The Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms

The Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms The history of Egypt is separated into three time periods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. The Old Kingdom was a time of growth and development for the young Egyptian civilization, the Middle Kingdom was a period of time when the arts flourished and trade expanded, and the New Kingdom was a time during which leadership changed often. During each of the kingdoms, Egypt grew, prospered, and developed into one of the most complex civilizations in ancient history. During the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt, religion could not be separated from government. The pharaohs that ruled Egyptian society were also considered gods. According to ancient stories, the first pharaoh, or highest ranking ruler, in the history of Egypt was Menses. Menses united Upper and Lower Egypt when he married a princess from Lower Egypt. Menes reign marked the beginning of the first dynasty, or series of rulers from the same family, in Egypt. The First Dynasty lasted approximately 200 years. During this time period in Egypt, the population grew, trade with neighboring civilizations increased, and social classes developed. The end of the Old Kingdom was marked by a series of civil wars between certain pharaohs and the noble class. These conflicts divided the country and left Egypt in chaos. The Middle Kingdom began when a new pharaoh successfully restored order within Egypt. Arts flourished and trade expanded, but this time of prosperity didn t last forever. A group of invaders called the Hyksos attacked and conquered the Egyptians. This brought an end to the successful Middle Kingdom. The New Kingdom began with the eviction of the Hyksos. There were several changes of power during the New Kingdom. King Amenhotep IV was a ruler during the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt. He revolutionized Egypt s religious system of beliefs by moving from polytheism, meaning believing in multiple gods, to monotheism, meaning believing in one god. This change threw the country into chaos once again. This lasted until King Tutankhamun took power and restored the country s religious system to polytheism. Ramses II was another strong ruler who helped Egypt prosper during the New Kingdom. He was the second longest ruling pharaoh in all of ancient Egypt and was beloved by all. Unfortunately, after his death, Egypt declined in power after the country was attacked by a series of neighboring groups. In 332 BC, Egypt fell to Macedonia and their renowned leader Alexander the Great. This effectively ended the rule of Egyptian pharaohs. Macedonian leaders ruled over Egypt for three centuries before the country was ruled by the Romans for six centuries. Eventually, Arabian rulers took final control of the oncepowerful Egyptian civilization. Word Count: 442 The Sweetest Thing 36

Geography of Egypt One of the most defining geographic features of Egypt is the Nile River. At 4,160 miles long, the Nile is the world s longest river. The area around the Nile River is covered in deserts called red land. Although this desert land did not provide many natural resources, it did provide the Egyptians with a natural barrier that protected them from enemy attacks. The narrow strips of fertile land between the Nile River and the red land was called the black land. The black land is where the ancient Egyptian civilization lived. The rich, black soil found in Egypt was often called the Gift of the Nile. Although the majority of the land in Egypt was covered in deserts, the area along the Nile River was extraordinarily fertile. It was perfect for growing crops. The Egyptians predominantly grew wheat, which they mixed with yeast and water to make bread. They also grew flax, which they wove into linen, a type of lightweight cloth, for clothing. Papyrus trees were grown and used to make paper and baskets. Once a year, the fertile soil that surrounded the Nile River was renewed for a new round of crops when the river flooded. The Egyptians were able to prepare for the flooding because it took place in September of each year. This is when the snow from distant lands melted and caused the water level in the river to rise. The Egyptians liked the flooding because it compensated for the lack of rain that the area experienced the rest of the year. The Nile River was beneficial in many ways other than just providing fertile soil. The river also provided a method of transportation for the Egyptians. This made it easy for them to develop trading relationships with neighboring countries. The Egyptians used the Nile like a highway for travel. The Nile River also provided natural resources that were useful for building, such as mud and sandstone. The Egyptians used these natural resources to build their everyday homes and their famous pyramids. Common Egyptian homes were made out of mud and straw and had roofs made from the leaves of palm trees. Royalty had much fancier homes. The Nile River also provided another food source for the Egyptians. The people were able to fish and hunt the animals that lived in and around the river. Without the Nile River, the Egyptian people would not have been able to survive in the desolate land. The Nile River was essential to the growth and development of ancient Egypt. It created fertile land in an otherwise barren desert. The Egyptians made the most of the fertile soil that the Nile gifted to them. They also developed new agricultural technologies that allowed them to expand their farmland. Word Count: 458 The Sweetest Thing 20

Politics, Social Class, and Religion of Egypt Ancient Egypt was one of the most complex, fascinating, and powerful civilizations in history. The Egyptians developed advanced religious systems, government structures, and divisions of social classes. The Egyptians prospered for over three thousand years. They left behind a wealth of customs and traditions to be explored. In fact, enough people have dedicated themselves to the exclusive study of Egypt that the term Egyptology, the study of all things Egyptian, was coined. Throughout most of Egypt s history, religion could not be separated from government. The pharaohs that ruled Egyptian society were considered gods. According to ancient stories, the first pharaoh, the title given to the highest ranking ruler, in the history of Egypt was Menses. Pharaohs continued to rule over Egypt until 332 BC when the first Macedonian ruler came into power. Pharaohs held the highest power in Egypt prior to the Macedonian takeover. However, they were supported in many ways by a group of leaders and officials. The vizier was the primary leader under the pharaoh. All of the other lower officials reported to the vizier, who held almost as much power as the pharaoh. Nomarks were more localized leaders that ruled over specific areas, much like mayors govern cities today. Military leaders and scribes were also important parts of the government. Unlike the government structures of most modern countries today, the people in ancient Egypt had no say in their government. Pharaohs were thought of as gods, so their authority was not questioned. The social classes in early Egyptian society were organized like a pyramid. There were four distinct levels of ranking. Pharaohs ruled as gods and ranked at the top of the social pyramid. Nobles, or rich people that came from powerful families, were directly below pharaohs in the pyramid. Military leaders, officials, and priests ranked equal to the nobles. On the next tier of society were scribes and craftsmen. These skilled workers were respected and valued in society because of the work they did. Farmers, servants, and slaves made up the majority of the population but ranked the lowest in terms of power and influence. Pharaohs were not the only gods that the Egyptians worshipped. The Egyptians believed that there were gods for almost everything, including the sun, moon, and stars. Egyptian religion was centered on the idea of the afterlife, the belief that when a person died his body became a spirit. They developed elaborate methods of preserving bodies by creating mummies, which was thought to help the dead transition into the afterlife. Word Count: 418 The Sweetest Thing 16

Written Religion Language: and Egyptian Cuneiform Life Worshipping The earliest the forms gods of was writing a part were of daily simple, life pictorial in Egypt. drawings But the that Egyptian were focus made on to religion represent extended actual objects. beyond For example, people s lives. a picture Many of customs barley represented focused on barley. what happened The pictographs after were people simple died. and easy to use, but they were also very limiting. People could really only use them to draw objects Like the or nouns. Sumerians, As civilizations the Egyptians became practiced more polytheism complex, and people believed developed the gods a were need very to powerful. communicate During with the a Old more Kingdom advanced period, form Egyptian of writing. officials The expected Sumerians everyone of Mesopotamia to worship are the credited same with gods, developing though how the they earliest worshipped form of script the gods writing, might called differ cuneiform. from place Script to place. is a group The of signs or letters that are used to make words. Egyptians built temples to the gods all over the kingdom. Temples collected payments from both worshippers and the government. These payments allowed the temples to grow more You might be interested to learn that the earliest forms of writing were not created to tell influential. stories. Instead, written language was developed to record business transactions. Scribes, or men who The had Egyptians mastered had reading gods and for nearly writing everything, cuneiform, including used cuneiform the sun, to the record sky, information and the earth. on clay Many tablets gods on a mixed daily human basis. They and recorded animal forms. information For example, about Anubis, daily events, the god astronomy, of the dead, and had other a important human body events but or a ideas. jackal s The head. Code of Other Hammurabi, major gods one included of the most important and earliest legal codes written, Re, or was Amon-Re, recorded the using sun cuneiform. god Osiris, the god of the underworld The Isis, name the cuneiform goddess of explains magic what the script looked like: wedge-shaped. Instead of using pens or pencils Horus, to a write sky god, on paper god of like the people pharaohs do today, scribes wrote on clay tablets with reeds. Reeds made Thoth, wedge-shaped the god of wisdom marks in the wet clay. Clay tablets were used like people use paper today. Unlike Geb, paper, the earth re-wetting god the clay allowed the tablet to be used again. Each mark in the clay represented a different sound or meaning. Every syllable had its own symbol, which made Egyptian families also worshipped household gods at shrines in their the first steps in preparing the mummy. reading and writing very difficult. Very few people knew how to read or write, which is why scribes homes. were so highly valued in Mesopotamian society. Most of the cuneiform tablets that have been discovered Egyptian were ideas either about government the afterlife documents shaped their or burial financial practices. ledgers, and very few contained The literature. Egyptians Despite believed this, one that of a the body earliest had to and be most prepared famous for stories the was written in cuneiform: the afterlife Epic of Gilgamesh. before it could be placed in a tomb. This meant the body had to be preserved. If the body decayed, its spirit could not recognize It is important it. That would to know break that, the like link the between alphabet the that body you and use spirit. today, cuneiform does not refer The to one ka would specific then language. be unable Rather, to receive it refers the to a food method and of drink writing. The meanings The body s and organs structures were preserved of in needed. cuneiform symbols and signs have changed over the years. Different groups used the script characters To keep to the mean ka from different suffering, things. the Archaeologists Egyptians developed have had a a difficult method time deciphering called embalming some of the to clay preserve tablets bodies that have and keep been them found from because there were so many different variations of cuneiform used in ancient times. decaying. The Egyptians preserved bodies as mummies, specially The alphabet system of phonemic writing was invented around 1800 BC. treated bodies wrapped in cloth. Embalming preserves a dead body The alphabet had far fewer signs than cuneiform because rather than for many, many years. A body that was not embalmed would having a symbol for each syllable as was the case in the cuneiform system, decay alphabet quickly letters in a could tomb. be combined to make syllables. Reading and writing Embalming became was much a complex quicker and process easier that to do took after several the alphabet weeks to system complete. was created, In the and first cuneiform step, embalmers was soon replaced. cut open the body and removed all the organs except for the heart. The removed organs were FAST FACT: stored The in special people jars of called ancient canopic Mesopotamia jars. Next, used embalmers clay envelopes to used keep a documents special substance private. to dry out the body and later applied some special oils. The embalmers then wrapped the dried-out body with linen cloths and bandages, often placing special charms inside the cloth wrappings. Wrapping the body was the last step in the mummy-making process. Once it was completely wrapped, a mummy was placed in a coffin. Only royalty and other members of Egypt s noble class could afford to have mummies made. Peasant families did not need the process, however. They buried their dead in shallow graves at the edge of the desert. The hot, dry sand of the desert preserved the bodies naturally. Only the god Anubis was allowed to perform special jars and kept next to the mummy. The body was preserved as a mummy and kept in a case called a sarcophagus. The Sweetest Thing 32

Hieroglyphics and the Written Language You might wish your teacher would let you draw pictures all day. If so, you would have fit in perfectly in ancient Egypt! The ancient Egyptians used picture words to write. Their system of writing was called hieroglyphics, a Greek word meaning sacred words". Unlike the 26- letter alphabet that you use to write today, hieroglyphics were very complex. There were over 1,000 symbols included in the language. Some symbols represented sounds (like our alphabet letters do) and others represented words. Unlike other ancient civilizations that wrote on clay or carved markings in animal bones, the Egyptians invented a special type of paper that is similar to the paper we use today. Papyrus was strong, durable paper that was made out of a river plant that is also named papyrus. Hieroglyphics weren t only written on papyrus, but they were also carved on stone walls and painted on decorative objects. Hieroglyphics were initially created as a system of record keeping, but they were later used to express religious beliefs and tell stories. Most Egyptians actually were not able to write or read because hieroglyphics were very complicated and intricate. Some people spent years learning and practicing how to use of the writing system. These people were called scribes, and they were highly thought of in ancient Egyptian society. Hieroglyphics were not the only form of writing used in Egypt. A type of cursive script called hieratic was also used by the Egyptians. This form of writing was much faster and easier to use, which made it a great alternative to hieroglyphics. Another form of cursive called demotic was used for government and business purposes. Coptic script was later developed as a combination of hieroglyphics and the Greek alphabet. Lastly, meroitic alphabet script was developed in the Kush or Nubia region as a combination of hieroglyphics and other cursive letters. Throughout ancient Egyptian history, Egyptians conquered the Kushites various times and pushed their culture on the Kushites. This is likely why a combination of the two civilization s languages developed. Hieroglyphics was one of the first written languages ever developed, dating back over 5,000 years ago. It was used until around the fifth century AD. For many years after that, historians knew very little about the language because they were unable to decipher, or make meaning of, it. In 1799 AD, French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte s army discovered the Rosetta stone. This stone was carved in three languages: Egyptian, demotic, and ancient Greek. The stone proved to be the code to cracking the languages. Deciphering the language also allowed historians to learn a great deal more about the Egyptians from the content of their writing. Word Count: 441 The Sweetest Thing 24

Trade in Egypt Similar to the land in ancient Mesopotamians, the land in Egypt boasted rich, fertile soil that produced an abundance of crops. However, Egypt lacked some important natural resources. It did not have forests that supplied timber, minerals, and other basic natural resources that were found in other places. The Egyptians were forced to develop trade relationships with neighboring nations in order to obtain the goods and resources they lacked. The Egyptians traded goods through a system of bartering. Bartering is a system of exchanging goods and services for other goods and services. They also used an easy form of payment called a Deben, a specific weight of copper or silver. The ancient Egyptians were conveniently located along the Nile River. This provided them with an accessible trade route to other neighboring people groups. Goods were carried by boat along the Nile. Once the boats reached their destination on land, goods could be hauled in carts, strapped to donkeys, or carried by hand on foot. Most trade transactions took place in open-air markets near the docks of the Nile River or near the entrances to cities. People who made a living trading goods were called merchants. Merchants were highly regarded within society. The Egyptians traded with other foreign civilizations, including Kush, Greece, and Syria. Precious stones, gold, and ivory were imported, or purchased and shipped in, from Kush. The Egyptians imported an abundance of luxury goods from neighboring nations. Luxury goods are goods that aren t essential to survival but make life more comfortable and enjoyable. Gold and precious stones were examples of some of the luxury goods that the Egyptians imported. Egypt s main exports, or goods that are shipped out of the country for purchase, were papyrus items, stones, gold, copper, and crops. The trade relationship that developed between Kush and Egypt led to a complicated series of events. Kush was rich in many of the natural resources that Egypt lacked. The powerful Egyptians gradually conquered Kush. They forced the Kushites to make payments to the Egyptian pharaohs. The Egyptians also imposed their culture on the Kushites. Kushites were forced to adopt Egyptian language, dress, and religious beliefs. Centuries later when the Egyptian kingdom fell, Kush became an independent nation again. Eventually, Kush conquered Egypt. Egypt s trade relationships had a major impact on the country s development. Trading gave the Egyptians access to goods that they otherwise would not have had. Their lifestyles became much more luxurious as a result of trade. Trade also resulted in the spread of the Egyptian culture around the world, specifically in Kush. The Egyptian kingdom grew and developed in power and complexity as a result of trade. Word Count: 441 The Sweetest Thing 28

Art and Architecture of Egypt Egypt was one of the first and most civilized people groups in the history of the world. The art and architecture of the ancient Egyptians was very expressive. It revealed many of their religious beliefs, details of daily life, and government structure. Religion was central to Egyptian art and architecture, which is fitting because it was also central to the lives of the Egyptians. Much of what historians know about this fascinating civilization came from studying their art and architecture. Architecture is the design and construction of buildings. Many physical structures were built in order to worship the gods and pharaohs. Temples, pyramids, and monuments were some of the most common structures that were built for the gods and pharaohs. The Egyptians worshipped their gods in temples that were usually built out of stone with stone pillars supporting heavy stone roofs. Large statues of gods were built inside the temples. The Great Sphinx of Giza is one of the most famous giant sculptures. It is over 200 feet long. The Great Pyramids in Egypt are one of the great wonders of the ancient world. Some of the most famous Egyptian structures are the pyramids that were built as burial places for Egyptian kings. People travel from all over the world to see the remains of these structures today. Although it may seem strange to you, some of the most intricate Egyptian artwork was created to be buried with the dead. The Egyptians were very religious people who strongly believed in the afterlife. They believed that bodies had to be preserved and valuables had to be buried in preparation for the afterlife. Royalty, especially pharaohs, received the most elaborate tombs. They were buried inside of massive pyramids with their vast amounts of wealth. This reflected the idea that the pharaohs were considered gods. Pyramids are important because many Egyptian artifacts were preserved in pyramids. Egyptians are famous for both their massive sculptures and structures and their ornate smaller sculptures. Egyptian artists used expensive materials, like ivory and solid gold, to create these smaller sculptures. They made many masks, jewelry and pottery. Egyptians also ornately designed and decorated their sarcophaguses, which were mummy cases or stone coffins that the dead were buried in. Precious metals and jewels covered these coffins. The earliest piece of Egyptian art that has been found depicts the victories of one ancient king. As this artwork demonstrates, art was originally created to worship kings and gods. Rituals and ceremonies for the gods were also commemorated through paintings. Paintings were often done on the sides of walls or other structures. Relief carvings were a specific type of art. Images were carved or painted into walls or structures. In all Egyptian artwork, people are shown by the profile of their faces, rather than head on. Egyptian artists depicted people as flat images in 2-D. The Egyptian people had a rich culture that was filled with artwork across the centuries. Because Egyptian art and architecture was so expressive of Egyptian life and values, the content of the art varied over the centuries. The form of art often depended on the ruler in power and the status of the country. Despite this, the style of Egyptian art and architecture looked similar for thousands of years. Most of the Egyptian art and architecture that has been found, studied, and preserved came from excavated tombs. Egyptian art and architecture is not only pleasing to look at, but is also essential to understanding how this fascinating civilization went about daily life and what they valued the most. Word Count: 592 The Sweetest Thing 32

King Tut Can you imagine a nine year old serving as the President of the United States? Believe it or not, one of ancient Egypt s most famous pharaohs was actually that young. The boy king, named King Tutankhamen or Tut for short, came into power when he was nine years old. Up until a century ago, the young king was relatively unknown by modern historians. However, his tomb was discovered in 1922, and the vast expanse of the wealth that was buried with him grabbed the world s attention. His story has fascinated people ever since, making him one of the most famous ancient Egyptians. FAST FACT: King Tut s name can be spelled several different ways: Tutankhamen, Tutankhamun, and Tutankhamon. Tut, the son of the powerful King Akhenaten, was born into the 18th Dynasty around 1341 BC. It was not uncommon for royal men in ancient Egypt to have multiple wives. This practice is called polygamy. It also was not unusual for both royalty and common people to marry their own family members. Tut s father was no exception to either of these cultural norms. Because of this, historians are still not certain if Tut s mother was King Akhenaten s main wife (and cousin) Nefertiti or one of his lower wives (and sister) called The Younger Lady. King Akhenaten tried to change religion in Egypt during his rule. This was no small task as his efforts went against 1,000 years of Egyptian religious practices. He wanted the Egyptians to focus their worship on the sun disk god Aten. In fact, he felt so strongly about this that he named his son Tutankhamen after this god. Tut s name means living image of Aten. After reigning over Egypt for seventeen years, King Akhenaten died. Tutankhamen was just seven years old at the time. Two years later, Tut married his sister Ankhesenpaaten. He assumed the role of Pharaoh at the ripe age of nine years old. Tut inherited a kingdom that was left in chaos due to the reforms his father tried to make. Although Tut was technically the king, it is likely that the highly ranked elders in Egypt advised and controlled his decisions because he was too young to call the shots. Historians believe two men, a general named Horemheb and a vizier named Ay, were Tut s closest advisors. Under their advisement, Tut undid much of the work his father had done. For example, Tut restored the original capital city of Egypt, which his father had tried to move. He also changed his name from Tutankhamen to Tutankhaten, the latter meaning the living image of Amun." After just ten years of ruling, King Tut died unexpectedly. For years, historians thought the young king had been the picture of health. This led them to believe his early death was either an assassination or an accident. However, recent research has uncovered deformities in Tut s left foot and face. There are also signs that he was infected with malaria. Either the infection or the deformity in his foot could have been the cause of his death. Although Tut and his wife had two children, neither child survived for very long. Tut s sudden death left no heir to the throne. This effectively ending his family s dynasty. His two trusted advisors later took his place on the throne. Tut s tomb was still being built when he died due to the fact that his passing was so unexpected. Historians believe Tut was buried in a lesser tomb within the Valley of Kings because it was all that was ready when he died. This is also why his tomb was entirely hidden and completely untouched until 1922 AD. King Tut was so interesting because his intact tomb clearly showed the wealth and splendor of Egyptian royalty. In the grand scheme of Egyptian history, King Tut was a relatively insignificant leader that only ruled for a short time. However, the mysteries surrounding his short reign and life have kept people interested in him many centuries after his death. Many scientists and historians have dedicated themselves to learning more about the mysterious boy king, his puzzling death, and the splendor of his burial. Word Count: 688 The Sweetest Thing 44

Queen Hatshepsut Even though the United States has not yet had a woman serve as president, one of the most successful pharaohs in ancient Egypt was a woman. Queen Hatshepsut ruled Egypt for over twenty years. She shared her royal reign first with her husband and later with her son. Egypt prospered peacefully under the shared leadership of both of these unique relationships. Hatshepsut was born the daughter of King Thutmose I and his queen Ahmes. Her father was a legendary ruler with fierce military ambitions. Ahmes never had a son, so the king was forced to have children with his lesser wives to ensure his blood would inherit the throne. Thutmose II was the oldest son of King Thutmose I and one of his lesser wives. Upon her father s death, twelve-year-old Hatshepsut married her half-brother Thutmose II and inherited the throne in 1492 BC. Together, Queen Hatshepsut and King Thutmose II ruled until Thutmose II died in 1479 BC. After Thutmose II s death, his infant son inherited the throne. Thutmose III had been born to a lesser wife because, like her mother, Hatshepsut had not been able to give birth to a son. Although her stepson inherited the kingship, it was custom for Hatshepsut to act on Thutmose III s behalf until he was old enough to assume leadership. However, when Thutmose III was still very young, Hatshepsut took Thutmose III out of the running for inheriting the throne. She declared herself pharaoh. She became the sixth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty. Historians debate the reason why Hatshepsut took the throne from Thutmose III. For many years, they speculated that she was cunning, overly ambitious, and power hungry. More recent research suggests something different. It is possible that she took the throne as a protective response to outside attacks. Regardless of why she ended up where she did, Queen Hatshepsut s reign as the third female pharaoh of Egypt was not as easy one. Her rule was controversial, and she spent much of her time overcompensating to justify her position. She even ordered that she be shown as a male pharaoh with a beard in some paintings and statues. FAST FACT: Architecture was one of Queen Hatshepsut s great ambitions. Some of the structures she ordered to be built are considered architectural wonders and are still marveled at today. After Hatshepsut died around 1458 BC, Thutmose III finally took over the throne. By that time, Thutmose III was in his early twenties. As Thutmose III began his reign, Hatshepsut was buried in a tomb in the Valley of Kings. She had ordered for her father s body to be relocated into her tomb. Thutmose III reigned for the next thirty years, demonstrating great strength and power as a leader just as his stepmother had. He also made it his mission to destroy as much evidence of Hatshepsut s reign as he could. No one knows for sure why he wanted to erase her from history. He may have done it out of anger because she took his position. Because of Thutmose III s destruction and damage done later by tomb raiders, much of Hatshepsut s reign as a powerful woman leader of Egypt is a mystery.

Ramses the Great Ramses the Great didn t earn the nickname the great for no reason. He earned this title during his lengthy, successful reign as the pharaoh of Egypt. He was the second longest ruling pharaoh in Egyptian history. Ramses was the third king of the 19th dynasty, ruling from 1279 BC to 1213 BC. He ruled during the height of the Egyptian Empire, a time period that is now known as the New Kingdom or the Golden Age. He was a strong and wise military leader, a political and religious figure, and a great builder. Future Egyptian leaders were measured against the greatness of Ramses. Unlike many pharaohs who came from a long line of royalty, Ramses was the son of a strong and fierce military leader. Ramses father Seti I fought hard to restore Egypt after its decline under the reign of Akhenaton and Tutankhamen. By the time Ramses was born in 1303 BC, Seti I was the pharaoh of Egypt and his mother Tuya was the queen. Ramses older brother was in line for the throne, but his brother died when Ramses was fifteen. When he became Prince of Egypt, Ramses married two wives and joined his father in military missions. FAST FACT: Ramses is also spelled Ramesses or Ramssess. Named after his grandfather Ramses I, the Egyptian pharaoh is typically referred to as either Ramses the Great or Ramses II. Ramses inherited the throne upon the death of his father in 1279 BC when he was just twenty-five years old. Ramses military prowess was one of his greatest strengths as pharaoh. He led the Egyptian Army against several enemy groups and expanded the Egyptian Empire during his reign. The most famous battle Ramses fought in was called the Battle of Kadesh. In this battle, Ramses led 20,000 Egyptians against 30,000 to 50,000 Hittites. Although the outcome of this famous battle is unknown, it is certain that Ramses returned home a war hero because his orders to retreat led his men to safety. In addition to being a war hero, Ramses was known for the many great structures that he ordered to be built. FAST FACT: Ramses is also known for initiating the first peace treaty to end a war. After twenty years of fighting the Hittites, he realized the war would never end, so he developed the treaty with the Hittite leader. Ramses fathered over 100 children during his lifetime. Unfortunately, Ramses had to train thirteen different sons to take his place because he lived so long that twelve of these sons died before he did. Ramses reigned for many years until he died when he was ninety years old. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings. Ramses son Merenptah inherited the throne after his death. Egypt was devastated by his death because Ramses had been such a strong, long-lasting, and beloved ruler. Word Count: 476 The Sweetest Thing 52

Cleopatra Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt is one of the most famous female rulers of all time. The stories surrounding her reign have captivated people for centuries after her death. Her story even inspired William Shakespeare to write a play about her dramatic life. Although the drama of her life often overshadows her leadership, Cleopatra was a loyal and patriotic leader who was dedicated to fortifying and prospering her country. Cleopatra is best remembered for her beauty, power, intelligence, and tragic life story. Cleopatra was born into the Macedonian dynasty around 69 BC. King Ptolemy II died in 51 BC, leaving his eighteen year old daughter and her ten year old brother behind to inherit the throne. The two young heirs inherited a struggling dynasty that was under the protection of Rome at the time. As many siblings do, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII had a complicated relationship that was marked by conflict. Ptolemy XIII eventually ran Cleopatra out of Egypt. She found refuge in Syria, where she patiently assembled an army to avenge her brother and stake her claim on the throne. FAST FACT: Cleopatra wasn t actually Egyptian. Her family dynasty was a long line of Greek rulers in Egypt. At the same time that Cleopatra and her military returned to Egypt, Roman leader and warrior Julius Caesar also ascended upon Egypt looking to fight. By chance, Cleopatra and Caesar met, and the two quickly fell in love. Cleopatra s army, with the help of Caesar s Roman army, was able to overtake Ptolemy XIII to take control of Egypt. Caesar restored Cleopatra to the throne in Egypt and used his influence to protect Egypt from Roman takeover. Shortly afterward, Cleopatra gave birth to Caesarion, Caesar s son. The family of three returned to Rome. Certain Roman leaders became concerned about the amount of power Caesar was accumulating, so they ordered his assassination in 44 BC. FAST FACT: Legend tells that Cleopatra rolled herself in a carpet in order to sneak into Caesar s room when he was in Rome. According to the stories, it was this bold, brave move that won Caesar s heart. FAST FACT: Cleopatra later ordered to have her brother Ptolemy poisoned and her sister Arsinoe killed after Caesar s assassination. She didn t want anything threatening her son Caesarion s inheritance to the throne. In order to protect her rule and her country after Caesar s death, Cleopatra developed relationships with other powerful Roman leaders. Roman general and politician Mark Antony, Caesar s successor in Rome, met and immediately fell in love with the Egyptian queen. Cleopatra and Antony were matched in their ambitions for power. The power couple had three children together and strove to build a Roman- Egyptian empire. Antony appointed Cleopatra and her children as leaders of various Roman territories. This infuriated several Roman government leaders, including Octavian. Octavian was supposed to be the legal heir to Caesar s throne. Octavian and other Roman leaders sought revenge by attacking Egypt with military force. Antony s army was defeated. Legend tells that Cleopatra spread a rumor of her own death after Antony s army was defeated. Antony was devastated when the news reached him. He took his own life by falling onto his own sword. In a shocking turn of events, Antony s advisors rushed him to the still-living Cleopatra so the two could spend their last moments together. Shortly after Antony s death, Cleopatra committed suicide to avoid capture by Octavian by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her. Her death in 30 BC marked the end of the entire Egyptian Empire. Egypt became part of the Roman Empire under the leadership of Octavian. FAST FACT: Octavian s victories over Antony and Cleopatra resulted in him becoming the first Roman emperor. He later changed his name to Augustus. Word Count: 621 The Sweetest Thing 56

(reigned 1525-1504 BCE) Amenhotep I (reigned 1279-1212 BCE) He was the third Egyptian pharaoh of the 19th dynasty and is often egarded as the greatest and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian empire. He built many temples and defeated the Hittites at the battle of Kadesh in 1274 Ramses II BCE to secure Egyptian land. Ramses was married to a beautiful woman named Nefertari, and carvings of this beautiful queen can be seen on Ramsses temple at Abu Simbel. He lived a long life, and died at an age of 92. His successors often referred him as "Ramses the Great" due to the great wealth he brought the empire. MENES The length of Menes's rule in Egypt is highly debated because so little is known of him. Most agree, though, that the year 3000 BCE marks at least some point of his rule. Historians treat Menes rule as the dawn of Egyptian civilization and they even refer to him as the first pharaoh, since it is believed he and Pharaoh Narmer are the same person. He is remembered as the conqueror who first united the Upper and Lower Kingdom s of Egypt and established the famous capital of Memphis, the seat of Egypt's unparalleled cultural achievements during the time of the Pharaohs. (reigned circa 3000 BCE) Khufu (reigned 1475-1425 BCE) Specializing in American and World History for late Elementary, Middle, and early High School History with Mr. E - A Social Studies Professional h of the 18t h Thu tmo se III bec ame the sixt h pha rao his you ng age, dyn ast y whe n his fat her died. Due to her, Hat she psu t, he rule d Egy pt alon g wit h his step mot reig n; whe n for the first t wen ty- t wo yea rs of his e con trol as pha rao h. He is bes t she died, Thu tmo se III gained com plet bec ause of his braver y in bat tle rememb ered as the war rior pha rao h ing Egy pt. The Egy pt emp ire was and his unw illin gne ss to stop exp and se s reig n! the larg est it eve r was under Thu tmo Thutmose III dynasty, and like his successor Khafra, is best remembered for building the Great Step Pyramid, as known as the Great Pyramid of Giza. This has drawn such amazement that it has been labeled as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Kufu s ability to build this structure stands as his proof to command and lead people. e Sphinx was es in mind. 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In her jointfra was the phar ha rul K e wit of h he y r son an, she named herself phara Amenhotep s reign, but nasty. Like m oh and went on to be one of Egypt s most suc in the fourth dy we do know that he cessful. She reigned lon is he, hs ger than any other ao wo ar me n ph of y the rl Egypt continued to maintain Egypt s ea nstr uction how she led tradin ian dynasty and the walls of her temple show co t ea gr s hi r fo g expeditions throughout tight control over Egypt s remembered the world. She is often remembered for he r unusual clothing - she territory. He even : ts en em ev dressed like a achi male so others would tak e a female pharaoh more s extended Egypt s reach into Nubia (modern-day Sudan). As he aged, seriously. hafra was famou K Amenhotep founded a village for the workers who labored in the royal e th g in for build cemeteries called Dayr al-madinah. When he died, the village turned forever at (reigned 2589-2566 BCE) Second Pyramid worshipped him. Upon his death,he shocked the people of Egypt when he ards it. at Sphinx that gu re G e th d an had his tomb constructed away from the temple. a Giz Khufu was the second pharaoh of the fourth built with pharaoh in the history of Egypt. Tut became pharaoh at the very young age of only nine years old. In fact, his young age is the only thing that makes him memorable since he accomplished very little during his lifetime. King Tut died at the age of 18 and his death is shrouded with mystery: some say he was murdered while others believe he had a crippling bone disease. His tomb was discovered in 1922 CE by English archeologist Howard Carter and the world became instantly amazed by the fabulous treasures held within. 2304 diamonds Known red as King Tut, he rule was the youngest (reigned 1334-1325 BCE) Tutankhamun The many Pharaohs of Egypt