Threatened Fauna at Potential Risk from Introduced Deer Impacts across the Australian Alps

Threatened Fauna at Potential Risk from Introduced Deer Impacts across the Australian Alps A Final Report to the Australian Alps Liaison Committee Written by: Dr Andrew W. Claridge SW ational Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan, SW 2620.

Cover photo credit: orthern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophyrne pengilleyi) Dr David Hunter. Report citation: Claridge, A.W. (2016) Threatened fauna at potential risk from introduced deer in the Australian Alps. A final report to the Australian Alps Liaison Committee. SW ational Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan SW 2620, Australia.

Threatened Fauna at Potential Risk from Introduced Deer Impacts across the Australian Alps Purpose of Document The primary purpose of this document is to identify native fauna at potentially greatest risk from introduced deer impacts across the Australian Alps. Here, the limit of the Australian Alps is geographically defined by the extent of the following conservation reserves: Alpine ational Park, Avon Wilderness Park, Baw Baw ational Park, Bimberi ature Reserve, Brindabella ational Park, Brindabella State Conservation Area, Kosciuszko ational Park, Mount Buffalo ational Park, amadgi ational Park, Scabby Range ational Park, Snowy River ational Park and Tidbinbilla ature Reserve. For this purpose, species listed under the Australian Capital Territory ature Conservation Act 2014, Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, ew South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 and ictorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and related Advisory List of Threatened Fauna in ictoria (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2013) are considered priorities to examine more closely, based on the fact that their conservation status is already deemed poor and that they require recovery. The resultant registers of threatened fauna species serve primarily as a guide for highlighting those entities that should be monitored in the first instance to gather definitive information about whether deer are present in their habitats and whether they are having any noticeable impacts. Follow-up monitoring of priority native species is particularly important given the absence of information about introduced deer impacts within the tenure of interest, let alone across the broader geographic area of south-eastern mainland Australia. Until such follow-up monitoring is conducted introduced deer impacts cannot be assumed. More rigorous attempts have been made elsewhere around the world to develop frameworks for assessing priorities for research on introduced deer impacts, particularly for flora species such as in neighbouring ew Zealand (e.g. Forsyth et al. 2003). However, these sophisticated frameworks are based on a relatively in-depth understanding of the ecology of introduced deer, including dietary preference studies and vegetation monitoring in areas subject to deer control or not, as the case may be (Rose and Platt 1987; Stewart et al. 1987; Husher and Frampton 2005; Husher 2007). With the notable exception of impacts of Rusa Deer on flora at Royal ational Park south of Sydney (Keith and Pellow 2004), and on flora in rainforest communities in East Gippsland, ictoria (Peel et al. 2005), such in-depth research has not been undertaken anywhere else in south-eastern mainland Australia. Background Caveats In relation to assessing potential impacts of introduced deer on native fauna, the following factors must be considered: i. There are currently no databases that would indicate, with reasonable precision, both the distribution and relative abundance of the different species of introduced deer across any of the conservation reserves that together make up the Australian Alps. For example, the Atlas of SW (Bionet) and ictorian Biodiversity Atlas contain very few definitive records of the following deer species across the entire State, let alone within the geographic area of interest: Fallow Deer, Hog Deer, Red Deer, Rusa Deer and Sambar Deer; ii. Instead, the assumption is made here that introduced deer are near omnipresent across the Australian Alps. This assumption is based on anecdotal reports of introduced deer from Page 1

iii. iv. many conservation reserves by field staff. Additionally, modelling of the preferred climatic range of each of the deer species of interest indicates they could potentially occur across much of south-eastern mainland Australia (Moriarty 2004); With few exceptions, and as indicated above, the impact of introduced deer on both fauna and flora in south-eastern mainland Australia is poorly documented. The limited relevant research has focussed on impacts of introduced deer on flora, with each study occurring outside of the Australian Alps (e.g. Keith and Pellow 2004; Peel et al. 2005); Relevant literature from outside of Australia indicates that the key issue, regardless of deer species, is the density of local populations at sites where deer densities are high, ecological impacts might be severe, whereas at sites with low deer densities, ecological impacts may be either negligible or benign. There are currently no measures of deer density at a landscape scale across the Australian Alps that would assist in demarcating areas of particular concern. Identifying Threatened Fauna at Potential Risk Step 1: Threatened Fauna Lists for the Australian Alps The first step in the process for identifying threatened fauna at potential risk from introduced deer impacts involved reviewing threatened species location data reported in the Atlas of ew South Wales (Bionet), the ictorian Biodiversity Atlas and from relevant databases held by Environment ACT. From this initial analysis lists of threatened amphibians, birds, invertebrates, mammals, reptile and fish species were generated for the Australian Alps, together with their conservation status according to respective State or Territory legislation (Tables 1-6). Resultant summary tables were then generated for the occurrence and number of records of each threatened species according to fauna group against the previously nominated conservation reserves across the Alps (Tables 7-12). Conservation management staff interested in identifying threatened fauna potentially at risk within their tenure should use Tables 7-12 as an initial sieve to reduce the total number of threatened fauna species reported from across the Australian Alps that might be considered in their local analysis. Table 1. Legislative status of threatened amphibians recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Alpine Tree Frog T CE E E Baw Baw Frog T CE Booroolong Frog T CE E E Brown Toadlet T E Giant Burrowing T CE Frog Green and E Golden Bell Frog Littlejohn s Tree Frog T E orthern Corroboree Frog E CE CE Smooth Toadlet DD Southern Toadlet Spotted Tree T CE CE E Frog Southern Bell T E E Frog Southern Corroboree Frog CE CE Key: CE = Critically Endangered. DD = Data Deficient. E = Endangered. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. Page 2

Table 2. Legislative status of threatened birds recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Australasian Shoveler Australian T CE E Painted Snipe Azure Kingfisher T Barking Owl T E Black Falcon Brown Quail T Brown Treecreeper T Bush Stonecurlew T E E Caspian Tern T Chestnut-rumped T Heathwren Diamond Firetail T T Eastern Curlew Eastern Great T Egret Flame Robin Freckled Duck T E Gang Gang Cockatoo Glossy-black T Cockatoo Grey-crowned T E Babbler Grey Goshawk T Hardhead Hooded Robin T T Latham s Snipe T Lewin s Rail T Little Eagle Little Egret T E Magpie Goose T T Masked Owl T E E Musk Duck ankeen ight T Heron Olive Whistler Orange-bellied T CE CE CE Parrot Pacific Gull T Pied Cormorant T Pink Robin Powerful Owl T Regent T CE E CE E Honeyeater Royal Spoonbill T Scarlet Robin Sooty Owl T Speckled Warbler T Spotted Harrier T Spotted Quail Thrush T Page 3

Table 2. Continued Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Square-tailed T Kite Superb Parrot T E Swift Parrot T E E E Turquoise Parrot T T aried Sitella White-bellied Sea T Eagle White-fronted Chat Wood Sandpiper Key: CE = Critically Endangered. DD = Data Deficient. E = Endangered. T = ear Threatened. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. Table 3. Legislative status of threatened invertebrates recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List Alpine Spiny T E Crayfish Alpine Stonefly T Archaeophylax canarus T DD ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Canthocamptus DD longipes Canthocamptus DD sublaevis East Gippsland Spiny Crayfish Mount Stirling T Stonefly Murray Spiny T T Crayfish Orbost Spiny T E Crayfish Spathula tryssa Thaumatoperla DD robusta Thaumatoperla DD timmsi Riekoperla intermedia T E Key: DD = Data Deficient. E = Endangered. T = ear Threatened. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. Page 4

Table 4. Legislative status of threatened mammals recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Broad-toothed T E Rat Brush-tailed T Phascogale Brush-tailed T CE E E Rock Wallaby Corben s Longeared Bat Eastern T CE CE Bentwing Bat Eastern False Pipistrelle Eastern Freetail Bat Eastern T Horseshoe Bat Eastern Pygmy Possum Eastern Wallaroo T E Koala Large-footed Myotis Leadbeaters T E E Possum Long-footed T E E Potoroo Long-nosed T T Potoroo Mountain Pygmy T CE E E Possum Smoky Mouse T E CE E Spotted-tailed T E E Quoll Southern Brown T T E E Bandicoot White-footed T T Dunnart ellow-bellied Glider Key: CE = Critically Endangered. E = Endangered. T = ear Threatened. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. Page 5

Table 5. Legislative status of threatened reptiles recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act TSC Act EPBC Act Alpine Bog T E Skink Alpine Egernia T CE E Alpine She-oak T CE E E Skink Alpine Water T CE Skink Glossy Grass Skink Lace Monitor E Mountain Skink DD Rosenberg s Goanna T E Key: CE = Critically Endangered. DD = Data Deficient. E = Endangered. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. Table 6. Legislative status of threatened fish species recorded across the Australian Alps. Species ame FFG Act FFG Advisory List ature Conservation Act Fisheries Management Act** EPBC Act Australian T Grayling Golden Perch T Flat-headed CE Galaxias Macquarie Perch T E E E E Trout Cod T CE E E E Key: CE = Critically Endangered. E = Endangered. T = ear Threatened. T = Threatened. = ulnerable. ** In ew South Wales endangered fish species are listed under the Fisheries Management Act (1994). Page 6

Table 7. umber of records of threatened amphibian species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Alpine Tree Frog Baw Baw Frog Booroolong Frog Brown Toadlet Giant Burrowing Frog Green and Golden Bell Frog Littlejohn s Tree Frog orthern Corroboree Frog Smooth Toadlet Southern Toadlet Spotted Tree Frog Southern Bell Frog Southern Corroboree Frog Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko 423 1 18 1 42 794 13 Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Snowy River Tidbinbilla R 5 10 9 298 6 1 2 18 33 164 145 1 7 1 1 38 1 10 5 2 2 9 266 1 3 1 2 6 Page 7

Table 8. umber of records of threatened bird species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Australasian Shoveler Australian Painted Snipe Azure Kingfisher Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko 3 2 1 Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R 6 1 6 1 4 Barking Owl 4 1 Black Falcon 14 Brown Quail 7 2 6 1 Brown 70 1 1 66 2 1 18 1 Treecreeper Bush Stonecurlew 2 Caspian Tern 3 Chestnutrumped 6 1 Heathwren Diamond 30 1 10 7 Firetail Eastern 1 Curlew Eastern Great 3 10 1 Egret Flame Robin 397 9 38 38 8 689 28 4 42 30 1 Freckled Duck Gang Gang Cockatoo Glossy-black Cockatoo Greycrowned Babbler Snowy River Tidbinbilla R 282 8 30 9 7 1 520 22 3 62 39 6 6 13 1 Page 8

Species ame Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Grey 5 6 2 Goshawk Hardhead 4 12 1 1 14 30 30 1 14 Hooded Robin Latham s 29 41 2 3 5 Snipe Lewin s Rail 3 1 12 Little Eagle 7 1 1 1 16 2 2 8 Little Egret 1 10 Magpie Goose Masked Owl 3 4 Musk Duck 4 6 7 ankeen 3 7 1 8 ight Heron Olive 120 1 25 25 1 278 12 19 15 Whistler Orangebellied Parrot Pacific Gull 1 Pied 7 1 6 1 2 15 Cormorant Pink Robin 19 1 9 72 1 15 Powerful Owl Regent Honeyeater Royal Spoonbill 2 Snowy River 25 16 1 7 2 1 3 4 3 Scarlet Robin 123 3 6 10 1 154 7 1 23 24 Sooty Owl 18 5 1 12 Speckled Warbler Spotted Harrier 16 22 1 5 1 1 Tidbinbilla R Page 9

Species ame Spotted Quail Thrush Square-tailed Kite Superb Parrot Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Snowy River Tidbinbilla R 92 1 5 5 2 1 40 2 1 16 18 1 4 Swift Parrot 4 1 4 2 5 Turquoise Parrot aried Sitella Whitebellied Sea Eagle Whitefronted Chat Wood Sandpiper 43 1 26 1 2 9 13 3 7 7 2 1 1 1 Page 10

Table 9. umber of records of threatened invertebrate species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Alpine Alpine Spiny Crayfish Alpine Stonefly Archaeophylax canarus Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko 8 1 9 1 Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Snowy River Tidbinbilla R Canthocamptus longipes Canthocamptus sublaevis East Gippsland Spiny Crayfish Mount Stirling Stonefly Murray Spiny Crayfish Orbost Spiny Crayfish 5 Spathula tryssa 15 Thaumatoperla robusta Thaumatoperla timmsi Riekoperla intermedia 1 13 8 2 1 5 2 1 1 Page 11

Table 10. umber of records of threatened mammal species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Broadtoothed Rat Brush-tailed Phascogale Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby Corben s Long-eared Bat Eastern Bentwing Bat Eastern False Pipistrelle Eastern Freetail Bat Eastern Horseshoe Bat Eastern Pygmy Possum Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko Mount Buffalo amadgi 89 4 1 184 4 Scabby Range R Snowy River 1 1 30 3 78 28 40 10 66 1 101 2 10 1 1 1 8 19 3 1 8 1 1 Eastern 9 26 Wallaroo Koala 8 13 1 1 12 1 Large-footed Myotis Leadbeaters Possum Long-footed Potoroo Long-nosed Potoroo 16 32 19 1 1 1 Tidbinbilla R Page 12

Species ame Mountain Pygmy Possum Smoky Mouse Spottedtailed Quoll Southern Brown Bandicoot White-footed Dunnart ellowbellied Glider Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko 188 287 Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Snowy River 50 1 5 45 1 2 227 2 38 1 1 4 3 94 4 21 3 32 6 68 Tidbinbilla R Page 13

Table 11. umber of records of threatened reptile species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Alpine Bog Skink Alpine Egernia Alpine Sheoak Skink Alpine Water Skink Glossy Grass Skink Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko 21 47 1 58 2 63 9 724 69 3 2 Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R Lace Monitor 7 5 40 5 18 Mountain Skink Rosenbergs Goanna 1 11 Snowy River Tidbinbilla R Table 12. umber of records of threatened fish species across each of the conservation reserves within the Australian Alps. Species ame Australian Grayling Alpine Avon Wilderness Park Baw Baw Bimberi R Brindabella Brindabella SCA Kosciuszko Mount Buffalo amadgi Scabby Range R 5 4 Golden Perch 1 Flat-headed Galaxias Macquarie Perch 24 3 Trout Cod 2 8 Snowy River 1 Tidbinbilla R Page 14

Step 2: Identifying Whether a Threatened Fauna Species is at Potential Risk In the final determination for listing of Herbivory and environmental degradation caused by feral deer as a key threatening process, the SW Scientific Committee provided general information about the possible impacts that deer might have on biodiversity values but particularly on flora (see http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/feraldeerktp.htm). In relation to fauna, they indicated the most likely impacts of introduced deer might be through a combination of changing floristics and (particularly) structure of vegetation. These changes might occur either as a consequence of grazing and/or browsing pressure on plants, or through physical damage caused by rubbing by antlers and/or trampling of vegetation. In addition to these direct effects, introduced deer might also indirectly alter the composition of vegetation communities by spreading weeds, causing erosion or altering soil or water nutrient conditions. Most of these suggested impacts were implied based on results from overseas research studies. Similarly, in ictoria, the Scientific Committee overseeing listings against the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 established that Reduction in biodiversity of native vegetation by Sambar (Cervus unicolor) was a potentially threatening process. Much of the evidence base for this listing came from the study of Peel et al. (2005) who had noted impacts by Sambar on rainforest plant species in East Gippsland, ictoria, and other reports of impacts in Alpine bog and fen systems. These impacts potentially included loss of plant species, erosion, loss of vegetation, loss of cover and loss of structure all of which might have a flow-on effect on various native fauna. However, in keeping with the situation in ew South Wales, such flow-on effects on fauna were speculated upon rather than supported by firm evidence. There are a range of factors that might be considered when determining which of the threatened fauna species identified initially in Tables 1-6 would be at highest risk from introduced deer impacts. These factors would include, but not necessarily be restricted to: (i) the extent of distribution of the native threatened species in question, including the number, size and arrangement of populations; (ii) the habitat requirements of that species, particularly whether key habitat elements are likely to be damaged or modified by deer; (iii) whether the species in question has particular life history attributes that would make it susceptible to deer impact, and; (iv) other factors that are threatening the species in question, whether those factors are already impinging overtly on that species and whether other threatening processes would be exacerbated by deer impacts. With rare exception, detailed information on (i)-(iv) is not available for most threatened fauna species identified in Tables 1-6, certainly not in a form to make robust decisions in time and space. However, existing information on the general biology of the same species provides a starting point for making predictions about potential deer impacts. The first head of consideration in assessing the degree to which a threatened fauna species might be impacted upon by deer is how widely distributed the species is and how many habitat types it has been recorded from. In short, this may be simply put as the species ecological amplitude. Species that have a reduced distribution with narrower sets of habitat requirements might be deemed more at risk than species that are more broadly distributed with wide-ranging habitat requirements, since the former likely occupy less of the potentially available landscape. Tables 13-18 again list each of the threatened fauna recorded across the Australian Alps, by faunal group. The second column in each of these tables provides a summary description of the extent of habitat range and diversity of habitats that they occur in. This information was gleaned from a range of resources, including general fauna texts (Cogger 1996; Pizzey and Knight 2012; Robinson 1998; an Dyk and Strahan 2008), various Action Plans and Recovery Plans for threatened species, where available, and where relevant from descriptions on the SW Threatened Species Profiles website (http://www.threatenedspecies.environment.nsw.gov.au/index.aspx: accessed 1 June 2015). Page 15

Among the groups of fauna tabled, there are species with narrow, moderate or broad habitat ranges and requirements. For example, among the amphibians, species with a narrow habitat range include the orthern Corroboree Frog and the Southern Corroboree Frog (Table 13). Both species are restricted to the Australian Alps, with preferences for sphagnum bogs, wet tussock grasslands and wet heaths in alpine and sub-alpine habitats. In contrast, the Baw Baw Frog can be considered to have a moderate habitat range, occurring in a wider array of habitat types including sub-alpine wet heathland, sub-alpine woodland, montane riparian thicket, cool temperate rainforest, cool temperate mixed forest and montane wet forest vegetation. Similarly, the Alpine Tree Frog is found in woodland, heath, grassland and herb-field at montane, sub-alpine and alpine altitudes and can be considered to have a moderate habitat range. These species contrast with broad-ranging threatened amphibian species such as the Giant Burrowing Frog, which has a wide distribution well outside of the Australian Alps and occurs across many different forest habitat types, as well as damp scrubs and heathlands. Other amphibian species that fit the category of being broad-ranging include the Booroolong Frog, Smooth Toadlet and Southern Toadlet (Table 13). For the threatened bird species there are none that can be considered to be restricted or even largely restricted to the Australian Alps. Those species that are specialised to waterways and riparian areas can be defined as having a narrow habitat range, but most are widely distributed across Australia. This includes species such as the Australasian Shoveler, Little Egret and White-bellied Sea Eagle. Similarly, the Glossy Black Cockatoo has a narrow habitat range, being confined to areas of forests, woodlands and timbered watercourses with she-oaks, but these habitats occur well outside of the Australian Alps. Most threatened bird species that are more closely tied into forested habitats across the Alps can be considered to have moderate habitat ranges and sometimes occur in a variety of habitat types. A good example here is the Olive Whistler, which is widespread across the Alps and has been recorded from alpine thickets, wet rainforest, forests, woodlands and heaths. Other species with moderate habitat ranges can occur in fewer habitat types. For example, the Diamond Firetail inhabits open forest and woodlands, the Pink Robin wet forests and gullies and the Speckled Warbler occurs in drier woodlands with tussocks. Other species can considered to have broad habitat ranges and occur in a variety of habitat types. The Flame Robin, for instance, has a very wide distribution and has been recorded from many different forest and woodland habitats. Similarly, the Gang Gang Cockatoo also has a broad distribution and is known from wetter forests and woodlands, timbered watercourses and scrubs. In contrast to the birds, most of the threatened invertebrates recorded from the Australian Alps can be considered to have narrow habitat ranges and occur in a restricted number of habitat types. Indeed, species such as the Alpine Spiny Crayfish, Alpine Stonefly and Mount Stirling Stonefly can be considered to be restricted to the Australian Alps. Most of the threatened invertebrates occur in narrow and first-order streams, in the headwaters of catchments and at higher elevations (Table 15). In some respects, threatened reptiles that occur in the Australian Alps are similar in having a restricted set of habitat requirements (Table 17). For example, the Alpine Bog Skink, Alpine Egernia, Alpine She-oak Skink and Alpine Water Skink are Australian Alps specialists. Both the Alpine Bog Skink and Alpine Water Skink are largely tied-in with bogs and heathlands, while the Alpine Egernia and Alpine She-oak Skink are also found in woodlands and heathy forest. Other reptiles such as the Glossy Grass Skink, Mountain Skink and Rosenberg s Goanna can be considered to have a wider or moderate habitat range, occurring in a variety of heathland, woodland and forest types. Of the threatened mammal species recorded as occurring within the Australian Alps, two species, the Broad-toothed Rat and the Mountain Pygmy Possum, can both be considered to have a narrow habitat range (Table 16). As Australian Alps specialist species, both occur in a restricted set of habitat types. The Broad-toothed Rat is restricted to heathlands and sedgelands in alpine and subalpine areas. Whereas, the Mountain Pygmy Possum only occurs in Mountain Plum Pine heathland Page 16

growing over rock screes in the alpine and sub-alpine zone. Another mammal species with a narrow habitat range is the Eastern False Pipistrelle. Though not an Australian Alps specialist, it seems to be largely confined to wet, high altitude forests. Outside of these few species with limited habitat ranges, there are several threatened mammals that are more widely distributed across a broader range of habitat types. The Long-footed Potoroo, for instance, has a moderate habitat range and can be found in wet, damp, montane, riparian and lowland forest both within and outside of the Australian Alps. The Smoky Mouse also has a fairly wide distribution, and is found in dry heathy open forest to wet forest types, sub-alpine heaths and wet gullies. Similarly, Leadbeater s Possum is found both within and outside the Australian Alps, in montane ash forests, cool temperate rainforest, sub-alpine woodland and lowland floodplain forest. Other threatened mammal species have broad habitat ranges and occur across a wide variety of habitat types. For example, the Spotted-tailed Quoll has a wide distribution, well outside the Australian Alps, and is found in many different forest types, from lowland, foothill and montane, to dry forests and woodlands to heathlands. Similarly, the ellow-bellied Glider is found across many different mixed-eucalypt forest types, in coastal landscapes, foothills and montane environments. The Eastern Pygmy Possum is another example of a threatened mammal with a broad habitat range, and occupies rainforests, sclerophyll forests and heaths where Banksias and myrtaceous shrubs and trees occur. Finally, of the five threatened fish species recorded within the Australian Alps, two can be considered to have a narrow habitat range: the Australian Grayling and the Trout Cod (Table 18). The Australian Grayling is restricted to cool and clear rivers and streams with a gravel substrate, whereas the Trout Cod occurs in deep pools in only a few creek and river locations. The other species, the Golden Perch, Flat-headed Galaxias and the Macquarie Perch, each have broader distributions and can be considered to have moderate habitat ranges. In the case of the Flat-headed Galaxias it can be found in gently moving streams, lakes, lagoons, billabongs and backwaters: in other words a range of habit types. In terms of life history, some species of threatened native fauna may be more prone to disturbance from introduced deer if their den, burrow or nest sites are either capable of being trampled or otherwise modified or removed through browsing effects on vegetation. For example, predominantly ground-dwelling mammals such as the Broad-toothed Rat, Long-footed Potoroo, Smoky Mouse and Southern Brown Bandicoot make nests out of dead or live vegetation at the soillitter interface and these may be easily disturbed by the activities of deer. In contrast, arboreal (treedwelling) mammals such as Leadbeater s Possum, the Squirrel Glider or ellow-bellied Glider use den sites in standing hollow-bearing trees that are unlikely to be affected by deer. In the latter case, the availability of den sites for these mammals may only become limiting over very long periods of time where such structures are not being recruited into a forest stand. Among the threatened birds, threatened species that create nests on the ground or near to the ground in low vegetation might be susceptible to trampling or browsing by deer. This would include species such as the Brown Quail, Chestnut-rumped Heathwren, Diamond Firetail, Hooded Robin, Olive Whistler and Speckled Warbler. Elsewhere, trampling by deer at the edge of sphagnum bogs may have an impact on burrow sites of ground-dwelling amphibians such as the Baw Baw Frog, orthern Corroboree Frog and Southern Corroboree Frog. Similarly, in alpine landscapes, any of the threatened grounddwelling reptiles that nest in and under leaf litter or low vegetation may also be affected by the trampling and browsing activities of deer. These include the Alpine Bog Skink, Alpine Egernia and Alpine She-Oak Skink. Species that are likely to be at particular risk of having den, burrow or nest sites disturbed by deer are indicated in the appropriate column in Tables 13-18 by (i.e. es). Where no impact on these attributes is likely it is indicated by an. Species of native fauna that rely on plant-derived food resources may be more likely to be impacted upon by introduced deer in the first instance than species that feed on other foods such as invertebrates. Deer may eat all parts of plants, including flowers and seed-bearing structures, as Page 17

well as leaves and stems (Davis et al. 2008). ative fauna reliant on sedges, grasses and ground herbs may be particularly vulnerable. Species where deer potentially might compete for food resources with a particular threatened species are indicated in the appropriate column in Tables 13-18 with a, whereas those where no overlap in food resources are indicated with an. Among the faunal groups, amphibians are potentially among the least affected by deer feeding behaviour since they concentrate on feeding on invertebrates (Table 13). Similarly, many threatened bird species associated with waterways either feed on invertebrates or aquatic vegetation that is not ordinarily consumed by deer, with relevant examples including species such as the Australasian Shoveler, Freckled Duck and Lewin s Rail (Table 14). In more terrestrial and vegetated habitats, other birds also concentrate on invertebrates, including the Flame Robin, Pink Robin and Scarlet Robin. In contrast, small birds such as the Brown Quail, Diamond Firetail and Turquoise Parrot that feed on grasses and seed materials may be potentially affected by the grazing activities of deer. The food preferences of each of the threatened invertebrates listed in Table 15 extend mostly to other aquatic invertebrates, aquatic plants and detritus, and consequently deer are not expected to compete at all for food resources. Among the mammals, the food resources of herbivorous species such as the Broad-toothed Rat and Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby might potentially be affected by the foraging behaviour of deer. In addition, omnivorous species such as the Mountain Pygmy Possum and Smoky Mouse might also be affected by deer where plant food resources are competed for. For threatened reptiles food preferences mostly extend to invertebrates and small vertebrates, and there is not considered to be much potential for direct overlap in food resources with deer (Table 17). Finally, none of the listed threatened fish are thought to be in conflict with deer for food resources (Table 18). Deer have the potential through their foraging and other behaviours to impact on plant floristics and structure. Some threatened native fauna may be more reliant on sites where floristic diversity is high and/or where ground cover is thickest and it is therefore important to recognise such species as potentially being vulnerable to deer impacts. For example, species such as the Long-footed Potoroo, Long-nosed Potoroo and Southern Brown Bandicoot are known to prefer areas with dense ground cover. In situations where this ground cover is removed they may be increasingly exposed to other threatening processes such as predation from introduced carnivores such as the Red Fox and Feral Cat. Similarly, for most species of threatened ground-dwelling frogs, a thick ground cover of vegetation alongside bogs, stream banks and other riparian areas may provide suitable protected shelter from avian predators, or semi-protected calling or basking sites. This is certainly the case for species such as the orthern Corroboree Frog and Spotted Tree Frog. If such vegetation is removed along riparian strips then sites may become unfavourable. Some threatened birds are associated with dense understorey that provides suitable foraging microhabitats or locations to build nests that afford protection from predators. The Olive Whistler and the Pink Robin are good examples. For other threatened fauna species, shrub cover may be more important. For instance, Leadbeater s Possum is known to partly favour thickets of Acacia for foraging in. Introduced deer can sometimes cause excessive damage to such shrubs through browsing and more typically ringbarking through antler rubbing (Peel et al. 2005). Threatened native fauna that are known to be particularly reliant on floristic diversity or structural cover are indicated in the appropriate column in Tables 13-18 with a. For other threatened fauna, potential introduced deer impacts are less obvious. For example, among the mammals most threatened micro-bats are reported from a wide variety of vegetation types, they tend to roost in large hollow-bearing trees or caves, and their foraging activities are not ordinarily restricted to certain microhabitats. In such cases, pinpointing the direct impacts of introduced deer may be difficult (Table 16). Similarly, the listed threatened invertebrates and fish are restricted to waterways and streams where direct impacts of deer on them are unlikely (Tables 15 and 18). Page 18

So, in the process of identifying threatened fauna species to concentrate on for follow-up monitoring, conservation agency staff across the Australian Alps can first narrow down the list based on identifying those species that are known to occur within their jurisdiction. Further narrowing down or shortlisting of species can then be achieved by examining whether the species in question has a narrow or broad distribution, and whether the species records a against each of the three sensitive life history attributes indicated in the tables. Species that might prove a point of focus, for example, might be those with a narrow distribution where deer are likely to impact on either their food resources, breeding habitat or habitat in general. Step 3: Inferring Whether a Threatened Fauna Species is Being Affected Unlike flora species, where browsing or damage impacts on individual plants or species can be directly observed and recorded, direct impacts on threatened fauna are not easily measured. As an interim step, conservation management staff across the Australian Alps should document the types of damage being inflicted on vegetation types known to be utilised by the threatened fauna species in question. For example, for a high priority species such as the Broad-toothed Rat the first questions to be asked is are deer present within their known habitat and, if so, are they affecting ground cover of vegetation? A similar approach might be taken for other species with restricted habitat requirements, such as the Baw Baw Frog, or orthern and Southern Corroboree Frogs. In the case of the frogs the simplest means of identifying potential impact is to record the presence of deer at known breeding sites such as bogs. From there it may be possible to quantify the level or extent of damage to the breeding site caused by foraging or other activities by deer such as track formation and wallowing. Page 19

Table 13. Ecological characteristics of threatened amphibian species that have been recorded within the Australian Alps and potential conflicts with introduced deer. Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Alpine Tree Frog* Moderate - woodland, heath, grassland and herbfield at montane, sub-alpine and alpine altitudes. Baw Baw Frog* Moderate - sub-alpine wet heathland, subalpine woodland, montane riparian thicket, cool temperate rainforest, cool temperate mixed forest and montane wet forest vegetation. Booroolong Frog Broad - occurs along rocky streams across a range of vegetation types. Brown Toadlet Broad - occurs in both wet and dry sclerophyll forest, heathland or grassland. Found singly under rocks and logs. Giant Burrowing Frog Green and Golden Bell Frog Littlejohn s Tree Frog orthern Corroboree Frog* Broad - occurs across various eucalypt forest types, as well as damp scrubs and heathlands. Broad - occurs in a variety of habitat types including forest, woodland, heathland, riparian scrub, riparian forest, damp forest, shrubby dry forest and open pastureland. Broad - across its distribution occurs in a range of habitats including heath, woodland and dry and wet sclerophyll forest. arrow - occupies two distinct habitat types. Breeding associated with pools and seepages in sphagnum bogs, wet tussock grasslands and wet heath. on-breeding habitat in forest, sub-alpine woodland and tall heath. Potential Overlap in Food Resources Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Invertebrates Pools, fens, bogs, dams and reservoirs. Invertebrates Seepages along drainages and bogs. Invertebrates Cobble instream Invertebrates Inundated areas and mossy bogs Invertebrates Still streams and ponds Invertebrates and small frogs Ponds and ephemeral water bodies Invertebrates Stationary and ephemeral water bodies Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? Invertebrates Sphagnum bogs Smooth Toadlet Moderate - dry forest and woodland. Invertebrates Temporary inundated grassland Page 20

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Southern Toadlet Broad - found in variety of damp situations in sclerophyll forests, woodland, heaths and grasslands under logs and leaf-litter. Spotted Tree Frog* Moderate - naturally vegetated, rocky and swift-flowing upland streams. Southern Bell Frog Moderate - habitat in vegetation at edges of permanent water such as slow-flowing streams, swamps, lagoons and lakes. Southern Corroboree Frog* arrow - occupies two distinct habitat types. Breeding habitat associated with pools and seepages in sphagnum bogs, wet tussock grasslands and wet heath. on-breeding habitat in forest, sub-alpine woodland and tall heath. Potential Overlap in Food Resources Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Invertebrates Moist soaks and depressions Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? Invertebrates In-stream Invertebrates and small frogs Slow-flowing streams, swamps, lagoons and lakes Invertebrates Sphagnum bogs * Species considered to be an Alpine specialist by virtue of its geographic distribution. Page 21

Table 14. Ecological characteristics of threatened bird species that have been recorded within the Australian Alps and potential conflicts with introduced deer. Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Australasian Shoveler Australian Painted Snipe Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? esting Habitat Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? arrow - lakes, wetlands and inlets Invertebrates Ground nest Moderate - wetlands, dams, marshes, teatree scrub and open forest Azure Kingfisher Moderate - creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, swamps, estuaries and mangroves Barking Owl Moderate - open forest, woodland, dense scrub, trees along watercourses Black Falcon Moderate - plains, grasslands, timbered watercourses and wetlands. Brown Quail Moderate - rank grasses near wetlands, Melaleuca and Banksia thickets, swampy coastal heaths, tall tropical grasslands, spinifex savannah. Brown Treecreeper Moderate - forest, woodland, scrubs, River Red Gums on watercourses Bush Stone-curlew Moderate - open woodland, dry watercourses with fallen branches, sparse grass, coastal scrub, mangrove fringes. Caspian Tern arrow - coastal, beaches, mudflats, estuaries, larger rivers and reservoirs Chestnut-rumped Heathwren Moderate - heathy woodlands, scrublands and box-ironbark forests. Worms, molluscs and other invertebrates with some plant materials Freshwater yabbies and small fish Small arboreal mammals and invertebrates Shallow scrape on the ground Burrow on creek bank Tree-hollow ertebrates est high in tree Plant materials (grasses, shoots and seeds)/invertebrates Invertebrates and nectar Insects and small vertebrates Fish, invertebrates and eggs Invertebrates/Plant materials (seeds) Diamond Firetail Moderate - open forest and woodlands Plant materials (grass and herb seeds)/invertebrates Scrape on ground Tree-hollow ests on bare ground ests on scrape in the ground ests on ground or in low shrubs ests 2-3 m above ground Page 22

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Eastern Curlew Moderate - estuaries, tidal mudflats, sandspits, saltmarshes, mangroves, bare grasslands near water. Eastern Great Egret arrow - shallows of rivers, estuaries, tidal mudflats, wetlands and dams Flame Robin Broad - forests, woodlands and scrubs in summer. Open woodlands, plains, paddocks and parks in autumn-winter Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Invertebrates Scrape on ground Invertebrates and ertebrates Freckled Duck arrow - swamps Aquatic Plant materials and Invertebrates Gang Gang Cockatoo Glossy-black Cockatoo Grey-crowned Babbler Broad - wetter forests and woodlands, timbered foothills and valleys, timbered watercourses, coastal scrubs, farmlands, suburban gardens arrow - she-oaks in forests, woodlands and timbered watercourses Moderate - open forests, woodlands, scrublands Grey Goshawk Moderate - rainforests, forests, forest gullies and valleys, taller woodlands, timber on watercourses, open country in autumn dispersal Hardhead arrow - deep, permanent wetlands, large open waters, brackish coastal swamps, dams and lakes Hooded Robin Moderate - drier eucalypt forests, woodlands and scrubs, fallen logs and debris. Latham s Snipe arrow - wet areas with tussocks, scrub, open woodland to alpine bogs. Lewin s Rail arrow - swamp woodlands, rushes, reeds, creeks and wet heaths. Tree-top platform Invertebrates ariable height in tree Plant materials (seeds from eucalypts and wattles) Plant materials (Casuarina seeds) ests in lignum or branches over water Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? Tree-hollow Tree-hollow Invertebrates ests low to ground ertebrates ests high in tree Invertebrates and Aquatic Plant materials In reeds, cumbungi and lignum Invertebrates ests low to the ground Invertebrates and Plant materials (seeds) Aquatic Plants and Invertebrates Migratory On ground near vegetation Page 23

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Little Eagle Moderate - plains, foothills, open forests, woodlands and scrublands Little Egret arrow - tidal mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves and freshwater wetlands Magpie Goose arrow - large seasonal wetlands and well vegetated dams Masked Owl Moderate - forests, open woodlands, farmlands and timbered watercourses Musk Duck arrow - well-vegetated swamps, wetlands, lakes, reservoirs, bays and inlets ankeen ight Heron arrow - shallow margins of rivers, wetlands and mangrove-lined estuaries Olive Whistler Moderate - alpine thickets, wetter rainforests/forests/woodlands, watercourses, coastal tea-tree/paperbark scrubs and heaths. Open habitats in autumn-winter Orange-bellied Parrot arrow - saltmarshes, coastal pastures, dunes and beaches Pacific Gull Moderate - coasts, bays, coastal farmland, swamps and inland rivers Pied Cormorant arrow - coastal waters with sloping shorelines, estuaries, bays, tidal inlets, large inland lakes and rivers Pink Robin Moderate - dense, dank forest/tree fern gullies. Disperses in autumn-winter to open forests, woodlands and scrublands Powerful Owl Moderate - mountain forests, gullies and forest margins, sparser hilly woodlands, coastal forests, woodlands and scrubs Regent Honeyeater ertebrates and Invertebrates ertebrates and Invertebrates Plant materials (grasses, bulbs and rhizomes) Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? High in tree Over water In scrapes on flat ground ertebrates Tree-hollow Invertebrates and Aquatic Plant materials Small fish, reptiles and invertebrates Plant materials (berries) and Invertebrates Plant materials (seeds and fruits of sedges and saltmarsh plants) Shellfish and other Invertebrates Reeds, mats and cumbungi Over water ests low to ground Tree-hollow Elevated structures Fish ests on ground or low shrubs Invertebrates ests in tree fern, leafy shrub or tree ertebrates (mediumsized arboreal marsupials). arrow - dry open forest and woodland ectar and Invertebrates. Tree-hollow or limb ests 2-10 m above ground Page 24

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Royal Spoonbill Moderate - large shallow waters, inland and coastal, freshwater wetlands, estuaries, and saltmarshes Scarlet Robin Moderate - foothill forests, woodlands and watercourses. In autumn-winter more open habitats Sooty Owl arrow - tall wet forests in sheltered mountain gullies, with dense understorey layer Crustaceans, Fish and Amphibians Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Heads of trees, lignum and cumbungi Invertebrates ests 1-3 m above ground ertebrates (small to medium-sized mammals) Speckled Warbler Moderate - drier woodland with tussocks Plant material (seeds) and Invertebrates Spotted Harrier Moderate - grassy plains, crops, scrublands, spinifex, mallee, heathlands, open grassy woodlands Spotted Quail Thrush Moderate - drier forests, woodlands and scrubs Square-tailed Kite Broad - heathlands, woodlands and forests, tropical and subtropical rainforest, timbered watercourses Superb Parrot Moderate - river red gums, black box, yellow box, river oak, mostly near rivers Swift Parrot Moderate - forests, woodlands, plantations, parks and gardens Turquoise Parrot Moderate - open grassy woodland, with dead trees, near permanent water and forested hills, and coastal heaths aried Sitella Moderate - open eucalypt woodland/forests, heavier rainforests White-bellied Sea Eagle arrow - coasts, islands, estuaries, inlets, large rivers, inland lakes and reservoirs ertebrates and carrion Invertebrates and Plant materials (seeds of grasses, legumes and other plants). Hollow in trunk On-ground or in low shrubs ests high in live tree ests low to or just above ground Small ertebrates ests 15-25 m above ground in tree Plant materials (grass seeds, herbaceous plants and fruits). Flowers of winterflowering trees or lerp infested trees Plant materials (seeds, grasses and herbaceous ground plants) Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? Tree-hollow Tree-hollow Hollow in stump or dead standing tree Invertebrates ests 5-20 m above ground Fish ests in tall trees Page 25

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources White-fronted Chat Moderate - open damp ground, grass clumps, heath, saltmarsh, mangroves and dunes Wood Sandpiper arrow - muddy margins of wetlands, mangroves, mudflats and saltmarshes Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Invertebrates ests in deep tussocks or low shrubs Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? Invertebrates Migratory Page 26

Table 15. Ecological characteristics of threatened invertebrate species that have been recorded within the Australian Alps and potential conflicts with introduced deer. Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Alpine Spiny Crayfish* Alpine Stonefly* Moderate - cool streams in alpine and subalpine areas. Dry sclerophyll forest and heath with abundant tree ferns along the stream. Restricted - endemic to the Bogong High Plains, being restricted to first-order Alpine streams. Aquatic and semiaquatic vegetation, benthic invertebrates, fungi and bacteria. Other invertebrates in larval stages Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Burrows under rock ledges or submerged instream tree roots Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? /A In-stream /A Archaeophylax canarus Canthocamptus longipes* Canthocamptus sublaevis East Gippsland Spiny Crayfish Mount Stirling Stonefly* Murray Spiny Crayfish Orbost Spiny Crayfish Moderate - Foothill and lowland streams, including temporary streams and farm dams. Insects and also feeding on decayed plant matter. arrow - freshwater. Organic detritus and phytoplankton arrow - freshwater. Organic detritus and phytoplankton arrow - streams bordered by sclerophyll forest, with dry sclerophyll and heath on ridges. Also inhabits cleared areas provided riparian vegetation is intact. arrow small streams with cobble substrate. arrow - cool streams in headwaters of catchments. Aquatic and semiaquatic vegetation, benthic invertebrates, fungi and bacteria. In larval stages they eat other invertebrates. Plant debris and detritus. arrow - cool streams at higher elevations. Organic detritus and phytoplankton. In-stream /A In-stream /A In-stream /A Burrows under rock ledges or submerged instream tree roots /A In-stream /A Burrows under rock ledges or submerged instream tree roots Burrows under rock ledges or submerged instream tree roots /A /A Page 27

Species ame Habitat Range and Habitats Food Preference Potential Overlap in Food Resources Spathula tryssa Thaumatoperla robusta Thaumatoperla timmsi arrow - freshwater. Small invertebrates and dead and decaying organic matter. arrow - freshwater. In larval stages they eat other invertebrates. arrow -freshwater. In larval stages they eat other invertebrates. Riekoperla arrow - small streams and trickles. In larval stages they eat intermedia* other invertebrates. * Species considered to be an Alpine specialist by virtue of its geographic distribution. Den, Burrow or est Potentially Impacted by Trampling or Browsing? Breeding Habitat Species Prefers Floristic Diversity or Dense Cover in Understorey? In-stream /A In-stream /A In-stream /A In-stream /A Page 28