Classical Civilizations in Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East Chapter 5

Classical Civilizations in Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East Chapter 5 pp. 102-106 The First Marathon. In 490 B.C.E. a Greek soldier named Pheidippides ran to bring the Athenians the news of the defeat of the Persian army at Greek hands, at Marathon. This was the first marathon, later to become a lasting feature of the modern Olympics. The Persian attack on Greece followed a revolt of the Greek city-states on the western edge of the Persian Empire. Xerxes, the Persian king, assembled an army and fleet that should have made his victory sure. However, Themistocles, leading the Athenian forces, used his knowledge of the coastline to lure the Persians into the narrow waters off Thermopylae. The Persian fleet was defeated and Xerxes took flight. The two civilizations that confronted each other at Thermopylae developed along different lines. The Greek civilization, initially covering an area dwarfed by the Persian Empire, was later spread by the conquests of Alexander to western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. This 1 -culture was to have an enduring influence. Chapter Summary. Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, 2, Crete, and Mycenae. Internal warfare and 3 invasions destroyed the early civilization by 1100 B.C.E. By 800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400 B.C.E. Then 4 formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in 5 and politics, and in scientific and mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies. A Revealing Fight. The differences between the 6 and Greeks is summed up in an anecdote from the life of Alexander the Great. One of his generals, Cleitus, accused him of having adopted Persian customs. This chapter will help to explain why this confrontation was emblematic of the confrontation of cultures in the Hellenistic era. The Persian Empire: A New Perspective in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political and cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many historical currents, including modern 7. About 550 B.C.E.,Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian states of the past. The Persians allowed traditional cultures to continue, and advanced iron technology. The religious leader 8 revised Sumerian beliefs to produce a religion emphasizing the importance of choosing between the divine forces of 9 and evil; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person. Later Persian rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace and 10. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian 11 and culture remained influential. pp. 106-110 The Political Character of Classical Greece. The Greeks highly valued political activity, contributing greatly to the later developments of democratic cultures. Although Greek communities had varied political forms, 12 rule was prevalent. A general revival of

eastern Mediterranean trade spurred the growth of Greek city-states and challenged existing political structures. The Greeks during the 8th century B.C.E. simplified the 13 alphabet to write their own language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliad and the 14 were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic culture. In architecture, the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the 15 body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity. The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E., the prevailing form of government was the 16 (polis): polities varying in size and embracing a city and its dependent agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, independent and frequently in 17 with each other. The city-states were ruled by land-owning aristocrats descended from Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met in 18, even when there were kings, to discuss political issues. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of 19 expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered and a growing gulf emerged between the 20 and poor. In purely agricultural regions, some aristocratic 21, such as Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th century B.C.E., urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. 22 won support by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like 23 of Athens, labored to develop new laws to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E.most city-states were based upon principles of loyalty to the public 24 rather than to an individual ruler. Male citizens were immersed in the public life of the polis. Since each citystate had its own gods, religious rituals also deepened. The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon s reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Peisistratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death, the reformer Cleisthenes reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend upon a popular 25 of citizens as sovereign authority, and citizens formed the army and the judiciary. Most officials were chosen by 26 and were responsible to the assembly. Athenian democracy was both more extensive and less 27 by modern standards. Many adults women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from political rights, and aristocrats like 28 and Alcibiades had excessive importance. A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual participation, but in a heterogeneous system quite different from the single 29 Chinese state. Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes. Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. 30 relieved population pressure, and provided grain supplies and markets for Greek products. The city-states were only occasionally united. They came together under a truce at the 31 games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration occurred when Greeks united and preserved

independence by defeating a Persian invasion. After the wars, Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the 32 League. Athens gained valuable resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting. Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. When Corcyra tried to free itself from Athenian domination in 435 B.C.E., warfare between the two powers of Greece ensued. The 33 War between Athens and 34 lasted from 431 to 404 B.C.E. Athens, weakened by a disastrous and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily, surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the polis as the dominant political form in Greece. pp. 110-116 The Hellenistic Period. Sparta failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The Peloponnesian War had destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A conquering northern state took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The short-lived empire of Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture. Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece. The loosely organized, Greek-influenced state was strengthened militarily during the rule of 35 (359 336 B.C.E.). He invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E. Alexander the Great. Philip s son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian Empire in campaigns between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into 37 but was halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian traditions. He founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage with local women, and established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander s unexpected death in 323 B.C.E. ended the dream of a multinational empire. Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals. City-states still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties were the 38 in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece. Many Greeks remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture spread widely to mix with other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the civilized world. More importantly, in northwestern India the kingdom of Bactria mixed Greek and Indian themes. Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek civilization expressed itself more in

culture than politics. Greek culture made lasting contributions, especially in 39 and philosophy, to the Mediterranean world and the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander. Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did not create a major 40. A pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses, presided over by Zeus, interfered in human affairs. Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a more human-centered approach. Its lack of 41 passion contributed to the development of alternative mystery religions more satisfying to people s needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for ethical thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate 42 system. The effort to understand phenomena through 43 observation became a hallmark of Greek and Hellenistic culture. 44 urged consideration of secular criteria for moral decisions. 45 stressed the importance of moderation to balance political and religious instability, while the Stoics focused on inner moral independence. Other philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. 46 proposed an ideal government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical, balanced systems incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious philosophy encouraged emphasis on the powers of human thought. Socrates encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an understanding of eternal reality. In science, the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature s order, founding a lasting 47 passion for seeking rationality in the universe. Pythagoras and Euclid contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen s contributions to anatomy were a standard for centuries. Archimedes, primarily a mathematician, also studied hydraulics. pp. 116-122 Literature and the Visual Arts. All arts received attention, but 48 had a central role in Greek culture. The Greek division of drama into comedy and 49 remains a Western tradition. The Athenian dramatist 50 used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. 51 did the same through comedy. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with Herodotus and 52. In the visual arts, the Greeks emphasized 53, ceramics, and realistic sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles: Doric, 54, and Corinthian. All art was 55 : temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public rituals for all citizens. Cultural achievement was based on four principles. An emphasis on formal political theory reflected the special political atmosphere of Greece. Art and 56 glorified human achievement. Drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the natural world. A large cultural gap existed between the elite and the 57. Hellenistic Culture During and After Alexander. The Hellenistic world did not develop new styles and continued the influence of Greek art and sculpture. Hellenistic intellectuals preserved Greek 58 achievements while making advances in astronomy, geography, and mathematics. The knowledge amassed was fundamental to future research in Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa.

Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an agricultural society, a large 59, and a landowning aristocracy were basic to Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce, although often looked down upon, was vital. 60 family values predominated, although there was more ambivalence about women than in classical China. 61 was of major importance. Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece resembled that of other civilizations where warlike invaders had 62 down to agriculture. The aristocracy was based on 63 ownership and military service. Many independent farmers owned land and claimed political and social rights. Subsequently, commerce and urban growth complicated 64 structure. Distinctive factors for the Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment, making city-states dependent on 65. War and colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in less attention being given to manufacturing 66. Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained in an ambiguous position; their status was 67 than in Confucian China, but less firm than in India. Thinking Historically: Defining Social History. Until recently historians awarded an undue emphasis to political and intellectual history. Social and economic history was given a secondary place. It is now recognized that the lives of 68 men and women deserve a major place in the study of the past of all societies. The daily activities of the often silent masses are difficult, but not impossible, to reconstruct. To understand the past, and the present, historians must attempt to portray the lives of 69 segments of society. So-called ordinary people, after all, have made up the 70 of human society. The often-neglected role of women is an obvious example of the past insensitivity to the reality of human existence. The only way to understand how a society functions is to give proper attention to all of its members. Slavery and Production. Slavery, justified by Aristotle, was vital to a society and economy dominated by aristocrats devoted to political and cultural pursuits. Slaves, often acquired in war, served in almost all occupations. Many enjoyed considerable personal and economic independence, but the system clearly demonstrated the 71 nature of Greek democracy. Men, Women, and Social Divisions. Greek culture emphasized the husband/father in control of a tightly structured family. Women performed vital economic functions, especially in farming or artisan families, and powerful female personalities often were influential within households. Although women had some legal rights, both law and culture held them 72. Female infanticide might occur in large families. Marriages were arranged by fathers. While divorce was possible for men at will, women needed court procedure. Adultery was without penalty for men, but a cause for 73 for women. Women focused their lives on household duties. Upper-class men consorted more often with lower-class women and male youths than with wives. In the Hellenistic period, conditions for women 74, but they remained a subordinate group.

A Complex Legacy. The classical Greek and Hellenistic political legacy was in the form of ideas; unlike the 75, they did not develop enduring political institutions. The most enduring legacy came in art and philosophy. Although the Western educational tradition long focused on the legacy of the Greeks, they were inferior to China and India in many political and scientific achievements. Their legacy is not only a result of their achievement, but also because the West consciously adopted many of its features. Moreover, Alexander s conquest of Persia brought a complex mixture of reciprocal influences, 76 the line between Greek and Middle Eastern culture. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: Persia, Greece and the World. Both Chinese and Greek classical civilizations thought other peoples were inferior 77. But, although city-states like Sparta rejected outside influences, most Greeks were a trading and expansionist people. Some, like Herodotus, studied other cultures. Alexander extended Greek outreach beyond the Mediterranean world to as far as western India.

1. Hellenistic 2. Egypt 3. Indo-European 4. Alexander the Great 5. Philosophy 6. Persians 7. Iran 8. Zoroaster 9. good 10. prosperity 11. language 12. aristocratic 13. Phoenician 14. Odyssey 15. human 16. city-state 17. conflict 18. councils 19. commercial 20. rich 21. oligarchies 22. Tyrants 23. Solon 24. community 25. assembly 26. lo 27. inclusive 28. Pericles 29. centralized 30. Colonization 31. Olympic 32. Delian 33. Peloponnesian 34. Sparta 35. plague 1. Philip II 2. India 3. Ptolemies 4. art 5. Religion 6. spiritual 7. philosophical 8. rational 9. Socrates 10. Aristotle 11. Plato 12. Western 13. drama 14. tragedy 15. Sophocles 16. Aristophanes 17. Thucydides 18. architecture 19. Ionic 20. public 21. sculpture 22. masses 23. scientific 24. peasantry 25. Patriarchal 26. Slavery 27. settled 28. land 29. social 30. trade 31. technology 32. higher 33. ordinary 34. all 35. bulk 36. Limited 37. inferior 38. Divorce 39. Improved 40. Chinese 41. blurring 42. barbarians