Egypt
Egyptian life centered around the Nile River. Seasonal floods provide rich plains on the river banks to cultivate produce. The Nile begins in the East African highlands of Uganda and Ethiopia. It flows 4,000 miles north through Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan before it empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Great civilizations developed throughout Sudan and Egypt along the banks of the Nile. Egyptologists refer to five major regions of Egypt and Sudan. Lower Egypt is the northern most portion by the Nile Delta at the Mediterranean Sea. Upper Egypt extends along the Nile between Amarna and Luxor. Lower Nubia begins at the first cataract (waterfall) to the second cataract. Upper Nubia includes the second through the fourth cataracts. Finally, Kush is the southernmost region from the fourth through the sixth cataracts. Navigation throughout Egypt on the Nile unified the regions and facilitated commerce and communication. As long as the seasonal floods were regular, farmers merely sowed seeds along the nutrient rich banks and waited for the harvest. This was remarkably easy compared to digging, plowing and planting in most other ancient civilizations. Stable produce such as wheat and barley combined with a healthy supply of cattle increases Egypt s population rapidly. The low demand of agricultural labor enabled Egyptians to devote their time to other projects including some of the greatest architectural feats in the ancient world. Cities sprung up along the Nile as early as 3500 B.C.E. and Egypt unified 3100 B.C.E., which is 800 years before the unification of Mesopotamia. LOWER UPPER LOWER NUBIA UPPER NUBIA KUSH
Egypt unified for the first time in 3100 B.C.E. under Menes. The 2 foot tall palette of Narmer (Menes) commemorates this event. Menes is depicted in the center as a conquering king. His tall hat is the crown of Upper Egypt (left) and he wears the crown of Lower Egypt (right) as he follows his vizier and the decapitated heads of defeated enemies. The First Dynasty established a strong king (pharaoh) who structured Egyptian life and represented the pantheon. Hathor (the sky goddess) is shown in the form of a cow and Horus (the sky god) is a represented by a falcon. Egyptian rulers had the responsibility to represent the people before the gods although they were not necessarily esteemed as gods until after they died, were embalmed, mummified and buried with their earthly possessions.
Little is known of Egyptian life until the Old Kingdom where archaeological and architectural evidence offers tremendous insights. Dating from the Third Dynasty, extensive records have been unearthed chronicling the responsibilities of the pharaohs officials. Like the Mesopotamians, officials maintained written records, discussed commercial transactions, taxes, and royal affairs. The earliest pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom beginning with the Stepped Pyramid of King Zoser (below) designed by a renowned architect Imhotep in 2630 B.C.E. The earliest designs were based upon burial mounds called mastabas. Imhotep stacked them to create a precursor to the pyramids. Tombs for Kings Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus and the Great Sphinx were built between 2600-2500 B.C.E. (above) The Great Sphinx sits in front of the pyramid of Chephren. It has his likeness on the body of lion. His nose has been worn away by the desert climate, but it originally resembled the man buried behind it in the center pyramid. Egyptians built the pyramids as paid workers. Their houses have been excavated recently. Workers lived close by with their families. The place of the afterlife and Pharaohs roles as intercessors were probably strongest at this period.
Egyptian writing is called hieroglyphics which is an ancient system of ideograms. Until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1822, hieroglyphics were undecipherable. Jean-Francois Champollion recognized the Greek and Egyptian scripts repeated the same religious message and broke the code through careful comparison of Greek letters with Egyptian symbols. Hieroglyphics are not an alphabetic system of writing. Phoenicians probably created the first alphabet which was later adopted by the Greeks. Hieroglyphics took common images and attributed meanings or ideas to the combinations presented. Although it was a complex system, hieroglyphics was more tedious than the early alphabetic systems. Scribes had to be trained properly to maintain the degree of record keeping Egyptian pharaohs demanded. Young upper class boys attended scribe school to master hieroglyphics. They used reed pens on papyrus to practice each day for hours at a time. Scribes carved on pyramid walls, temple pillars, stone monuments, and stone tablets. Egyptians were among the most recorded ancient peoples due to their love of hieroglyphics. Despite the prevalence of writing in Egypt, literacy was most likely restricted to the nobility and royalty.
THE MIDDLE KINGDOM 2140-1786 BCE The Old Kingdom collapsed mysteriously and a period of confusion followed. The Middle Kingdom unified under King Mentuhotep II (2065-2060 B.C.E.) (above) and his son Mentuhotep III (2060-2010 B.C.E.). Amon-Ra (right) gained prominence in the Middle Kingdom due to a connection with Thebes, the new capital. Egypt gained new territories in Nubia and Sudan. King Amenemhat III (1850-1800 B.C.E.) built the palace at Hawara, the largest complex in the ancient world, indicative of the power of Middle Kingdom pharaohs. Middle Kingdom pharaohs had contact with early Greece. Hawara is referred to by Herodotus as having a labyrinth, but no conclusive archaeological remains have been found The Middle Kingdom fell to the Hyksos who came from Turkey through Palestine to settle in Avaris in the Nile Delta. The Hyksos introduced chariots and compound bows into the region. Their conquest seems to have been swift as they moved southwards within a few generations.
Egyptians expelled the Hyksos and regained rule of Egypt during the New Kingdom. Once again Nubia fell under Egyptian rule. Thutmose III (1504-1450 B.C.E.) fought as far as Mesopotamia across the Euphrates River. Queen Hatshepsut (1504-1482 B.C.E.) was a powerful Egyptian queen who served as Pharaoh between Thutmose II and Thutmose III. In the early and adolescent years of Thutmose III, Hatshepsut used the title of king instead of queen. Thutmose III destroyed many of her monuments after her death. New Kingdom pharaohs transitioned from burial in pyramids to burial in the Valley of the Kings to better protect their remains from grave robbers. Despite the traps set by earlier pharaohs, many of the pyramids were looted for their treasures. The temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari in Thebes preserved some statues and busts of her likeness (right). The complex was more integrated than the tombs within the pyramids. Statues of gods were incorporated into the design of the tomb itself instead of placed in separate chambers. The walls were painted with scenes and inscriptions to honor her and justify her claim to the throne. The Amarna period (1417-1352 B.C.E.) has been chronicled by various scribes from Assyria, Babylonia and the Hittites to the Egyptian pharaohs. These correspondences reveal the negotiation processes that occurred in the aftermath of the campaigns by Thutmose III. Egypt became increasingly multi-racial and multi-ethnic in the Amarna period. Nubians were treated as Egyptian citizens. Aten gained religious significance through the reign of Amenophis IV or Akenaton. He also moved the court to Tel el Amarna from the historic capital of Thebes. King Tutankhamen (1362-1351 B.C.E.) and his successors were increasingly warlike and expansive. This renewed aggression would bring the end of the New Kingdom.
Amenophis IV (1379-1362 B.C.E.) led one of the most significant religious reforms in Egyptian history in his shift toward a monotheistic focus upon Aten, the disk of the sun, as the primary and possibly only deity in Egypt. In the fifth year of his reign, he changed his name to Akhenaton meaning the one who is beneficial to the Aten. He and his wife moved their entire court from Thebes, the historic center for Amon worship, to a new capital called Tel el Amarna. At Tel el Amarna, Akhenaton proceeded to establish Aten as the central deity and openly defaced the images of Amon throughout Egypt. He sought to forcibly transition all Egypt to a new god. The new religion to Aten seemed to allow for Akhenaton to be considered a god as well, but somehow this didn t take away from the central focus upon one god. Once the official worship of Amon-Ra and the priesthood was disbanded the immense revenue stream led to Akhenaton s building projects to construct temples to Aten. Egyptian priests could accept Aten as a new deity but the backlash came in the emphasis upon Aten as the only god and Akhenaton as the mediator for this new power. Initially things went well in Amarna, but after a few years Queen Nefertiti fell ill and died. Akhenaton became increasingly hostile to any opposition. Egypt lost holdings in Mesopotamia and Paelstine. Religious disillusionment and popular discontent weakened his rule before his death. His son Tutankaton left the religion of Aten and changed his name to Tutankhamen also known as King Tut. Akhenaton s reforms changed the arts significantly. Artists did not have to use the canon of proportion and images took a thinner and more stretched appearance at this time. Compare Akhenaton s bust (right) to the canon and notice the longer chin and thinner cheeks.
The Egyptian Pantheon featured thousands gods of varying degrees of significance. Each one identified a natural or social force. Various creation stories describe the origins of life and of humanity. The Heliopolitan mythology explained the origins of the universe. Heliopolis was the center for Ra worship. Ra emerged from his mother Nun (primordial waters). Nun raised him to his place of preeminence a creative act in the beginning of time. This principle of the supportive maternal and spousal figure runs deep in Egyptian culture. Ra created Shu (air), Tefnut (moisture), Geb (Earth) and Nut (sky). These primary elements formed the basis for life. Geb and Nut created the four humanlike gods: Set, Nephthys, Osiris and Isis. Egyptian gods often were combined based upon their functions. Ra and Amon were the combined concepts of the sun and its creative power. Ra and Horus combined to represent the rule of the sun over the universe. As Egypt unified, its mythology gained increasing complexity. Local deities like Ra in Heliopolis or Amon in Thebes were combined and their narrative identities were likewise combined. As a result there were variations of origin stories and significances. By the Fourth Dynasty, Pharaohs were associated with Ra in their appointment and rule. They were called sons of Ra and equated with the ruling and creative powers of the Sun. Pharaohs had unique privileges in life, in burial and death. The Old Kingdom Pharaohs were unquestioned leaders of their people.
Ra became associated with Amon or Aten in the Middle Kingdom. This created a strong connection between the gods and the Pharaohs in their rule in this world, their death, their burial and their afterlife. The following gods had a sibling rivalry which defined the first Pharaoh s role in Egyptian religious life. Amon or Aten sun god (falcon) is father of the gods. Thebes was the center for Amon worship. Egyptians adopted the solar calendar unlike their neighbors in Mesopotamia. Sunrise and sunset represent the reincarnation of Ra each day. Amon means giver of life. Aten means disk of the sun. Pharoahs were believed to be representatives of Amon. Osiris god of underworld (mummified king) was killed by brother Set who threw his body in the Nile. Isis restored him to life and he became ruler of underworld once restored to life. Osiris is often considered the first Pharaoh and following Pharaohs were associated with him in their death and burial rituals. He is also father of Horus the sky god. Isis wife of Osiris, goddess of fertility (female) restored Osiris to life by mummifying his remains. She was a symbol of the dutiful wife and the mother of Horus the sky god. Horus god of sky (falcon) ruled earth after killing Set. He was the son of Osiris and Isis who avenged his father s murder. Pharaohs are considered representatives of Horus while they are alive. Set god of storms (pig, donkey, hippo) who ruled earth after killing Osiris. Set was killed by his nephew Horus.
Sekhmet goddess of the North (lion-headed woman) possibly an influence of Kush upon Egyptian mythology. Hapi god of Nile (bull) has been ascribed creative powers like the Nile which sustains life in Egypt. Horus the elder sky god (sun faced man) who was the husband of Hathor and the original enemy of Set. Hathor was a patron god of the Pharaohs. Hathor sky goddess (cow) connected to the Milky Way galaxy and consort of Nut, goddess of fertility, child bearing and children. She was a wife of Ra and she appears on the Palette of Narmer. Anubis god of cemeteries (jackal). Anubis is often depicted during the judgment by Osiris. Bes goddess of childbearing (lion-faced dwarf). Maat goddess of truth and justice (feather) whose presence was the measure used by Osiris to determine the resting place of the dead. Those whose hearts were lighter than the feather of Maat were allowed into the underworld. Those with hearts heavier were eaten by a demonic being called Ammit. Ptah creator of humans, god of craftsmen (mummified man) Thoth god of writing, patron of scribes (ibis), later connected with Hermes.
Egyptians placed a premium on life after death. Unlike the Mesopotamians, their pursuit of immortality became a major preoccupation. Proper embalming and burial were necessary to ensure the body and the spirit would be preserved for the judgment by Osiris in the underworld. Just as Osiris was mummified by Isis, Egyptians must go through the same process to be prepared for the afterlife. Those improperly treated would merely die and cease to exist. If the body was preserved properly, the individual s spirit would face a judgment by Osiris to ensure life was lived according to truth and justice. The Negative Confession would be recited before the gods before one s heart was weighed against Maat s feather. Ammit waited eagerly to devour anyone whose heart was heavier with injustice, deceit and immorality. The Egyptian Book of the Dead preserved spells and knowledge about the afterlife considered sacred to the Egyptians. It dates back to the earliest days of Egypt s religious structure. Its spells were often considered secrets to ensure life after death. Some of the artwork in the Book of the Dead points toward a similar existence to life in Egypt on this Earth. Possibly the Egyptian afterlife was an extension of this life for those privileged to enter. Old Kingdom Pharaohs were buried in pyramids at Giza, but most Pharaohs were buried in tombs. Middle Kingdom Pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings The main goal Egyptians had was to preserve the body of their leader with his or her worldly possessions to take into the afterlife. Most tombs have been robbed, but King Tutankhamen s tomb ca. 1345-1325 B.C.E. has been discovered in tact (right). Howard Carter s excavation of a burial site has been the richest discovery so far. King Tutankhamen s mummy and his coffin were found with tremendous gold plated items.
Egyptian art maintained a uniformity for centuries and dynasties due to a canon (standard) that would give artists an exact measurement for the parts of the body. Figures would be drawn side profile but their chests and hips would face the viewer. Both legs were also drawn in side profile. This is very unnatural, but it was considered the best representation. Egyptian figures were usually broad chested and muscular. Their wastes tapered inward at the belt. Major figures would tower over commoners by at least 3 times the scale. Akhenaton s reform changed this style to his own uniquely realistic and effeminate style. Male figures had more pronounced breasts, stomachs and hips. Arms and legs were depicted longer and leaner. This is often called the Amarna style. It represented the human forms more naturally rather than idealistically as seen in the canon of proportion. Besides Amarna, Egyptians used a rather stable style that is uniquely to their culture. Greeks adopted the canon of proportion but made it more lifelike and better proportioned due to their love of the male body. They used ratios of body parts instead of a grid based system.
Tomb of Nebamun 1400 B.C.E. Tutankhamen and the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony by Aja 1323 B.C.E.
Pillar at Temple of Karnak 3200 B.C.E. Akhenaton and Nefertiti with their daughters 14 th c. B.C.E.
Palette of Narmer (Menes) 3100 B.C.E.
SCULPTURAL PORTRAITS (BUSTS) Queen Nefertiti1365 B.C.E. Painted Limestone Prince Ankhaf 2550 B.C.E. Limestone and Plaster
Seated Scribe 2400 B.C.E. Painted Limestone Queen Hapshepsut 1485 B.C.E. Limestone