UNIT 6 THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE LATE MIDDLE AGES POLITICAL CHANGE IN THE 13 TH AND 14 TH CENTURIES The Crown of Castilla Castilla and León had been closely connected in the 11 th and 12 th centuries, when they were often ruled by the same monarch. In the 13 th century, the two kingdoms were definitively united. In 1214 Berenguela of Castilla arranged for ther 13-year old son to become King Fernando III of Castilla. A few years later Fernando also became ruler of León after his father s death in 1230. Under Fernando III s son, Alfonso X el Sabio, Castilla was home to considerable cultural achievements. Alfonso X was a great patron of the arts and promoted learning based on classical, Arabic and Hebrew sources. The powerful Castillian aristocracy received huge areas of conquered Muslim land during the Reconquest. By the 14 th century, the great nobles rivalled the monarch in power and influence. This caused tensions and led to a civil war (1356-1359) between Pedro I and his half-brother, Enrique de Trastámara. Enrique was supported by the leading nobles, and the war ended with the creation a new Trastámara dynasty. Christian expansion southwards The Muslims did not offer much real resistance to the Christian advances after the defeat of the Almohads in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). King Alfonso IX de León conquered much of Extremadura. His son Fernando III, who ruled the united Kingdoms of Castilla and León, took Córdoba, Murcia and Sevilla. Only the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained Muslim after Alfonso X of Castilla had occupied Cádiz and the south-west of the peninsula. There was one last Muslim invasion from North Africa at the end of the 13 th century. But the Marinids only gained control of a small territory around Algeciras. They were defeated by King Alfonso IX of Castilla at the Battle of Salado in 1340. After that, only the Muslim Kingdom of Granada was left. Under the system of repartimientos, most conquered lands were given to the nobility and the military orders. 1
The Crown of Aragón In the 13 th century, Aragón completed the conquest of Valencia and the Baleraric Islands. - Mallorca was taken in 1229 under Jaime I. The conquest of the Balearic Island was completed when Ibiza, Formentera and Menorca were taken. - Valencia was also taken during the reign of Jaime I in 1238. In accordance with the treaties of the previous century, the Crown of Aragón gained the area around Alicante, but Murcia belonged to Castilla. Repopulation was carried out by different groups. Mallorca was populated by Catalans, while both Catalans and Aragonese settled in Valencia and Mallorca. Many Mudéjars remained in Valencia after its reconquest. Mediterranean expansion After the Reconquest, commercial interests promoted Catalan-Aragonese expansion in the Mediterranean. Trade was the crucial motive. Offices regulating commerce called consulados del mar were set up in Barcelona, Valencia and Mallorca from the late 13 th century onwards. The Crown of Aragón acquired territories across the Mediterranean. King Pedro III occupied Sicily in the late 13 th century. Jaime II took Sardinia in 1325. At the same time, groups of mercenaries gained control of the Greek dukedom of Athens. In 1443 Alfonso V captured Naples. As a result of all these conquests, a Catalan-Aragonese maritime Empire was created. It controlled many trade routes across the Mediterranean. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN CASTILLA The economy of Castilla The wool industry was extremely important in Medieval Castilla. Castilla reconquered a lot of land further south so it became possible to move sheep long distances along north-south routes called cañadas. Sheep grazed in the north in the summer and were taken south to pasture during the winter. In 1273 Alfonso X grouped the main sheep owners together in an organisation called the Mesta. This supervised great migrations of sheep across Castilla. Castilian wool was exported in large quantities to regions like Flanders. 2
Commercial activity: It was closely connected to the rise of the wool industry. The increase in wool exports to northern countries led to the rise of ports on the Cantabrian coast, like Bilbao, Laredo and Santander. Iron was also exported. Commercial activity within Spain was more modest, but there were important trade fairs like Medina del Campo. There was some cloth production by craftsmen in the northern submeseta. Agriculture: Cereals were grown, together with vines for wine, and olives for olive oil. Most of the land was owned by the aristocracy and the Church. Castilian society The Castilian aristocracy: They received vast areas of land and acquired immense wealth during the Reconquest. The nobility played a key role in controlling the wool trade so it now became even wealthier. Great aristocracy dynasties emerged, like the Guzmán and Mendoza. One rich woman, Leonor de Alburquerque, could travel all the way from Aragón to Portugal without leaving her estates. The clergy: It was also highly privileged. It did not have to pay taxes, and like the aristocracy, it received land and wealth during the Reconquest. In contrast, the Castillian bourgeoisie was not as important as in other parts of Europe. The peasants: As in other parts of Europe, the peasants were affected by wars and epidemics. The aristocracy imposed additional taxes and obligations, which were sometimes resisted in local rebellions. For example, in Galicia the Irmandiña Revolts broke out in the 1460s. The minorities: There were two minorities in Castilla, the Mudejars and the Jews, whose situation often worsened in periods of crisis and unrest. The institutions of the Crown of Castilla Monarchy: Kings Fernando III and Alfonso X reinforced the authority of the monarchy. The monarch was surrounded by nobles and officials who formed the court and later the royal council. Monarchs proclaimed laws, administered justice and led their armies in wartime. The Cortes: It was an assembly made up of representatives of the aristocracy, clergy and important citizens from the main cities. 3
Municipalities: They often had considerable autonomy in accordance with traditional laws, or fueros. The Kings had granted these as a way of attracting population to reconquered territories. Municipalities were administrated by city councils and controlled by the nobility and the bourgeoisie. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ARAGÓN The economy of the Crown of Aragón The Crown of Aragón was a federation of separate kingdoms. There were important differences between the economies of each one: - Aragón: Its economy consisted of agriculture and livestock. Aragón was not densely populated, and it only had a few important cities such as Zaragoza. - Cataluña had a very important textile industry. Barcelona was one of the great trading ports in the Mediterranean. - Valencia traded across the Mediterranean. Its importance grew after Barcelona s economy was affected by a crisis in the late 14 th century. Aragonese and Catalan society The commercial success of the Crown of Aragón created a different type of society to that of Castilla. There were a few great magnates who controlled much of the wealth of the region. The prosperity of the cities led to the growth of a wealthy bourgeoisie that controlled urban life. There was no equivalent to this urban patriciate in Castilla. The clergy was very influential, and the upper clergy acquired considerable wealth. Most people were peasants. There were some free farmers, but many were subject to their feudal lords. Social conflicts in the Crown of Aragón The Crown of Aragón suffered from a demographic, economic and political crisis after the late 14 th century. The Black Death caused an extremely high number of casualties in Cataluña, and was followed by later epidemics. The Catalan population declined. - In the countryside there were fewer people as a result of the plague, and many farms were abandoned. Most peasants thought that they should receive more 4
for their work because there was a shortage of labour. But instead, the nobles insisted on collecting all their taxes and imposed harsh obligations on the peasants. Remensa peasants (who were tied to the land) opposed evil customs and grouped together in bands. They challenged the rule of the aristocracy in the countryside. - In the cities, economic problems created social tensions. In Barcelona there was conflict between two parties. The Biga was the party of the wealthy merchants and their supporters. The Busca was supported by smaller merchants, craftsmen and poor people. The nobility and the urban patriciate strongly defended traditional privileges. But the Monarchy introduced some reforms and freed the remensa peasants. The result was a long civil war (1462-1472) during Juan II s reign. The institutions of the Crown of Aragón The Crown of Aragón was a federation of many different states. From the beginning, the Catalan counties, Aragón and Valencia had kept their own forms of government. The Crown of Aragón s overseas territories had their own laws and institutions. As the King could not be everywhere at the same time, a Viceroy became his substitute in some territories. There was a Cortes in each kingdom, holding more power than in Castilla. In Aragón, an official called Justicia Mayor was responsible for defending rights and privileges. A Generalitat governed in both Cataluña and Valencia. In Cataluña especially, the Generalitat acquired great political importance, which grew after King Alfonso V moved his court to Naples in the 1450. Municipalities in the larger cities had considerable autonomy. The city council of Barcelona was particularly important. CULTURE AND ART IN THE LATE MIDDLE AGES Culture A fine literature was created on the Iberian Peninsula in the Late Middle Ages. Most writers were connected to either a royal court or the Church. For example, Don Juan Manuel, who wrote a famous collection of stories and fables called El Conde Lucanor, was a cousin of King Alfonso XI of Castilla. Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita, wrote a satirical work, Libro del Buen Amor. 5
Humanist ideas reached the Crown of Aragón from across the Mediterranean. There was a strong Italian influence after Naples became part of the Aragonese Empire. The earliest universities, such as Salamanca, already flourished in Castilla in the 13 th century. By the late 14 th century, there were new universities in Castilian cities such as Santiago, Sevilla and Alcalá de Henares. In the Crown of Aragón, the foundation of the University of Lérida in 1300 was soon followed by those of Barcelona and Valencia. Gothic architecture In Castilla, magnificent cathedrals were built in León, Burgos or Toledo from the 13 th century onwards. By the 15 th century, the more elaborate Gothic flamboyant style was used in Sevilla cathedral. Royal and aristocratic patronage led to the creation of impressive palaces and military architecture. There were many fine examples, such as the castles of Peñafiel (Valladolid) and Manzanares el Real (Madrid), the Alcázar of Segovia and the Palacio del Infantado (Guadalajara). In the Crown of Aragón fine religious buildings were also created like Santa María del Mar in Barcelona and the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca. But the most original feature of the Gothic style in Aragón was its use in civic architecture. This reflected commercial expansion and the growth of cities like Barcelona, Valencia and Mallorca. Fine palaces, city councils, shipyards and commercial exchanges were built. Gothic painting and sculpture The art of Flanders and Italy had a considerable influence on painting, which gradually became more naturalistic. Most painting was on wood. Leading painters included Bernat Martorell and Bartolomé Bermejo. Fine artwork was also used to decorate manuscripts, like King Alfonso X of Castilla s Cantigas. In sculpture, highly elaborated royal tombs were built, like the ones in the Monastery of Miraflores in Burgos. This artwork was not always anonymous any more, as it had been for most of the Middle Ages. Sculpture remained a significant decorative feature of cathedrals. 6