History for CSEC Examinations Decolonisation & Development 3rd edition Brian Dyde, Robert Greenwood, Shirley Hamber CSEC is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). HISTORY FOR CSEC EXAMINATIONS: DecolONISATION & Development is an independent publication and has not been authorized, sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC. 3
Macmillan Education 4 Crinan Street London N1 9XW A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited Companies and representatives throughout the world www.macmillan-caribbean.com ISBN: 978-0-230-02087-0 Text Brian Dyde, Robert Greenwood and Shirley Hamber 2009 Design and illustration Macmillan Publishers Limited 2009 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Typeset by Carol Hulme Cover design by Gary Fielder at Conka Cover photograph: The Columbus Lighthouse, Faro a Colon, designed by the English architect Joseph Gleave in 1931, and built on the outskirts of Santo Domingo in 1992. (Photo: Donald Nausbaum) The authors and publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs their photographic material: Alamy / Danita Delimont/Claudia Adams p102, Alamy/ Andre Jenny p140, Alamy/Chad Ehlers p148 Art Directors and Trip p42, Art Directors and Trip p129, Art Directors and Trip p132 Camera Press Ltd p8r, Camera Press/photograph by IOC p33l, Camera Press Ltd p73, Camera Press Ltd p87, Camera Press Ltd p89l, Camera Press Ltd p90, Camera Press Ltd p91, Camera Press Ltd/Photograph by Keystone-France p103l, Camera Press Ltd, 112L, Camera Press Ltd p119, Camera Press Ltd p125 (Tl), Camera Press Ltd p125(br), Camera Press Ltd/Photograph by Philippe Crochet/PNS/GAMMA p163, Camera Press Ltd p184 Corbis / Bettmann p1, Corbis/Bettmann p5l, Corbis/ Bettmann p8l, Corbis/Bettmann p13, Corbis/Hulton Deutsch p21, Corbis p31, Corbis/Bettmann p36, Corbis/ Macduff Everton p93, Corbis p118, Corbis/Bettmann p123, Corbis p136, Corbis/Reuters p152r, Corbis/Nick Wheeler p171 Eye Ubiquitous p135, Eye Ubiquitous p139, Eye Ubiquitous p151 Genesis Space Photo Library p98 Getty Images/Time & Life Pictures p19r, Getty Images/ Hulton Archive p24, Getty Images/Hulton Archive p29, Getty Images/Popperfoto p37, Getty Images/Popperfoto p67, Getty Images/Hulton Archive p80, Getty Images/ Popperfoto p86, Getty Images/Popperfoto p121, Getty Images p131l, Getty Images/Hulton Archive p173, Getty Images p183b Granger Collection p6 Imperial War Museum, London p38, IWM London p45 James Davis Photography p117 Adrian Meredith p161 National Archives of St Kitts p64 National Library of Jamaica p33r PAPhotos/Empics p89r, PAPhotos/Empics p111, PAPhotos/Lauren Victoria Burke/AP p131r, PAPhotos/ Dave Thompson/AP p162 Hugo Pos, courtesy of Wikipedia p103r Puerto Rico Cultural Institute p19l Rex p182, Rex p183tr Harding Picture Library p107, Robert Harding Picture Library p152l, Robert Harding Picture Library p169, Robert Harding Picture Library p172 Topfoto p5r, Topfoto 10, Topfoto p46, Topfoto p55, Topfoto p58, Topfoto p65, Topfoto p68, Topfoto p81, Topfoto p85, Topfoto p88, Topfoto p108, Topfoto p114, Topfoto p126, Topfoto p156, Topfoto p167, Topfoto p185 Trinidad Experience p155 Printed and bound in Malaysia 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Contents List of Maps Preface to the Third Edition I viii The United States in the Caribbean, 1848 to 1945 1 The United States and Cuba 1 The Ostend Manifesto 2 United States investment in Cuba 3 The Cuban War of Independence 3 United States intervention 3 The Spanish American War, 1898 4 Cuban independence 4 The Platt Amendment 7 Cuban American relations, 1902 to 1945 7 The Dance of the Millions 7 An American playground 8 The Panama Canal 9 Early history 9 Diplomatic moves 9 The Panama revolution 10 The Canal and the Caribbean 10 The Roosevelt Corollary 11 Dollar Diplomacy 11 The United States and the Dominican Republic 11 Occupation by the United States 12 The United States and Haiti 12 Occupation by the United States 12 The United States and Central America 13 The Good Neighbour policy 14 Factors influencing United States policy 14 The formulation of the policy 14 The United States and the British Caribbean 15 The British Guiana Venezuela border dispute, 1895 15 Prohibition and the Bahamas 15 Naval and air bases 15 ix Puerto Rico 16 The Spanish American War and its results 17 The 1917 reforms 17 Social and economic conditions 17 Remedies for social distress 18 The Virgin Islands of the United States 18 2 Economic and Social Conditions in the British Caribbean, 1900 to 1945 21 Revival of sugar 21 Cultivation 21 Manufacturing 22 Marketing 22 Alternative crops 23 Rice 23 Cotton 23 Limes 23 Coconuts 23 Rubber 23 Cacao 23 Spices 24 Bananas 24 Disappointment with alternative crops 25 Minerals 25 Petroleum products in Trinidad 25 Bauxite in British Guiana 26 Bauxite in Jamaica 26 Social conditions prior to the Moyne Commission 26 Working conditions 27 Wages 27 Unemployment 28 Food 29 Health 29 Medical services 30 Housing 30 Education 31 The Moyne Commission 32 iii
Social and economic recommendations of the Moyne Report 34 Trade unions 34 Labour Departments 35 Agricultural reforms 35 Education 35 The West Indian Welfare Fund 35 Reactions to poor social conditions 36 Marcus Garvey 36 3 The Pressure for Change in the British Caribbean 37 The First World War and its aftermath 37 Modifications to Crown Colony rule 39 Restricted franchise 39 Representative associations 39 The Wood Report 40 Labour unrest, 1934 to 1938 40 Working-class difficulties 40 Economic difficulties 40 The aftermath of the period of labour unrest 42 The Second World War 44 West Indian volunteers 44 The Caribbean Regiment 44 4 Trade Unions in the British Caribbean 46 Introduction to trade unionism 46 Trade unionism in Britain 47 Unions in the British West Indies before 1938 47 The early unions 47 Numbers increase 48 Low survival rate 48 New unions, new powers 48 The Caribbean Labour Congress 49 Five notable labour leaders 50 Hubert Critchlow 50 Arthur Andrew Cipriani 50 Uriah Buzz Butler 51 Alexander Bustamante 51 Antonio Soberanis Gomez 53 Trade unions and politics 53 How union political party links arose 53 The reasons for the links 53 In Barbados 54 In Jamaica 54 In the British colonies of the eastern Caribbean 55 In the remaining British colonies 56 Trade unions in the 1960s 56 Achievements 56 Procedure in disputes 56 5 Regional Co-operation 58 Early attempts at unification 58 Stapleton and the Leeward Islands 58 The General Assembly of 1674 58 The Leeward Islands Federation, 1871 to 1956 59 The Windward Islands 59 The Confederation Crisis 60 Other associations 60 Unifying forces, 1897 to 1947 62 Tendency to disunity 62 Forces contributing to unity 62 Signs of growing unity 63 The Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1940 65 The attitude of the British government 66 6 Federation and After 67 Progress to federation 67 Jamaica 67 Trinidad and Tobago 68 Barbados 69 British Guiana 70 Constitutional developments elsewhere in the West Indies 70 The Montego Bay Conference 71 Other conferences 72 The Federation at work 72 The Constitution 72 Politics 73 Finance and other affairs 73 Constitutional revision, 1959 74 Breakdown of the Federation 74 General reasons for the breakdown 75 The causes of the breakdown 75 iv
Freedom of movement 75 Customs union 77 Chaguaramas 77 Control of economic development 77 Retroactive legislation 77 British account of the breakdown 78 Inter-regional co-operation after 1962 78 The Little Eight 78 CARIFTA 78 CARICOM 79 The Caribbean Development Bank 80 7 Progress to Independence in the British Caribbean 81 The background to decolonisation 81 Attitude to empire 81 The Atlantic Charter 82 The independence of India 82 The United Nations 82 The Moyne Commission 83 Typical stages to independence 83 Towards the end of Crown Colony government 84 Independence in the 1960s 85 Jamaica 85 Trinidad and Tobago 85 British Guiana 86 Barbados 87 Associated Statehood 88 British Honduras 90 The Bahamas 90 Independence in the 1970s 90 The Commonwealth of the Bahamas 90 Grenada 91 Dominica 91 St Lucia 92 St Vincent 92 Independence in the 1980s 92 Belize 92 Antigua and Barbuda 92 St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla 92 The remaining colonies 95 Constitutional progress to independence 95 Explanation of terms 95 The Commonwealth of Nations 97 8 Developments in the French and Dutch Caribbean 98 The French Caribbean 98 The beginnings of the policy of Assimilation 98 A divided society 99 Changes in 1946 99 Political movements 100 The future 102 The Dutch Caribbean 104 Suriname 104 The Netherlands Antilles 106 Curaçao and Aruba 106 The remaining islands 106 The contribution of women in government 107 The future 107 9 Post-Independence Politics in the Commonwealth Caribbean 108 Post-independence problems 108 Westminster pattern government or the one-party state? 108 Political independence and economic dependence 109 Neo-colonialism 109 Guyana 109 Trinidad and Tobago 110 Jamaica 110 The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States 111 Grenada 113 Dominica 114 Border disputes 115 Belize and Guatemala 115 Guyana and Venezuela 115 Guyana and Suriname 115 British Overseas Territories 116 v
10 The United States and the Caribbean, 1946 to 2006 118 Introduction 118 The containment of communism 118 The Caracas Declaration 119 Cuba 119 Castro and the Revolution 119 The Bay of Pigs 121 The Cuban Missile Crisis 122 Cuba since 1990 122 The legacy of Castro 122 Haiti 123 The dictatorship of Papa Doc 123 The rise and fall of Baby Doc 123 Aristide and the US intervasion 124 The Dominican Republic 124 Crisis and US invasion 124 The Balaguer years 125 The Organisation of American States 126 The Caribbean Basin Initiative 127 Puerto Rico 129 The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 1952 129 Politics 130 The Virgin Islands of the United States 132 Constitutional changes 134 11 Economic Developments in the Commonwealth Caribbean, 1946 to 2006 135 Post-independence economic problems 135 The colonial economy 136 Nationalisation 136 Development corporations and banks 137 Unemployment 137 High per capita income 138 Diversification 139 Economic dependency 139 The Lomé Conventions 140 The Cotonou Agreement 141 Caricom Single Market and Economy 141 Caribbean Court of Justice 141 Increased membership 141 Agriculture 141 Sugar 141 Bananas 142 Rice 143 Timber 143 Mahogany and pine 143 Greenheart 143 Minerals 143 Oil and natural gas 143 Bauxite 145 Bauxite in Guyana 145 Bauxite in Jamaica 145 Gold and diamonds 146 Industry 147 Tourism 147 The expansion of the industry 147 Competition 149 Arguments for and against tourism 149 Summary 150 12 Social Life in the Commonwealth Caribbean, 1946 to 2006 151 Social structure in the pre-independence period 151 Ethnic minorities 152 Education 153 Secondary education 153 University education 154 Population control and social mobility 155 Emigration 156 The social consequences of emigration 157 Religion 157 Mainstream Christian churches 157 Syncretic religions 158 African religions 158 Rastafarianism 158 The media 159 Newspapers 159 Radio and television 160 vi
Communications 160 Telecommunications 160 Air travel 160 Sea travel 161 Recreation 161 Cricket 161 Athletics 163 Festivals and celebrations 163 Carnival 164 Jonkonnu 165 Festival developments 165 The contribution of women 165 13 Culture in the Commonwealth Caribbean 167 Archaeological discoveries 167 Architecture 168 Domestic architecture 168 Plantation architecture 169 Public architecture 169 Ecclesiastic architecture 170 Military architecture 170 Painting and sculpture 172 Art in Jamaica 173 Art in Trinidad 174 Art in Guyana 175 Art in the Bahamas 175 Art in Belize 175 Art in Barbados 176 Art in the rest of the Commonwealth Caribbean 176 Theatre and dance 176 Jamaica 176 Trinidad and Tobago 177 Guyana 178 St Lucia, Dominica and Barbados 178 Music 179 The calypso 180 Reggae 180 Chutney 180 Steel bands 180 Carifesta 182 Literature 184 Revision Questions 187 Further Reading 189 Index 191 vii
Preface to the Third Edition Decolonisation and Development is the third and final book of the series intended to cover the 2000 Caribbean History syllabus of the Caribbean Examinations Council. It incorporates a certain amount of material from Development and Decolonisation, the work written to meet the needs of earlier editions of the syllabus, but is otherwise a completely new book. The two previous volumes in the series dealt with the history of the Caribbean from pre - Columbian times to the end of the nineteenth century. The present volume carries the story forward to the end of the twentieth century. As such it deals in their entirety with two themes in the syllabus: Social and Economic Conditions in the Twentieth Century and Movements towards Independence and Regional Integration up to 1985. It also covers the twentieth-century aspects of three other themes: Economic Diversification, 1875 1985; The United States in the Caribbean 1776 1985; and Social Life, 1838 1962. As in the previous two books, a determined effort has been made to concentrate on a factual approach, and to treat all the topics listed in the syllabus under each theme at the level required by the Caribbean Examinations Council. At the same time, some insights into, or comments on, key events have been inserted in order to encourage students to be analytical in their attempts to meet the objectives of the syllabus, with regard to the interpretation, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge they acquire from studying history. The revision questions at the end of the book are based very much on questions that were asked in the history examinations set during the seven years which followed the introduction of the 2000 syllabus. Brian Dyde Pembroke, 2008 ix