Silver Galapagos ITINERARY GUIDE

Silver Galapagos ITINERARY GUIDE

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABOUT SILVERSEA.... 3 SILVER GALAPAGOS.... 4 Onboard experience... 4 OUR ITINERARIES 7-day Western Itinerary.... 5 7-day North Central Itinerary.... 7 4-day North Central Itinerary.... 7 3-day North Central Itinerary.... 8 THE GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK.... 10 GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK RULES.... 11 ABOUT THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS.... 12 The Geology of the Galápagos Islands.... 13 Oceanographic Setting.... 13 Arrival and Establishment of Species.... 14 Fauna and Flora of the Galápagos Islands.... 16 The Birds of Galápagos The Reptiles of the Galápagos The Mammals of the Galápagos The Flora of the Galápagos Islands Human History Facts Conservation Efforts.... 20

ABOUT SILVERSEA On seven remarkable ships, travelling to all seven continents, Silversea is a premier luxury cruise line offering a style of service and extraordinary level of personal attention that exist nowhere else on land or sea. Silversea s award-winning pursuit of elegance is an intimate endeavor with small ships catering personally to no more than 100 540 distinguished travellers (100 guests on Silver Galapagos). With a staff-to-guest ratio of nearly one to one, Silversea takes care of every detail from the moment you step onboard. On Silversea, discover worldwide experiences and the highest standards of all-inclusive cruise excellence. 3

SILVER GALAPAGOS LUXURY ARRIVES IN THE GALÁPAGOS The newest addition to Silversea s fleet of ultra-luxury ships, the 100-guest Silver Galapagos offers the intimate conviviality and elegant sophistication that have made Silversea the preferred choice for discerning travellers. Accommodations are all ocean-view suites, some feature private balconies and all offer the personalised services of a professional butler. After your long flight, why not relax and let him or her unpack for you as you sail away on your unforgettable adventure. Enjoy a cocktail at the Grill Bar or Piano Bar where the ambience is as warm and inviting as a private club. Here open bars spur congenial conversation and you are invariably in good company among like-minded travellers from around the globe. Intimate, 100-guest expedition ship. Onboard gratuities included. Onboard expedition team certified by the Galápagos National Park Service. Complimentary shore excursions led by the expedition team. Fleet of zodiacs for adventures ashore. All ocean-view suites. In-suite bar setup and refrigerator stocked to your preference. Butler service for all suites. Fine dining. Complimentary wines and spirits served throughout the ship. Casual/informal attire no formal nights. 4

OUR ITINERARIES FOR 2013 7-DAY WESTERN ITINERARY SATURDAY TO SATURDAY Saturday am Arrival to Baltra Island, where the airport is located Saturday pm Sullivan Bay, Santiago Island Sunday am Bartolomé Island Sunday pm Espumilla Beach, Santiago Island Monday am Punta Vicente Roca, Isabela Island Monday pm Punta Espinoza, Fernandina Island Tuesday am Tagus Cove, Isabela Island Tuesday pm Elizabeth Bay, Isabela Island Wednesday am Post Office Bay, Floreana Island Wednesday pm Punta Cormorant, Floreana Island Thursday am Galapaguera Cerro Colorado, San Cristobal Island Thursday pm Wizard Hill, San Cristobal Island Friday am Los Gemelos, Santa Cruz Island Friday pm Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz Island Saturday am Transfer to airport We begin at arriving at Baltra Island; one of the driest islands in the archipelago. Galápagos is volcanic in its origin; therefore, the best way to start an expedition in these unique islands is with an introduction to geology. The lava flow from Sullivan Bay dates back from 1897, the last reported eruption on Santiago Island. Fresh pahoehoe lava makes us wonder about the beginning of life and its colonisation processes. Next morning, the most spectacular landscape will open in front of our eyes: Bartolomé, Pinnacle Rock, and a peripheral view of most of the central islands. Afterwards, time to stroll on a small beach, or join colourful fish while snorkelling. Bartolomé hosts a small colony of the endemic Galápagos Penguin, so there are very good opportunities to see it perched on rocks or zooming underwater. Espumilla Beach is a beautiful beach, an important nesting site for the East Pacific Green Sea Turtle. A walk inland, through the arid zone vegetation, will show us the largest Palo Santo trees that grow in the Galápagos, the perfect habitat for several species of Darwin s Finches. Isabela is the largest island in the Galápagos. It has five (originally six) majestic shield volcanoes, with an average age of 500,000 years. Punta Vicente Roca is located at Ecuador Volcano (north-west Isabela). Its many eruptions had eroded it so much that nowadays we can even see the different levels at which its caldera floor collapsed. Perhaps one of the best snorkel trips (and the coldest!) with dozens of sea turtles surrounding us. The morning offers us a Zodiac tour during which we will see several of the most charismatic seabirds of the Galápagos. 5

Punta Espinoza is located at the north-eastern corner of Fernandina. A superb setting for quite an array of wildlife: hundreds of marine iguanas, playful sea lions, colourful Sally Lightfoot Crabs, and one of our rare endemics: the Flightless Cormorant. A very short cruise across the Bolivar Strait will bring us to Tagus Cove, Isabela. For those of you who like long walks, this is your place! A nice hike among Palo Santos and Yellow Cordias, passing nearby Darwin s Crater Lake a saltwater lake, perhaps with Yellow Warblers and Galápagos Mockingbirds escorting our way. A Zodiac tour along its cliffs will give you the chance to find penguins, cormorants, and the shy Brown Noddy Tern. Snorkelling is a possibility as well. The tallest red mangrove trees in Galápagos are found in Elizabeth Bay, an idyllic mangrove lagoon. A Zodiac tour will take you through the mangroves where we are going to watch for sea turtles. Herons, penguins, and sea lions are often found here as well. Floreana Island has always lured people to visit. Pirates, whalers, and finally settlers tried to make this place their home. Whalers came here throughout the 1700s and 1800s. They were eager to fetch tortoises for their long voyage to the Northern Pacific or bound back home. So, a rustic mailing system was established here: a barrel nailed to a pole, where sailors would drop their letters hoping that fellow crew members would deliver them upon arriving home. The site is still in use by people like you, the visitors to the Galápagos Islands. Post Office Bay will share with you a little bit of history and a lovely beach where you can stroll or snorkel. Galápagos is an unbelievable place! How can you put together an olivine beach, deciduous vegetation and pink flamingos all in one place: Punta Cormorant, on Floreana Island. Learn about the formation of beaches, landing at the mineral olivine beach and walking to the organic Flour Beach, a favourite nesting site for Green Sea Turtles. Champion Islet rates as the best snorkelling site in Galápagos. The most emblematic animal in the Galápagos is the Galápagos Giant Tortoise. Over-hunting and competition with introduced animals, led tortoises numbers to reach close to extinction. Nonetheless, since the late 1960s, the tenacious work of the Galápagos National Park Service park rangers and the scientists of the Charles Darwin Research Station are bringing those numbers back up. Breeding and rearing in captivity are part of a much broader programme that aims to the restoration of Giant Tortoises. The Galapaguera Cerro Colorado, at San Cristobal Island, will teach you about the current work that s being done, plus you will see these ancient reptiles and their babies. Despite the fact that the Galápagos Islands are still very young, they have beautiful beaches. One of these is Wizard Hill, at San Cristobal. Enjoy a soft sandy beach, turquoise blue waters, salt bushes, mangroves, Brown Pelicans and more What else can we ask for? Santa Cruz Island is the second largest island in the Galápagos and the one that harbours the largest human settlement with so much to offer. Our morning will start with a visit to Los Gemelos, two pit craters (similar to sink holes) that will bring us back to geology (remember we started with geology, right?), but botany will overtake. Very tall Scalesia trees, the only 6

woody composite in the world, dominate the landscape. With their canopy resembling broccoli, Scalesia or the Giant Sunflower, was, at one point in time, the main vegetation in the highlands of any high island in the Galápagos group. Good chance to spot Darwin s Finches. We ve already learned a lot about the conservation programmes to restore Giant Tortoise populations at La Galapaguera Cerro Colorado, but the Charles Darwin Research Station still has a new surprise for you. Tortoises in the Galápagos exist in two different morphotypes: dome-shaped and saddle-backed. The saddle-back is very rare. Being smaller than the dome-shaped, they were hunted the most and several species went extinct. Just a handful of survivors remained. Well, at the Charles Darwin Research Station, we will have the chance to see these reptiles, after which the Islands were named: did you know that galapago is the old Castillian word for a saddle? Unfortunately our trip has come to an end, and Silver Galapagos will take you back to Baltra Island for a safe return to mainland Ecuador. But remember, there are still more islands to visit, so, come back! 7-DAY NORTH CENTRAL ITINERARY SATURDAY TO SATURDAY (WITH 3 4 DAY OPTIONS) For full 7-day schedule combine 4-day plus 3-day options. 4-DAY OPTION SATURDAY TO WEDNESDAY Saturday am Arrival to Baltra Island, where the airport is located Saturday pm Cerro Dragón, Santa Cruz Island Sunday am Darwin Bay, Genovesa Island Sunday pm Prince Philip Steps, Genovesa Island Monday am Seymour Norte Island Monday pm Highlands of Santa Cruz Island Tuesday am Punta Pitt, San Cristobal Island Tuesday pm El Junco, San Cristobal Island Wednesday am Interpretation Center, San Cristobal Island, and transfer to airport Arrival to the airport on Baltra Island, one of the driest islands in the archipelago. Lots of color! Shining black lava, white organic sand, blue water, green vegetation mats, giant cacti, and a salt water lagoon with occasional pink flamingos. These are among the things that Cerro Dragón has to offer you. Located on the northwestern corner of Santa Cruz, Cerro Dragón is a place where conservation efforts led to the restoration of the Galápagos Land Iguana, a yellow reptile that has made this site its home. Genovesa is the birds island, and in both visitor sites, Darwin Bay and Prince Philip Steps, you will see lots of them. Take a walk on the sandy beach of Darwin Bay amidst the largest nesting colony of Red-footed Boobies, Swallow-tailed Gulls and Yellow-crowned Night Herons. Climb the cliff of Prince Philip Steps and you will be thrilled by a large nesting colony of Great Frigatebirds and Nazca Boobies. Keep your eyes open! Short-eared Owls may be in the lookout for storm petrels. There is a great snorkelling site here as well. 7

Seymour Norte is a small up-lifted island close to Baltra, in the central part of the Galápagos. Two species of frigatebirds nest here. The Magnificent Frigatebird is an opportunistic breeder, giving us the chance to see males displaying their bright red gular pouch in order to attract females at any month of the year. Galápagos Sea Lions snooze in the sand, while Blue-footed Boobies perform their courtship dance or sky-pointing. Marine Iguanas and Galápagos Land Iguanas patrol the beach, while Brown Pelicans and Brown Noddy Terns look for food in the shallow coastal waters. Galápagos means tortoise, and the highlands of Santa Cruz holds the second largest population of these fascinating reptiles. Close to 3,000 Giant Tortoises forage in the wet humid highlands of Santa Cruz. A bus ride will take you across the vegetation zones, leaving the mangroves of the littoral zone on the northern coast through the vast arid zone, into the humid zone and its Scalesia forest. San Cristobal is one of the oldest islands in Galápagos and the well-eroded landscape of Punta Pitt tells us about that. A wet landing on an olivine beach where sea lions doze will start our excursion, where we have to climb up a ravine to get to see one of the most amazing scenic views of the archipelago. San Cristobal or Chatham Lava Lizards will guide our way, while Red-footed Boobies and Nazca Boobies hover flying over our heads. El Junco is the only fresh water lagoon found in the Galápagos Islands. Located on the highlands of San Cristobal, we will take a bus ride leaving from Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, the capital of the Galápagos province up to the highlands. The hill where El Junco is found constitutes the best habitat for an endemic plant, once endangered: Miconina robinsoniana. Frigatebirds are a common sighting because they love to take baths in the fresh waters of this lagoon. Our trip is coming to an end, and the last morning we ll visit the Interpretation Center, in the outskirts of Baquerizo Moreno. Surrounded by native vegetation, where the yellow flowers of the Galápagos Cotton is a constant feature, you ll learn about the history of the Galápagos Islands both natural and human and about the current projects carried out that involve an active participation of the local communities. Afterwards, you ll have some time to stroll along the main street of Baquerizo Moreno, its Malecón, dotted with small souvenir shops and sea lions taking their mid-morning siesta. When the day is done, a shuttle bus will take you to the airport. 3-DAY OPTION WEDNESDAY TO SATURDAY Wednesday am Arrival to airport Wednesday pm Cerro Tijeretas, San Cristobal Island Thursday am Gardner Bay, Española Island Thursday pm Punta Suárez, Española Island Friday am Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz Island Friday pm South Plaza Saturday am Transfer to airport Pick up at the airport on Baquerizo Moreno and then a transfer to the ship. 8

Visit to Cerro Tijeretas, a hill that bears that name because of its nesting frigatebirds. Tijeretas is the Spanish name for this very interesting seabird. Cerro Tijeretas is a good example of the arid zone vegetation: Palo Santos, Palo Verdes, and Acacias flourish here, being a perfect habitat for a many land birds, such as the San Cristobal or Chatham Mockingbird, Darwin s Finches, Galápagos Flycatchers, and Yellow Warblers. San Cristobal was the first island visited by Darwin, so a monument has been placed here to honour this event. Rated as one of the most beautiful beaches on Earth, Gardner Bay, on Española Island is a wonderful place to visit. A long white sandy beach that hosts a large colony of Galápagos Sea Lions, Gardner Bay is an excellent place to relax, do some bird-watching (Hood or Española Mockingbirds, and three species of Darwin s Finches), and go swimming or snorkelling. In the afternoon, we ll visit Punta Suárez, at the western point of Española, the oldest island in the Galápagos. Sheer cliffs provide superb thermals for seabirds. Swallow-tailed Gulls, Nazca Boobies, Blue-footed Boobies can easily be seen, as well as the largest seabird to nest in the Islands, the Waved or Galápagos Albatross, which has made Española its home during breeding season. Mockingbirds, doves, and occasional Galápagos Hawks can also be found, as well as sea lions and colourful Marine Iguanas. During the night, we ll cruise to the central part of the archipelago and arrive to Santa Cruz Island, which has the largest human population. Puerto Ayora is a young, small town, and this is where the headquarters of the Galápagos National Park Service and the Charles Darwin Research Station are located. The Station is the operative branch of the Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands, an organisation established in 1959 to provide advice to the Ecuadorian government in terms of the conservation of the islands. Its flagship programme is the restoration of the Galápagos Giant Tortoise. At the breeding and rearing centre, we ll get to see tortoises from both morphotypes: dome-shaped and saddle-backed, and baby Giant Tortoises that range from just a few months old up to 5 years waiting to be returned to their home island. There s also an exhibit display of Galápagos Land Iguanas, a species whose numbers were once diminished due to introduced animals such as dogs and cats, but that have had a comeback thanks to the efforts of the National Park and Research Station personnel. Towards the end of the morning, you ll have time to do some sightseeing and shopping in Puerto Ayora. South Plaza is a neat little island located close to the eastern coast of Santa Cruz. Its main attraction is its colony of Galápagos Land Iguanas, but the setting is just amazing. Giant Prickly Pear cacti and the reddish Sessuvium, a plant that covers the ground as a mat, plus a large nesting colony of Swallow-tailed Gulls, makes this small island an excellent stop. Marine Iguanas and Galápagos Sea Lions are also around. On Saturday morning, we escort you to the airport on Baltra Island. 9

THE GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK A shared outlook for the future of the Islands. The Galápagos Islands have a territorial model that guarantees the preservation of ecological integrity and biodiversity of marine and island ecosystems, promoting rational use of environmental goods and services that support an equitable, caring, and sustainable economic and cultural development. This falls altogether under the responsibility of the Galápagos National Park Service. The Galápagos National Park Service oversees the National Park per se (terrestrial ecosystem) and the Marine Reserve (marine ecosystem), and provides technical advice for the development of the inhabited areas. 10

GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK RULES 1. Visitors to any protected area in the National Park have to be escorted by a licensed Galápagos National Park guide. 2. If you want your trip to the Galápagos to be an enjoyable one, please use the services of authorised tour operators and/or tour boats. 3. To help with conservation and for your safety at the visitor sites, please stay within the marked trails. 4. Please keep your distance from the wildlife. A distance of 2 m (6 ft) is required. Do not touch the animals nor allow them to touch you. 5. Do not feed the wildlife, they can fend for themselves and you can alter the balance of nature. 6. Do not have cameras on flash when taking photos of the wildlife. It can alter their natural way of life. Professional photographers and filmmakers must obtain a National Park authorisation. 7. There are authorised camping sites on the Galápagos and are available for use if a permit is requested 48 hours in advance. Please stop by the Galápagos National Park office in the island you are visiting for more details. 8. Please, fully cooperate with the environmental inspection and quarantine services during your visit. Introduced plants, animals, and certain types of food, which are not native to the Islands, are a very serious threat to the Galápagos ecosystems. 9. Souvenirs made from black coral, shells, volcanic rocks, animal parts, and native woods are illegal to buy and remove from the Islands. Also, eating certain species out of season is illegal. We encourage you to report these activities to the authorities. 10. All types of graffiti on trees, rocks and walls are illegal. Please do not be tempted to deface the beauty of the scenery. 11. Rubbish, garbage, trash of all kinds should be kept on your person and deposited in the correct recycling container on your return to the populated areas. Please show your conservation attitude and do your part to keep Galápagos litter-free. 12. Smoking and/or camp fires are forbidden within the National Park. They are a danger to the flora and fauna. 13. It is forbidden to do any kind of fishing activity from tour boats. Please report this activity to the National Park Service or the Ecuadorian Navy. 14. Motorised aquatic sports, mini-subs, and aerial tourism are not permitted in the National Park. 11

ABOUT THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS THE GALÁPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO Silversea Expeditions new ship, the refined Silver Galapagos, offers two distinct seven-day itineraries in the Galápagos islands. With sleek lines and a proven skill for navigating the waterways throughout the Galápagos Archipelago, Silver Galapagos is naturally suited for in-depth explorations of this spectacular region. Due to their remote location, the Galápagos Islands will always inspire the curious who seek to encounter unique wildlife and a rich history. The Islands were accidentally discovered in 1535 by an off-track expedition led by Tomás de Berlanga, Bishop of Panama, en route to Peru. He dutifully reported his finding to the King of Spain, but the Archipelago remained uninhabited until 1832, when the brand new Republic of Ecuador took claim of this island group. Shortly after, a visit that would change the world s perception of the Galápagos took place: young Charles Darwin arrived onboard the HMS Beagle in 1835, taking notice of the unique life processes that later gave him grounds to develop his theory of evolution based on natural selection. Seeing every height crowned with its crater, and the boundaries of most of the lava streams still distinct, we are led to believe that within a period, geologically recent, the unbroken ocean was here spread out Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact that mystery of mysteries the first appearance of new beings on this Earth. Charles Darwin Currently, five of the islands are inhabited, and the resident population, as of 2013, is 26,640 inhabitants. Tourism is the main economic activity. 12

THE GEOLOGY OF THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS The Galápagos are a group of volcanic islands that like many oceanic islands, such as Hawaii, Azores, and Reunion, are thought to be the product of a hot spot or mantle plume. Mantle plumes are columns of hot rock that rise from deep within the Earth. These plumes rise because they are hotter, and therefore are less dense than the surrounding rock. As plumes near the surface, they begin to melt, and the molten rock accumulates in large pools called magma chambers. Occasionally the magma in the chamber is able to force its way to the surface, producing a volcanic eruption. Successive eruptions over thousands of years produce a volcano. But hot spots are stationary, lying right underneath a moving plate, a tectonic plate that together with other plates build up the crust of the Earth. The plate moves, however the hot spot doesn t, and it is due to this fact that volcanic islands formed at hot spots are slowly carried away from the mantle plume, riding on the moving tectonic plate, which eventually makes the volcano go extinct. In the specific case of the Galápagos, the hot spot burns through the Nazca tectonic plate, an oceanic plate which is moving in a southeastern direction towards South America, at a rate of 7 cm (2.75 in) a year. As a result we end with a string of volcanoes that ride the Nazca plate, where the youngest ones are sitting on the west and the oldest ones in the southeast following the direction of motion of the Nazca plate. Within the Galápagos group, San Cristobal and Española Islands range among the oldest (with an average age of 4.5 million years), and Isabela and Fernandina, as the youngest (around 500,000 years). The last eruptions recorded on the Galápagos Islands have taken place in Fernandina and Isabela. OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTING A number of ocean currents converge in the Galápagos and these have a direct influence on the climate. There are three main currents: the cool Peruvian Coastal Current (or Humboldt) driven by the Southeast Trade Winds; the warm Panama (or El Niño) Current from the North; and the cold and easterly-flowing Cromwell Current (or Equatorial Undercurrent), which creates upwellings that provide a rich source of food for many of the seabirds and marine mammals that occur in Galápagos. The climate of the Galápagos Islands is unusually dry for the tropics. The cold waters of the Humboldt Current surround the vast majority of the archipelago most of the year or at least half of the year. However, Galápagos has two distinct seasons: the warm and wet season and the cool and dry also known as the garúa season. The warm and wet season runs from January to May, and the cool and dry season runs from June to December. 13

During the warm and rainy season, the Southeast Trade Winds diminish in strength, and warmer waters from the Panama basin flow into the Islands, providing the Galápagos with a tropical climate. Skies are blue and the air temperature can exceed 30 C (86 F), although it is humid and heavy rains occur. The average sea temperature rises to 25 C (77 F). The garúa season brings a sub-tropical climate. Cold water from the Humboldt Current is driven to the Galápagos by the Southeast Trade Winds, with an average sea temperature of 16 C (61 F). As a result, there is warm tropical air passing over cool water, and the evaporation from the sea is concentrated in an inversion layer (300 to 600 m above sea level); the higher parts of the islands, which intercept this layer, receive precipitation in the form of a mist rain (garúa). From time to time, the flow of warm water is greater than normal, resulting in an El Niño year. During this period, surface water temperatures are higher and rainfall increases greatly, affecting flora and fauna: vegetation blossoms as well as land birds. However, El Niño suppresses the upwelling of cool waters, reducing the amount of food available for seabirds and marine life, usually resulting in a significant decline in the population of these species. The Galápagos climate is unpredictable and often severe, especially in the lowlands. The severity of the environment and its unpredictability are in part responsible for the fact that so few species can survive in the Galápagos. The occasional drought years place strong natural selective pressures on plant and animal species that live in the islands. These droughts have probably played an important role in shaping the evolution of these species. Plants, animals, geology and climate have all interacted and continue to interact, in a multitude of ways to create the Galápagos Islands as we know them now. It is only through an understanding of these various factors, and how they interrelate, that we can begin to comprehend the mysterious ways of nature. ARRIVAL AND ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIES When the tips of the Galápagos volcanoes first appeared above the sea s surface some 3 to 5 million years ago, they were devoid of life. We will never know exactly how colonisation occurred (such events do not leave any record), but we may speculate about what probably happened. What we can indeed conclude is that there is a feature that sets Galápagos apart from all other archipelagos: its unique geographic position. Situated on the equator under the tropical sun, and yet bathed for much of the year by the cool waters of the Humboldt and Cromwell currents, the Islands have a special mix of tropical and temperate environments which is reflected in the ecology of its unusual plants and animals. 14

Oceanic volcanic islands such as the Galápagos differ from continental islands in that they never had contact with continental landmasses, so any plant or animal now native to the Galápagos must have arrived in the Islands from the mainland of South America, 1,000 km (621 miles) away, by long-distance dispersal alone. These organisms did not only survive a hazardous journey and thrived in an unfamiliar environment, but were able to reproduce successfully, and colonise the Islands. Under natural conditions, there are two ways for organisms to travel to the islands: by sea or by air. Some animals arrived swimming or flying under their own steam. Means by which organisms could have reached the islands include vegetation rafts. These flotation rafts made out of a mat of plants or debris can often be seen drifting on the Guayas River Delta on mainland South America and can be thick enough to carry small animals along. Wind and jet streams could transport living organisms or seeds to the newly formed islands. Birds taken off course from their traditional migratory route could easily have arrived and managed to establish. Seeds and invertebrates travelling on the feathers or stuck on the muddy feet of aquatic or semi-aquatic birds could also have been another way of transportation. Species are present in proportion not only for their capacity to disperse, whether actively or passively, but also for their ability to establish themselves after arrival. In the beginning, there would have been no soil for plants to grow. Soil formation is a slow process, especially in arid areas. Soils form as a result of weather, plants and animals all acting to erode the rocks. Seabirds that nest on the ground need no vegetation, and thus may have been among the first colonists. Red-footed Boobies, pelicans, and frigatebirds, which nest in trees, would have had to await these, as well as insects, iguanas, and seed-eating finches that needed to wait for their respective food plants. Finally, once a species has found a suitable home, it must reproduce and create a reasonably stable population before it can be considered established. This is yet another constraint on the colonisation of islands by long-distance dispersal. The long-distance dispersal to islands is responsible for much of the character of the flora and fauna. This provides the material on which evolutionary processes may act to give us the assemblage of plants and animals we see today. 15

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS The Birds of Galápagos In total, 152 bird species have been recorded in the Galápagos. Only 61 of these are resident, although 28 are endemic (they are found nowhere else on earth). The other 91 species are either migrants that occur at least annually (25 species) or vagrants (66 species). Because the Galápagos Islands are surrounded by thousands of miles of open ocean, seabirds have a prominent place in the fauna of the Islands. There may be as many as three-quarters of a million seabirds in the Galápagos, including 30% of the world s Blue-footed Boobies, the world s largest Red-footed Booby colony, and perhaps the largest concentration of Nazca Boobies in the world. There have been 47 species of seabirds that have been recorded, 19 of which are resident (five are endemic). The seabirds therefore account for nearly one third of all the species ever recorded in the Islands. Few species of land birds inhabit the Galápagos, and three-quarters of these are endemic. There are 29 species registered, 20 of which are resident. Eighteen of these resident species are endemic to the Galápagos, 13 of which correspond to the Darwin s Finches group. Chance must have played an important part in the colonisation by land birds, because unlike the seabirds, most of which are excellent long-distance fliers, land birds from the tropics have little cause to make long flights. Unfortunately, seven of the resident species of the Galápagos are threatened with extinction. Standard criteria for categorizing the degree of threat that species face have been adopted by The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Those in danger are: the Dark-rumped or Galápagos Petrel (critically endangered); Charles or Floreana Mockingbird and Mangrove Finch (endangered); and, Galápagos Penguin, Flightless Cormorant, Galápagos Hawk, and Lava Gull are vulnerable. 16

The Reptiles of the Galápagos The problems of arriving, especially via a long ocean journey, have prevented mammals to establish in the Galápagos. Thus, the predominance of reptiles in the fauna is not surprising. Reptiles are ectothermic creatures. They cannot regulate their body temperature physiologically by sweating or panting therefore they are generally more tolerant of changes in body temperature. Because of their ectothermic metabolism, reptiles are more energy efficient than mammals, and need less food and water. Reptiles are also more tolerant of salt in their diet and environment, as most species have salt excreting glands as well as kidneys. Twenty-eight species of reptiles have been recorded in the Galápagos in recent times. Nineteen of these species are endemic to the archipelago. The reptiles that reside in the Galápagos belong to five families: tortoises, marine turtles, lizards and iguanas, geckos, and snakes. The Mammals of the Galápagos Oceanic islands are typically lacking in mammals and the Galápagos Islands are no exception. The two weeks or so that would take a raft to drift to the Galápagos is too long for most mammals to survive. The tropical sun and lack of food and water for the 1,000 km (621 mile) journey has deterred most of the mammal order, which has been so successful elsewhere. Perhaps it is the absence of large mammalian predators that accounts for the fearlessness of the other native fauna towards humans. The mammals that reside in the Galápagos can be divided into four groups. Sea lions include two resident species of which one is endemic. There are four species of endemic rodents, two species of bats, and 25 records for whales and dolphins. Terrestrial and Marine Invertebrates The Galápagos has relatively few species of terrestrial invertebrates, but its records account to 1,995 species (including freshwater invertebrates), of which 53% are endemic. Most of the species found in the Galápagos have their origins in the dry coastal parts of South and Central America. The terrestrial invertebrates that the visitor is likely to see are: snails, spiders, scorpions, centipedes and insects such as dragonflies and bees. Beneath the Galápagos waves, there is yet another fascinating world. There are over 1,900 species of marine invertebrates reported from the Islands of which about 18% are endemic. Within the marine environment of the Galápagos Islands there is a wide variety of habitats (rocky shores, sandy beaches, mangrove lagoons, and coral reefs) which harbour an unusual variety of marine organisms, such as barnacles, sponges, anemones, sea fans, corals, etc. These organisms come from temperate, subtropical, and tropical waters, and about 28% are endemic to the Islands. 17

The Flora of the Galápagos Islands By virtue of their isolation for thousands to millions of years, many Galápagos plants differ from mainland relatives and frequently from those of neighbouring islands. The Islands are young geologically and many plants seem to be in the process of evolving into new species and forms. There are roughly 600 native taxa (species, subspecies, and varieties) of vascular plants. By most standards, this is a species-poor flora as mainland Ecuador may have about 20,000 species. This fact highlights the problems of colonisation in the Islands, as well as the severity of the environment. Forty percent of the native Galápagos plants are endemic to the archipelago. Not only are there 200 or so endemic species but also, seven genera from three families are endemic. These are: Darwiniothamnus, Lecocarpus, Macraea, and Scalesia from the Compositae (sunflower or dandelion family); Brachycereus and Jasminocereus from the cactus family; and Sicyocaulis from the cucumber family. The fact that these species have become sufficiently different from mainland relatives indicates the great amount of evolutionary change that has occurred in these Islands. Human History Facts 1535 The Islands were accidentally discovered by Tomás de Berlanga, Bishop of Panama, when his ship was becalmed on his way to Peru. Describing the Islands on his letter to the King of Spain, Charles V, as a place where God had showered stones in the middle of the ocean, he left the Islands unnamed but coined the term Galápagos, an old Castillian word for a riding saddle. This was due to the occurrence of many giant tortoises, whose shell, to Berlanga s eyes, resembles a riding saddle. Since then, the Islands began to be known as the Islands of the Galápagos. 1569 The first printed map that included Galápagos was printed in Flandes (Belgium) by Gerard Mercator. It showed two clusters of islands: one near Cocos Island and a second one near the Equator. In 1570, A. Ortelius also included them in his atlas Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, where they appeared as Las Encantadas. 1684 The days of the pirates begin with the accidental arrival of John Cook commanding the Bachelor s Delight. English pirates took advantage that the Islands were seldom visited and started using them as a hideout place. Cook and his men must have hit the Islands during a very rainy season, because they found water cascading everywhere and plenty of tortoises. Pirates were the ones that did the first navigation charts of the Galápagos Islands, naming eight islands after English royalty and Navy officers. 1788 The whaling days begin. In 1788, the ship Emilia arrived at London with 140 tons of whale oil. At the end of the century, there were at least 40 whalers during the season and the crew lived entirely on tortoises, birds, and fish from the Islands. It is presumed that between 1788 and 1860, more than 100,000 tortoises were taken away by the whaling fleet. 18

1832 The brand new Republic of Ecuador claims the Islands as part of its territory. General José de Villamil, born in Louisiana but resident in Guayaquil, suggested president Juan José Flores, the first president of Ecuador, to incorporate the archipelago to the new nation. Colonel Ignacio Hernández presided the incorporation ceremony on February 12th 1832 in behalf of the Ecuadorian government in Floreana, named after President Flores. 1835 Young English naturalist Charles Darwin arrived to the Galápagos Islands onboard the HMS Beagle, during its five-year voyage around the world. The observations he made in the archipelago were key to the development of his theory of evolution based on natural selection. 1850-1920 Ecuadorians led several colonisation attempts at this time. These attempts contributed to the establishment of an Ecuadorian population on some of the large islands. 1924 The American naturalist William Beebe published his book Galápagos The World s End, the first of its kind to present the archipelago as a paradise to nature lovers. 1925 As a strategy to consolidate Ecuadorian possession of the Galápagos Islands, the Ecuadorian Government signed an agreement with a Norwegian colonisation company to promote settlements in the Galápagos to start a fishing and canning industry. Unfortunately, due to several circumstances, the attempt was not successful, and most of the Norwegians returned to Norway, while a few settled in San Cristóbal and Santa Cruz Islands. 1929-1934 Inspired by Beebe s book, three German parties arrived to Floreana Island at different times during this period. Dr. Friedrich Ritter and Dore Strauch were the first to come, followed in 1932 by the Wittmer family, and later by the Baroness Eloise von Wagner who came along with three male companions. After the Baroness arrival, the island turned into chaos, which ended with the disappearance of the Baroness and one of his lovers, the death of Dr. Ritter, and Dore Strauch s return to Europe. Only the Wittmers remained, Margret Wittmer becoming the longest settler to live in the Islands. She died in 2000, and her daughter and one of her granddaughters still live on Floreana. 1936 First attempt from the Ecuadorian Government to protect the Galápagos Islands. The Islands were declared a National Reserve under strict regulations. Further projects were interrupted because of World War II. 1942-1948 Ecuador leases Baltra to the US Government for the building and operation of a Navy and an Air Base during World War II. When Japan turned into a dangerous threat in the Pacific, Galápagos became crucial for the defense of the Panama Canal. Beta Base, the code name for Baltra, could accommodate 6,000 soldiers. The Base was in charge of monitoring any possible attack to the Canal, but fortunately never faced an emergency. The Base was officially surrendered in 1946, but American soldiers and technicians remained there until December 1948. 1959 The centenary year of Darwin s publication of The Origin of Species : a positive critical year for the Galápagos Islands with the creation of the Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galápagos Islands and the Galápagos National Park. 19

1964 Inauguration of the Charles Darwin Research Station facilities. The Charles Darwin Research Station(CDRS), the operative branch of the Darwin Foundation, opened its doors in Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz Island. CDRS provides knowledge and assistance through scientific research and complementary action to ensure the conservation of the environment and biodiversity in the Galápagos Archipelago that enables decision makers to work towards a truly sustainable Galápagos. 1968 The Galápagos National Park Service began work with the appointment of the first two park rangers. 1978 UNESCO declares the Galápagos a World Natural Heritage Site, one of the first seven sites around the world to be included in this list. Galápagos natural beauty, its diversity, the uniqueness of the species it harbours, its volcanic origin, its geologic dynamics with permanent changes and diverse formations, the fact that it is considered a natural showcase of ongoing evolutionary processes plus the existence of a large number of plants and animals found nowhere else on the planet, were the criteria that led UNESCO to choose the Galápagos as a world s heritage site of great importance. 1998 The waters around the Galápagos Islands are protected by the creation of the Galápagos Marine Reserve. 2000 Tortoise number 1,000 is repatriated to Española Island, an iconic event that summarizes over 30 years of successful tortoise research and field work. 2002 The wetlands of southern Isabela are included in the RAMSAR convention list. The Convention Related to Wetlands of International Importance especially as a Habitat for Aquatic Birds, known by its abbreviated form as RAMSAR, was signed in Iran in 1971. Its goal is the conservation and rational use of wetlands through local, regional and international actions. 2013 Silversea begins its operation in the Galápagos Islands aboard the new 100-guest Silver Galapagos. Conservation Efforts Oceanic islands are fragile. They are extremely vulnerable to many forms of human-related pressures, especially introduced species. The Galápagos Islands have managed to escape much destruction because of their isolation and recent discovery, but these islands are in danger of losing the very qualities that make them so special. The history of man s detrimental effects on the Islands dates back to the late 1600s when pirates arrived to the archipelago. Since then, rats may have swum to the Islands from ships, tortoises have been taken away, and goats and other animals have been introduced. In the 1800s, when settlers came to the Galápagos, they brought along with them a full range of domestic animals, some of which ran wild and turned into feral populations. Plants were brought in as well, and some spread into the humid highlands, and competed with native and endemic vegetation. Several species are considered a serious threat for the flora of the region. 20

Two organisations worked together for the conservation of the Galápagos Islands: the Galápagos National Park Service which tries to keep the natural resources of the Islands in the best possible status, and the Charles Darwin Foundation through its operative branch, the Charles Darwin Research Station, which carries out and facilitates research in the Galápagos. The problems that the Galápagos National Park faces can be grouped in three areas: the control of non-native species, the restoration of native populations, and the management of current human impacts. But there is an encouraging history of achievements. Among the most successful conservation programmes, we can mention the restoration of Galápagos Land Iguanas populations; the breeding and rearing in captivity, and repatriation of Galápagos Giant Tortoises; the monitoring of nesting success of the Galápagos Petrel; the eradication of large introduced vertebrates, the restoration of Floreana Island, monitoring of commercial fisheries, the recovery of endangered plant populations, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES www.ws.wikipedia.org / Provincia de Galapagos www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/galapagos.html www.galapagospark.org www.darwinfoundation.org www.elmercurio.com CANODROS. Explorer s Guide Galápagos: Natural Heritage of the Humanity Angermeyer Cruises. Bitácora Travel Log: My Journey through the Galápagos Islands Swash, Andy & Still, Rob. Birds, Mammals, and Reptiles of the Galápagos Islands. Yale University Press, 2000. Jackson, MH. Galápagos: A Natural History. University of Calgary Press, 1993. Servicio Parque Nacional Galápagos. Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Galápagos. Puerto Ayora, 1996. 21