A 340843 THE BALKANS SINCE THE SECOND WORLD WAR R. J. CRAMPTON An imprint of Pearson Education London New York Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Hong Kong Cape Town New Delhi Madrid Paris Amsterdam Munich Milan Stockholm
CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF MAPS xi xii PREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS MAPS xix xx xxv Part I COMMUNIST TAKEOVERS AND CIVIL WAR: THE BALKANS 1944-1949 1 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 YUGOSLAVIA, 1944-1948 11 The Second World War and foundation of communist power 12 Communist power entrenched: October 1944 to November 1945 14 Communist power legitimized: the November 1945 elections and the January 1946 constitution 19 Unrestrained communist power in Yugoslavia, 1946 8 23 External affairs from the end of the war to the breach with Stalin, 1944-8 26 3 ALBANIA, 1944-1948 38 The foundation and growth of the communist movement 39 The consolidation of communist power, November 1944 to March 1946 41 The beginnings of the revolution from above, March 1946 to June 1948 43 Albania's external alignment, 1944-8 46 4 BULGARIA, 1944-1948 50 Bulgaria during the Second World War 51 Factors in Bulgarian politics, 1944-8 52 From the coup of 9 September 1944 to the postponement of the elections in August 1945 55 vii
THE BALKANS SINCE THE SECOND WORLD WAR From the postponement of the elections in August 1945 to the Grand National Assembly elections of October 1946 60 From the elections of October 1946 to the fifth party congress in December 1948 63 5 ROMANIA, 1944-1948 67 Factors in Romanian politics, 1944 8 70 From the coup of August 1944 to the installation of the Groza government in March 1945 73 The crisis of February March 1945 75 From the installation of the Groza government to the elections of November. 1946 78 The completion of the communist takeover, November 1946 to March 1948 83 6 GREECE, 1944-1949 87 Internal conflicts in Greece during the Second World War 89 Left and right in Greece, 1944-9 91 The December events, 1944 93 'Anarchic Banditry': from the Varkiza agreement to the elections of March 1946 94 The drift to civil war: from the elections to the declaration of the provisional government, March 1946 to December 1947 97 The Greek civil war, December 1947 to August 1949 100 Part II THE BALKANS DURING THE COLD WAR, 1949-1989 105 7 INTRODUCTION 107 8 YUGOSLAVIA, 1948-1989 113 Finding 'Tito's way': Yugoslavia in the 1950s 113 Yugoslavia isolated 113 The beginnings of self-management 114 The reform of party and state institutions, 1950-3 116 Foreign policy and 'non-alignment' 118 Domestic affairs in the late 1950s 121 The search for stability: Yugoslavia 1960-76 122 The empowerment of the republics, 1960 5 122 The economic reforms of the mid-1960s 125 The fall of Rankovic and the beginnings of unrest, 1966 8 127 The Croatian Spring, 1968-71 131 The purges and institutional reconstruction, 1971 6 134 Yugoslav foreign policy in the 1960s and 1970s 137 Yugoslavia in decline, 1980-9 138 The demise of the old guard and their sustaining myths 139 viii
CONTENTS Economic crisis and the discrediting of self-management 142 Ethnic nationalism and the end of'brotherhood and unity' 146 9 ALBANIA, 1948-1991 156 The Soviet period, 1948-61 156 The Chinese period, 1961-78 160 The period of isolation, 1978-91 163 10 BULGARIA, 1948-1989 168 The Stalinist period, 1948-54 168 The rise of Todor Zhivkov, 1954-65 170 Zhivkov ascendant, 1965-81 172 The decline and fall of Todor Zhivkov, 1981-9 175 11 ROMANIA, 1948-1989 182 Romania under Gheorghiu-Dej, 1948-65 182 The Stalinist period, 1948-56 182 Desatellization and destalinization: 1956 65 185 Ceausescu's Romania, 1965-89 189 The honeymoon period, 1965 71 190 The Ceausescu dictatorship, 1971-89 192 Ceausescu's exploitation of Romanian nationalism 194 Ceausescu and the RCP 197 The economic disasters 199 The end of the Ceau escu regime 201 12 GREECE, 1949-1990 205 The beginnings of political relaxation, 1949 52 205 Years of stability, 1952-61 207 The return of political instability, 1961-7 210 The rule of the colonels, 1967-74 214 Stable democracy and the road to the EEC, 1974-90 220 PASOK in power, 1981-90 225 Part III THE POST-COMMUNIST BALKANS 231 13 INTRODUCTION 233 14 THE YUGOSLAV CRISIS, 1989-1992, AND THE WAR IN BOSNIA, 1992-1995 239 The collapse of the post-1945 federation, March 1989 to April 1992 239 Serbia and Kosovo 240 Croatia 241 Bosnia and Hercegovina 244 Macedonia 245 IX
THE BALKANS SINCE THE SECOND WORLD WAR Montenegro 246 Slovenia 247 The decline of the federal institutions 248 The descent into war in Slovenia and Croatia 251 The drift to war in Bosnia 254 The dissolution of the old Yugoslavia 255 The Bosnian and Croatian conflicts, 1992 5 258 15 YUGOSLAVIA AND ITS SUCCESSOR STATES SINCE 1992 270 Kosovo since 1992 270 Serbia since 1992 277 Montenegro since 1992 283 Bosnia and Hercegovina since 1995 285 Croatia since 1992 289 Slovenia since 1992 293 Macedonia since 1992 293 16 ALBANIA SINCE 1991 299 The semi-transition, March 1991 to March 1992 299 The Berisha/Meksi regime, March 1992-June 1996 300 The collapse of 1997 304 Albania since June 1997 305 17 BULGARIA SINCE 1989 308 The UDF Years, December 1989 to December 1994 308 BSP government and economic catastrophe, January 1995-April 1997 314 The second UDF government, Bulgaria since April 1997 319 18 ROMANIA SINCE 1989 324 The National Salvation Front and managed transition, December 1989 to September 1991 324 The neo-communist governments, September 1992 to November 1996 328 Centre-right government, November 1996 to December 2000 331 19 GREECE SINCE 1990 335 New Democracy in power, April 1990 to October 1993 335 PASOK government, Greece since April 1993 338 20 EPILOGUE 343 BIBLIOGRAPHY 347 INDEX 362 x