose against the Incas. To face this challenge, Pachacuti sent armies against both threats. The Incas had already defeated the Colla tribe. ow the southern Inca army Chimu empire Chan Chan Pacific Ocean The conquests Of Tupac Inca under Pachacuti defeated the Lupaca and their allies, so that the Incas controlled all the land between Cusco and Lake Titicaca. Peru Cajamarca Pachacuti put a younger son, Tupac Inca Yupanqui, in charge of an army to move northwards. Tupac forced the Chancas and the Quechua to fully accept Inca control. But his main task was to defeat Chimu. Its great capital city of Chan Chan was 600 miles to the orth through high and unfamiliar mountain paths. Tupac Inca s huge army, which included many Inca allies, set off. The smaller tribes they encountered quickly came to terms with the Incas. The Inca army then approached the Chimu Empire, and drove off the Chimu soldiers who were Brazil surrounding the Inca garrison at Cajamarca. Inca empire Tupac Inca Cusco then attacked Chimu from several directions. They cut off the city s water supply, and in 1464 the last Chimu Emperor, Minchancaman, was forced to surrender.
7 The conquests under Pachacuti Tupac Inca had extended the Inca Empire far to the north and defeated its most serious rival. He now marched his army back towards home, but along the coast to the south of Chimu. One by one he defeated many of the rich coastal kingdoms, including the city of Pachacamac, with its important oracle. The Incas had come to control all the tribes and peoples in the orthern Andes. There was now no kingdom in the entire Andes strong enough to challenge them. Chan Chan Tupac Inca returned to Cusco. Pachacuti appointed him his successor, and while Tupac Inca accompanied the army, Pachacuti remained at Cusco. He Pacific Ocean Inca empire After the orthern conquests of Pachacuti and Tupac Inca Yupanqui reformed the government of the Incas so that they could rule The Land of Four Quarters that they had conquered. He began rebuilding the city of Cusco to be a worthy capital. Impressive buildings were constructed, including the massive fortress of Sacsahuaman. He terraced the land around the capital to provide a good food supply. He reformed the panaqas (the royal families who preserved the memory - and the mummies - of all the Inca emperors). He ensured that they had sufficient land to support his mummified ancestors. He began the practice of moving whole tribes from one part of the empire to another. These mitimaes were then less likely to rebel, and also played a Peru Cusco part in spreading Inca ideas. He encouraged a state religion based on the worship of the creator god Virococha, while also allowing all the peoples he conquered to keep their own religions. Pachacuti and his son Tupac Inca worked together, the father organising the armies and changing the system of government, and the son doing much of the fighting. In 1471 Pachacuti took their partnership a stage further by abdicating, allowing Tupac Inca Yupanqui to become the new Sapa Inca.
8 Tupac Inca s reign got off to a bad start. He tried to add to Inca lands in the northeast. However, this was low-lying tropical rainforest or jungle, not the mountains the Inca armies were used to. The local tribes fought back. However, the Incas did take some new land, and trade routes were opened so that the Incas could have tropical products. The local tribes also agreed to supply archers for the Inca army. However, the hard fighting led to a rumour that Tupac Inca Yupanqui had been killed. The Colla and Lupaca tribes (who lived south of Cusco) led a rebellion. Tupac hurried south, and captured the Colla's mountaintop fortresses one by one. Then he attacked the Lupaca, who had regrouped and joined up with Ecuador Peru Chan Chan The campaigns of Tupac Inca Yupanqui as Inca emperor (Modern states and frontiers shown in grey) the Pacasa tribe as their ally. The now all-powerful Inca army defeated them. Tupac Inca continued hundreds of miles southward, conquering everybody in his path, as far as the Maule River (in central Chile). Here the tough Araucanian tribesmen, and the much colder climate, brought the Incas to a halt. A number of small civilized and independent lowland states remained on the Cusco River Maule - limit of Inca advance Columbia Chile Brazil Bolivia Colla Lupaca Argentina Araucanians Pacific coast, west of Cusco. Around 1476 Tupac Inca Yupanqui attacked them one by one, defeating them all after heavy fighting. Like his father Pachacuti, Tupac Inca spent the end of his reign changing how Tawantinsuyu was governed. He distributed the land he had conquered among his followers; he introduced a system of dividing people into labour units ranging from 100 to 10,000 men, to provide manpower for agricultural projects and the army; and he introduced the system where each province provided girls to train to become Acclacunas (Chosen Women). He died unexpectedly in about 1493.
9 Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire After Tupac Inca s death different branches, or panaqas, of the Inca royal family, plotted to get their prince made Sapa Inca. The final choice was a young son of Tupac Inca called Huayna Capac. He was too young to rule on his own, so there was a further quarrel about who should hold real power. Once he was old enough to rule in his own right, Huayna Capac proved a competent Sapa Inca. By the beginning of the 16 th century Tawantinsuyu was nearing its maximum size. In fact it was so big that the main problem facing Huayna Capac was how to hold it together. To do this he travelled around, so that people would know him in each part of the empire. Despite this, he still had to put down a number of rebellions. Huayna Quito Pasto Chachapoyas 0 200 miles Campaigns of Huayna Capac Cusco Capac continued to add new territories to the empire. He conquered Chachapoyas, a mountainous area in northeastern Peru. Afterwards, these conquered people provided him with excellent bodyguards. Huayna Capac continued to push northwards. He also had to face a threat from the east. When the powerful Chiriguano tribe raided Tawantinsuyu, he sent an army to deal with them. The Chiriguano were driven back, and fortresses were built along the frontier to prevent further raids. Huayna Capac himself focused on bringing the northern province of Quito (the modern country of Ecuador) under control. Meanwhile it was probably the Chiriguano who passed on the deadliest enemy the Incas were ever to face European diseases. Early Spanish explorers on the Atlantic coast of South America were carriers of diseases such as measles and smallpox which ative Americans had not been exposed to for thousands of years. They had no immunity, and died in large numbers. Chiriguano
10 Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire In 1525 disease struck the area of the Inca capital Cusco, killing thousands. Huayna Capac returned to deal with the panic - and himself died of the disease. His successor, a young son inan Cuyuchi, died very soon afterwards. Tawantinsuyu now faced a major crisis. Chinchaysuyu 0 200 miles Antisuyu Cuntisuyu Kollasuyu Tawantinsuyu - The land of Four quarters
11 5 - The Civil War After the death of Huayna Capac and his son inan Cuyuchi in 1525, another son, Huascar, was proclaimed Sapa Inca at Cusco. However, another panaqa - a different branch of the royal family had other ideas. Atahualpa had been with his father, with the main Inca army, in the north. Atahualpa s followers claimed that his halfbrother Huascar was not the official Sapa Inca. They pointed out the proper religious ceremonies had not been performed by the High Priest. Huascar, who ruled from Cusco from 1525 1532, treated Atahualpa and his followers with contempt. Huascar used his immense power to take = away some of the wealth of the panaqas for himself. This lost him many friends. Meanwhile the northern province of Quito became Atalhualpa s base, almost an independent kingdom. But Atahualpa wanted to be Sapa Inca. 2 - Atahualpa s armies defeated them one by one and captured Huascar outside Cusco Battle in the Civil War The Civil War Different Inca armies chose sides, and Huascar and Atalhualpa fought an increasingly bitter civil war to decide who would control Tawantisuyu. Huascar had the bigger armies. But Atahualpa had the more experienced generals and soldiers. Huascar failed to gain the respect of his nobles, including his own generals. One by one Huascar s armies were defeated by Atalhaulpa, before Huascar (Atahualpa s Base) QUITO 1 - Huascar sent large armies To attack Atahualpa CUSCO (Huascar s Base) finally led out an army himself. Huascar was defeated and captured in 1532. By now the hatred between the two sides ran very deep. Huascar was made to watch hundreds of members of his family being butchered in front of him on the orders of Atalhualpa s generals. His Quipucamarocs, who remembered and recited Inca History from the point of view of Huascar s family, were also killed.
12 6 - The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters Tawantinsuyu had been torn in two by the civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa. Then it was turned upside down by forces from outside. In 1532 the Spanish adventurers, Francisco Pizarro and 150 soldiers, were moving south from where they had landed at Tumbes. They were armed with firearms, protected by steel armour, and mounted on horses. They also had a clear aim - to seize the vast amounts of gold and silver in the Inca empire and make themselves a fortune. They had other aims too, to Tumbes Cajamarca The Spanish Invasion 1531-1533 take the land on behalf of the King of Spain, and convert the Indians to the Christian faith. These aims were genuine enough, but in practice not so important as getting the gold. Pizarro and his men had the advantage of coming from the Spanish Empire and had experience of conquering people in Europe and America. Pizarro had personal experience of this fighting. Atahualpa, following his own armies southwards, had reached the abandoned town of Cajamarca. He had experience of war, but only according to the rules and customs of the people of the Andes. He and his advisers seem not to have fully understood what Pizarro was aiming to do. They certainly underestimated him. Some of Atahualpa s Cusco advisers even thought Pizarro was sent by the god Viracocha and would bring a new age to Tawantinsuyu, so they prepared to worship the strangers. Others considered the Spaniards were enemies who should be killed - after getting from them the secret of ironmaking. Overall, Atahualpa and his advisers were curious about Pizarro and his men when they should have been cautious.
13 The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters Atahualpa himself seems to have thought that the strangers would make good allies in his quarrel with Huascar. This may be why Atalhualpa s army was not prepared for a battle when Atahualpa came to meet with Pizarro at the plaza in Cajamarca. After a brief attempt to convert Atahualpa to Christianity failed, the Spaniards suddenly attacked. They used their cannon and their other superior weapons. They massacred hundreds of apparently unarmed Inca warriors. Pizarro himself captured Atahualpa by pulling him out of his litter. The Conquistadors took Atahualpa hostage, and marched on to Cusco. They forced Atahualpa to use his power and authority to get them masses of gold and silver from all over the Inca empire. Atahualpa did this, but was fearful that the Conquistadors would hand over his empire to Huascar, who was still being held by Atahualpa s Lima (new Spanish Capital) soldiers. So Atahualpa, from his prison, gave orders that Huascar should be executed. By this time the Conquistadors realised they needed an emperor that they could control a puppet Sapa Inca. They gave Atahualpa a swift trial on a number of charges, and he was then strangled to death. They made Tupac Hualpa the new emperor (in 1533), thinking that he would be obeyed by both the supporters of Huascar and those of Atahualpa. In fact he was part of Huascar s branch of the Inca royal family, and so was hated by many Incas. He died shortly afterwards, Map of conquest 1536-37 Inca forces attack Spaniards Almagro leads Spanish expedition to south 1535 Almagro returns to Cusco and prevents Spanish defeat, 1537 Cusco Spanish invasion and Inca resistance perhaps by being poisoned. Manco Inca (1533-1545), a brother of Atahualpa, was appointed the next Sapa Inca by the Conquistadors. At first he submitted to them, because he thought they would help him finally end the civil war and bring Tawantinsuyu back under his control. In 1535, when he realised that they were not interested in reuniting the Inca empire, he escaped from the fortress of Sacsahuamán in Cusco. By now Manco Inca was planning to drive the strangers out of Tawantinsuyu.
14 The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters Once he realised the Spanish invaders were a deadly threat Manco Inca organised an army of over 40,000 men to destroy them. The Spaniards were now weaker, because part of their army had split off to explore the south. Manco Inca had the advantage of a large army, and knew that he was facing a ruthless enemy. After days of fighting in which the city of Cusco was destroyed, his siege failed. He retreated to a remote area, where with a few loyal followers he set up the tiny Inca kingdom of Vilcabamba. Tawantinsuyu had collapsed. It had depended on there being one strong Sapa Inca to give orders - and now there wasn t one. The only Incas with any power were the curacas (the local nobles who Lima had accepted Inca control.) But they soon came to realise that the Conquistadors were only The Spanish interested in looting Viceroyalty all the gold they of Peru could find. So the in 1570 curacas stopped helping the Spaniards and restricted themselves to following as few of their orders as possible. Eventually they had to submit to the heavy rule (and heavier taxes) of the Spaniards. The Conquistadors explored the entire length of Tawantinsuyu, looking for treasure. But they fought among themselves, and many were killed. They were replaced by other adventurers from Spain and from the ew World. It was not until the late 1560 s that the Spaniards set up an effective government for the Andes region. It was sited at Lima on the coast, where ships could keep the Viceroyalty of Peru in touch with Spain. Meanwhile all that was left of Inca rule was a tiny area. From this mountain kingdom of Vilcabamba, Manco Inca carried Vilcabamba Cusco on guerrilla warfare against the Spanish. His successors sometimes fought the Spanish and sometimes tried to come to an agreement with them. In 1572 a new Spanish governor captured the capital of Topa Amaru (1571 1572). He had Topa Amaru publicly executed in Cusco. The remains of the mummies of the Sapa Incas were destroyed.