JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCE, VOL. 66, NO. 2, APR. 2019, PP. 133-155 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM TO CONFRONT FLOOD DISASTERS IN EGYPT W. M. EMAM 1, M. S. DARWISH 2, AND M. R. HAGGAG 3 Floods form one of the challenges facing urban development since it plans to reduce challenges of environmental disasters to avoid human, social, economical, and environmental threats and damages. This requires participation of all state agencies and civil society. Floods form a major water resource if well managed. Periodic Flood disasters in Egypt are common such as Ras-Ghareb in October 2016 and Wadi El Arish. This confirm the deficiencies in the dealing with flood problems in Egypt. The research proposes appropriate planning and damage reduction mechanisms to flood disasters. This research paper illustrates the importance of watershed and flood management. The developed plans were applied to Wadi El Arish as one of the most important Egyptian cases. It introduces necessary steps to mitigate flood risk and transfer its wasted waters to an essential natural resource water resource. It also develops a strategy and mechanism for integrated, comprehensive, and realistic addressing of watershed and flood management in Egypt. KEYWORDS: Watershed, Watershed management, Flood, Egypt, Wadi El Arish 1. INTRODUCTION United Nations 2015 Summit entitled Transforming Our World: Sustainable Development Plan 2030 has adopted the sustainable development consisting of 17 major goals appendix1 shows the detailed goals. This paper focuses on 3 goals. The goal 11 "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable". The goal 13 "Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts". The goal 17 "Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development" because Egypt is threatened by environmental disasters, especially flood disasters that occur and repeated over the previous years. This 1 Teaching Assistant in Department of Environmental Planning and Infrastructure Faculty of Urban and Regional Planning, Cairo University, eng.wessam88@gmail.com. 2 Head of Urban Planning Department in Faculty of Urban and Regional Planning, Cairo University. 3 Associate Professor in Department of Environmental Planning and Infrastructure, Faculty of Urban and Regional Planning, Cairo University.
W. M. EMAM ET AL situation is aggravated by the global warming and its adverse impact. This paper examines the concept of watershed management by identifying its objectives and principles, which aim to reduce flood disasters [1-2], determines watershed management process applying it on Wadi El Arish watershed as a model of a watershed, so concludes how to use watershed management as a mechanism to confront flood disasters in Egypt. 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 Research Objectives To activate the watershed management mechanisms as a tool to reduce negative social, economic and effects of floods which reached in the year of 2010 the destruction of 59 km of main and subsidiary paved roads, parts of water and sewage networks and destroyed 112 water tanks, 780 houses collapsed, 1076 others were flooded, 171 industrial workshops and shops were destroyed in Wadi El Arish [3]. Decrease water shortage of water resources which estimated at 13.4billion m 3 annually through the utilization of floods that estimated about 1.3billion m 3 annually [4] which achieve 10% from water shortage through presenting watershed management concept, objectives, principles, and identifying the steps to ensure its success leading to a framework to confront flood disaster in Egypt and utilize from its water. 2.2 Research Methodology Research methodology starts with identifying the research problem and objectives. It proceeds with identifying watershed management principles including protecting from flood risks and determine successful watershed management characteristics. Followed by defining its importance in Egypt. It illustrates flood disasters and importance of transfer wasted floods to a resource helping in reducing fresh water shortage in Egypt. A case study of Wadi El Arish is presented and analyzed. Finally the research concluded how to apply watershed management in Egypt and propose a framework to reduce negative effects of floods and decrease water shortage due to wasted flood. 134
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. 3. WATERSHED MANGEMENT A watershed is a specific area where rainwater falls with geographical characteristics that enables water collection. It is usually associated with a water body such as a river, lake or sea Fig. 1 [1-2]. It stores water of different amounts and various times and establish habitat for fauna and flora [5-6].Watershed management is the perfect management of natural areas for the collection of water through planning process to enable sustainable development in its surroundings [1]. Fig. 1. Example of watershed [5]. Watershed boundaries are defined by their water divide Fig. 2. They are determined by the mountainous terrain and the limits are defined by the hills, and the smaller watersheds are located within the large watersheds [7]. Watershed management usually focus on soil engineering aspects such as and water rather than population needs and participation in project actions hence watershed management approach is rethought to establish community-based national policies in addition to engineering based ones [8]. It is a continuous multidisciplinary flexible approach which balance between human and environmental requirements, integrate social, institutional, and technical dimensions while maintaining the achievement of socio- economic objectives [1, 9] and its goals are centered around protection from flood risks, raising awareness of it and improving the quality of water. [9-10]. 135
W. M. EMAM ET AL Fig. 2. Watershed Boundary [7]. Successful Watershed Management Characteristics are: clearness of goals, cooperation among stakeholders, balance between the development and protection of watershed areas, availability of appropriate data and analytical and technical skills to support decisions and coordination at the watershed and sub-watersheds levels [1, 5]. Watershed management provides planning in an integrated holistic framework with a better understanding of nature; it provides stronger working relationships, and supporting sustainable resource management by linking human activities to the response of nature [6, 11]. Watershed Management Process can be identified as follows in Fig. 3. Fig.3. Watershed management process - Source: Summarized from [1, 11]. In the above figure, the six stages are identified starting from characterizing the watershed and ending with evaluation of management. 4. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCES: CANADIAN CASE The experiences of successful watershed management countries have generally focused on the risks of a watershed environment such as natural hazards and climate 136
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. change [2] and the research took the Canadian case to transfer the experience of the developed world to Egypt. The basic mechanisms for watershed management in Canada is governance, recognition of water shortages, floods issues, the importance of achieving a balance between the needs and ecosystem, increased awareness of climate change, science and technology such as many Canadian universities have centers that specialized in water science, monitoring and assessment watershed management. The Federal Governments and Regions recognize that it is wrong to have just a single water agency for leading all water resources but there is a need to the integration of several government agencies [12-13]. 5. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN EGYPT 5.1 The Importance of Watershed Management in Egypt Due to the repeated floods in Egypt, which caused many environmental, social and economic damage and with the need for water, it is necessary to benefit from the water of floods as a water resource, which is achieved by the management of watersheds that depend on the integration between the social and economic aspects and the natural environment, partnership [1, 9] and reduce the occurrence of floods [10] as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4. The importance of watershed management Source: Summarized from [1, 9, and 10]. 137
W. M. EMAM ET AL 5.2 Flood Disasters in Egypt In Egypt, the flood disasters occurred in previous years has resulted in many environmental, economic and social damages such as the 1979 in the Red Sea area, 1980 in South Sinai, Qena, Sohag and Aswan governorates, 1990 in Marsa Alam and the Sinai Peninsula, 1996 in Qena, Assiut and Luxor, 2010 in Central and South Sinai and El Arish, 2014 in South Sinai, Luxor, Aswan, Assiut and Red Sea, 2016 in Ras Sidr, Sharm El Sheikh, Hurghada, Qena, Sohag and Assiut governorates, which emphasizes the importance of tackling these risks in Egypt. The degree of risk for areas exposed to floods varies from region to region depending on the conditions of each region and can be classified as: [14] A. Areas of extreme danger, where total destruction occurs. B. Hazardous areas that can be partially destroyed in case of floods. C. Medium-risk areas, characterized by low use or lack of population groups. D. no risk areas. Figure 5 illustrates the degree of risk of the floods in Egypt. Fig. 5. The degree of risk of the floods in Egypt Source: [14] modified by the author 138
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. Egypt's flood-prone areas can be divided into The Nile Valley from Cairo to Aswan, Eastern Desert (Red Sea Region), Sinai Peninsula, Matrouh Governorate Salloum Plateau [15]. It is noted that the areas frequently exposed to the floods in Egypt were concentrated in the Sinai Peninsula and the Red Sea region. 5.3 The Importance of Watersheds as a Sources of Water in Egypt Egypt suffers from a shortage of water resources estimated at 13.4 billion m 3 annually. The global water poverty limit of 1000 m 3 per person for food selfsufficiency means that the ideal water needs of Egypt is estimated at 92 billion. This clearly confirms the scarcity of water. This necessitates better management of Egypt's water resources, locate new resources, and reduce the wastage. [4-16]. Nevertheless it was started that such values need to be verified this paper uses only order of magnitude. Therefore, it is essential to transfer flood waters; through watershed management; to a resource to compensate the deficit of water needs in Egypt. As an example this research will apply the developed management scheme to one of the watersheds in Egypt namely Wadi El Arish watershed area in the Sinai Peninsula. 6. MONITORING AND ANALYSIS OF ONE OF THE WATERSHED MODELS IN EGYPT (WADI El ARISH WATERSHED) The Sinai Peninsula is considered one of Egypt's promising development due to its rich resources and raw materials. At the same time, it is strongly affected by the risks of floods, resulting in much environmental, social and economic damage. It is also important to use it as an important water resource, and its drainage watersheds are divided into three watersheds which are north Sinai watershed, gulf of Suez watershed and gulf of Aqaba watershed as shown in Fig. 6 [17]. Wadi El Arish is chosen since it is the most important valley in the Sinai Governorate, It has significant wasted floods rains without benefit from, and it suffered from disasters of floods many times during the past years. It has three dams: the Rawafeh dam, which stores 5.3 million m 3 of water, the Al-Karm dam and stores 139
W. M. EMAM ET AL 1.5 million m 3 of water, Talet Al-Badan dam store 0.5 million m 3 of water, so the maximum water storage capacity in Wadi El Arish is 7.3 million m 3 [18-19]. Fig. 6. A satellite image showing Wadi El Arish stream in the Sinai Source [19]. There are number of aquifers in Wadi El Arish, which are Wadi El Arish Delta tanks are located at a depth of 15-45 m and aquifers in Wadi El-Arish and its tributaries. The salinity varies in the east from the west, and the water depth ranges from 3-25 m [17]. In the year 2010 in Wadi El Arish, the storage capacity of dams represented only 2% of the net flow in the valley and about 357 million m 3 of water had not been utilized [18]. 6.1 Wadi El Arish Watershed Management and Characteristics A group of Wadi El Arish watershed characteristics were studied as illustrated in Fig. 7. natural environment, land use, population and biological characteristics. 140
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. Fig. 7. Wadi El Arish watershed characteristics Source: by the author. Natural environment: Table 1 shows the topographic and morphological characteristics of Wadi El Arish watershed while Fig. 8. illustrates its surface features. Table 1.The topographic and morphological characteristics of Wadi El Arish watershed. Location Central and North Sinai Area About 20 thousand km 2 width of 82 km [20]. Length About 110-242 km [18, 20]. Closer to the rectangle with an average rotation of 0.39 it helps to The geometric shape know the length of time required to reach the torrent to its outlet [18]. The rise of Between 1.520 m and 6 m [20]. 0.18, The highest in Wadi Aqaba sub watershed 0.92 and the lowest in The General slope degree Wadi Al-Azraq sub watershed 0.41 [18]. (The difference between the highest and lowest point in the watershed) 6.8 m / km, the above 12.5 m / km in Wadi Al Rwaq sub watershed and Incubation factor the lowest 3.5 m/ km in Wadi Al-Azraq sub watershed and the greater the coefficient as indicated by the high degree of risk of the torrent [3]. 5.87 km / km 2 The drainage density increases in areas that are free of Density of discharge plants and the rapid flow of water flows in these areas rapidly [18]. 3.4 stream/ km 2 and is increased in the watershed up to 6.5 stream/ km 2 River frequency as increase the intensity of river tributaries in the unit area and lower in the watershed to a minimum of 2.5 stream/ km 2 [20]. 4.7 The high rate of divergence in the upstream area accommodates the increasing rainfall and regularity in water channels, which increases the The river tributary ratios amount of water discharge that feeds the high-grade streams and the reflection of this increase to increase the probability of floods in that watershed [18, 20]. The water discharge of the river tributaries is increasing by increasing River level its rank and Wadi El Arish is considered ninth grade [18]. 141
W. M. EMAM ET AL Fig. 8. The surface features of Wadi El Arish watershed Source: [21] modified Geological characteristics: there are different types of soils in Wadi El-Arish which are Limestone, chalk, marl, sandstone, nebula, casserole, the silt intertwined with the cretaceous layer, limestone interspersed with some of the flint nodes, modern river sediments distributed in the valleys, sediments such as sand dunes, as well as marine sediment from the sea [18]. Wadi El Arish watershed is characterized by the cohesive rocks that appear on the surface, most of which are limestone, and covered the sedimentary deposits in this region area of about 6777 km 2 and characterized by two main types of sediments which are calcareous sedimentary and dune deposits [17]. Climate characteristics: mainly hot dry summer mild rainy winter and temperature range from 18.5 to 21 C [18]. Relative humidity ranges between 47% - 142
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. 71%, and evaporation ranges between 4.2 and 11.7 degrees. The wind speed is 55km/h and Rainfall rate of 100 mm to 300 mm and when floods occur more than 300mm. Two types of rain falls on the valley (cyclonic fall suddenly in the form of severe storms, and escalating occurs when heating the air at the surface and then rise to the upper layers of the atmosphere to form marble clouds and produce rain) [22]. Hydrological characteristics: the quantity of water estimated at about 1100 million m 3 /year [23], and reached in 2010 to 494 million m 3. The amount of water lost by evaporation is about 72.4 million cubic meters of mostly saline water [23]. Land use and population characteristics are: Land use around Wadi El Arish watershed is: Rainfed agriculture and grazing due to the nature of exposure to the flood and the possibility of storing water with its dams. Social characteristics: The Sinai Peninsula comprises a number of residential communities ranging from urban, Rural and Bedouin communities, characterized by spreading and dispersion [21]. Economic characteristics: The economy of Sinai where Wadi El Arish located in is agriculture, grazing, mining and tourism. North Sinai is rich in minerals resources of marble, silicon sand, limestone, gypsum, sand, gravel, dolomite, coal, sodium and sulfur, part of which is Wadi El Arish watershed located in. Biolife characteristics: vegetation in Sinai is one of the most natural vegetation in Egypt; studies have confirmed that it contains more than 1000 types of natural aromatic and medicinal plant species that can be used to build local industries especially pharmaceutical, printing, tanning, manufacture of furniture, and fuel. In addition to olives, palm and medicinal plants [21]. 143
W. M. EMAM ET AL Wadi El-Arish watershed can be divided into Sub-watersheds from its source at Al- Ajma hill at the head of El-Geneina to 1000 meters downstream in the city of El Arish according to the morph-metric characteristics of the watershed, which is a reflection of the conditions that influenced its formation (climatic conditions, topography, geology and soil) as shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9. Wadi El Arish division Source: summarized from [18, 21]. 6.2 Identify Objectives to Collect and Utilize Flood Waters There are steps should be done to collect and utilize flood Waters which are: Collecting and storing flood water is estimated at an average of 345 million m 3, and utilizing it as a water resource by constructing other dams in areas located on solid rocks and maximizes groundwater collection. Reinforcing the safety of the three dams in Wadi El-Arish (Al Ruwafa, Al-Karem, Tala Al-Badan bridge dam) and the existing reservoirs through Periodic 144
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. maintenance for them and continuous evaluation of all dam projects or reservoirs within Wadi El Arish watershed. A council of Wadi El Arish watershed could be established, which includes all the stakeholder involved in the watershed. Other subcommittees are also established in the seven sub-watersheds (Al Azraq, Wadi El Arish Eladna, Wadi Al Rwaq, Wadi Aqaba, Wadi Garaba, Wadi al-maghara, the Burak) and coordinate among themselves to help optimize the utilization of all resources through comprehensive analysis, planning, decision-making and cooperation at the watershed level as a whole. Activating the control of Wadi El Arish and the sub-watersheds inside it from the Stakeholders (such as the Ministry of Water Resources) and follow up the changes that occur in them. Agricultural, pastoral, commercial and industrial activities can be integrated. The water can be used for agriculture in the Wadi El Arish in the areas adjacent to Wadi El Arish stream, especially as it is famous for the cultivation of olives, palms and medicinal plants, and benefiting from the mineral resources in the valley such as silt in the cave and the brook subwatersheds which can be used in Cement and clay brick, and the black sand in the El Arish beaches can be used in the manufacture of glass and ceramics. Local capacity centered build objectives to cope with flood risks where Table 2 illustrate the evolution of the floods in Wadi El Arish watershed and the damages resulting from them, to reduce it, the capacity of the local community must be built so that its damage can be mitigated by doing the following steps: Date 1947 1975 1980 Table 2. Evolution of floods in Wadi El Arish. Damage caused by floods It has caused the destruction of some of the dams established on it, the destruction of thousands of acres of agriculture, and the destruction of hundreds of houses. It has caused the destruction of 200 homes and the death of 17 persons and the displacement of thousands of families [15]. The amount of water at the Ruwafa dam reached 21 million m 3 [22]. The total flood volume reached about 195 million m 3 [20]. The water in the valley rose to approximately 3 meters due to the continuous rainfall for 48 hours [24]. 145
W. M. EMAM ET AL 2010 2015 2016 Have isolated a number of villages inhabited by 7,000 people. About 20 houses were destroyed. Palm and olive groves were destroyed [15]. The amount of water in Wadi Arish watershed reached 493.5 million m 3 [3]. The flood exceeded the height of Al Ruwafa dam over 172 meters to the Mediterranean Sea, which led to the destruction of water bumpers above the dam and the detention of hundreds between the two ends of the city where the flow of roads blocked international and internal permanently and caused the drowning of dozens of homes and the relocation of residents to stay elsewhere [18]. Destroyed 59 km of main and subsidiary paved roads, destroyed 865 electricity poles, parts of water and sewage networks and destroyed 112 water tanks [3]. Floods besieged dozens of cars in Arish and central Sinai. Causing the death of 5 people and injuring dozens, 780 houses collapsed, 1076 others were flooded, 171 industrial workshops and shops were destroyed, 1838 sheep were killed and 27820 trees, mostly olive trees [3]. Closing the port of El Arish and disrupting the operation of fishing boats in Lake Bardawil. The connecting roads of the city were cut from the direction of El Arish and Suez. 9 people were killed and 7 injured. It also caused the destruction of many houses and serious damage. Activation of an early monitoring system for floods by raising the efficiency and training of the authority responsible for early warning (Meteorological Authority) and establishing sub-committees within each sub-watershed and achieving coordination among them. The participation of the stakeholders concerned in facing the floods as partners of development in preparing and updating the urban plans of Wadi El Arish watershed. It is recommended to develop a flood stream protection area in the physical plans of such areas. Taking into consideration the slope and size of the valleys' streams indicated by the topographic studies and the surface features of Wadi El Arish watershed when planning cities, opening roads or constructing bridges and tunnels so as to facilitate the flow of floods during rain and the city is not harmed. Water diversion barriers can be made to reduce the flow rate of floods that cause environmental, economic and social damage in vulnerable areas, especially in the Wadi Aqaba watershed, which has a slope of 0.92 and is considered the highest gradient in Wadi El Arish watershed. 146
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. Building local capacity to confront flood risks by providing the necessary economic resources and directing investments to reduce exposure and vulnerability to flood hazards in Wadi El Arish and channel funding sources to priority areas for risk. Adoption and application of building and design laws and standards to resist floods in areas prone to the disaster of floods in Wadi El Arish. Strengthen documented information network systems on the characteristics of Wadi El Arish watershed and sub-watersheds and the flows to which they occur and facilitate access to them through the work of standardized data sets, terminology, reporting and reporting to consolidate efforts between the concerned parties (government and civil society) and enhance partnerships among them. Objectives are centered on raising awareness of the importance of watershed management and confronting flood disasters in Egypt, there are many steps should be done to ensure it, which are: Activating the role of civil society organizations such as NGOs, scientific research centers and universities in protecting the environment by raising awareness of the dangers of flooding in Wadi El Arish and the importance of managing watersheds to benefit from floods as an important water resource. Conduct periodic meetings of the stakeholders in flood risk in Wadi El-Arish to follow up the changes and developments and to confirm mitigation. Training courses for civil society organizations to raise awareness of the local community in facing the flood disaster in Wadi El Arish. 6.3 Identify Stakeholders Cooperation and partnership between the stakeholders (such as Egyptian Meteorological Authority and the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, the private sector, civil society such as NGOs) affected by the decisions of the management of Wadi El Arish watershed. Success depends on the involvement of the community and organizations in the development and implementation of the plan and ensuring that the responsibilities of the stakeholders are not overlapped. 147
W. M. EMAM ET AL Identify and strengthen the new and existing coordination structures to create a unity for the efforts of taking advantage of the flood waters in Wadi El Arish watershed and not become a disaster. Strengthen cooperation between these institutions and the Government in providing support (mapping, monitoring and follow-up), and inventory and assessment of floods in Wadi Arish watershed and sub-watersheds. The research centers and training institutions shall be established to develop a plan for utilizing and coping with the flood waters at Wadi El Arish watershed, taking into consideration the different characteristics of the seven sub-watersheds (Wadi Al-Azraq, Wadi El-Arish Eladna, Wadi Al-Riwaq, Wadi Aqaba, Wadi al-maghara, Wadi al-buraq). A Guidance Committee shall be established to implement the plan to take advantage of floods, respond to floods, and monitor progress in mitigation actions represented by the stakeholders. 6.4 Determine the Target and Plan In this step it should determine the target and Plan by doing the steps in the following: Setting the framework for the management of Wadi El-Arish watershed in a timetable for the implementation of the plan, specifying the steps and stakeholders concerned to implement them (Meteorological Authority, Watershed Management Committee...). Standards could be set for measuring progress towards achieving the desired objectives (the extent of the possibility of collecting water from the floods that fall on Wadi El-Arish and not to waste and benefit from them). Determine the financial and technical support for the implementation of the plan (from the state budget with the private sector for investments...). Identify and integrate the responsibilities of the stakeholders (government, civil society, private sector). 148
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. 6.5 Implement The plan and Evaluate Management In this final step, it should implement the plan and evaluate management to know its strengths and weaknesses as the following steps: Implementation of the plan that has been created. Monitoring throughout the implementation of the plan (from civil society organizations and government). Periodic follow-up to identify the achievement of the stages of the plan and assess the achievement of the objectives (utilization of flood waters in Wadi El Arish watershed, and the extent of mitigation of the flood disaster). Share results transparently among the stakeholders. Updating the plan according to the lessons learned and identifying the weaknesses in the management of Wadi El Arish watershed to be modified and the strengths to be confirmed. Therefore, Wadi El Arish watershed can be managed through identifying Wadi El Arish watershed characteristics (natural environment, land use, population and biolife characteristics) then identify objectives related to collecting and utilizing flood waters, raising awareness and build capacity of local community to cope with flood risks and recognize importance of watershed and flood disasters management in Egypt, following this step identify Stakeholders, and determine target and plan leading to final step of implementing developed plans and finally evaluate overall crises management which is concluded and applied from analyzing theoretical analysis of watershed management and Canadian case. 7. CONCLUSION The management of watersheds is important facing the flood phenomenon in Egypt as it combines facing the risks of floods and benefit from the integration between the natural environment and socio-economic aspects, where it must depend on floods as an important water resource helps to bridge the water needs for development. That the recurrence of the disaster floods in Egypt during the previous years is evident to be deficient in the face of such as weak planning ahead of the prevention of the 149
W. M. EMAM ET AL flood disaster, the lack of integration and coordination between the stakeholders and lack of respect for environmental patterns and the different characteristics of each environmental format in dealing with, the lack of effective integrated planning which balances the requirements of the environment and the optimal utilization of natural resources, some dams have been built in a non-scientific manner, which led to the aggravation of the disaster such as the collapse of Al-Hager dam in 2016 in Sohag and Assiut, while dams should be built according to return period, probable maximum flood, and Geological and topographic studies, lack of awareness of the community towards the floods and the lack of follow-up and control of the areas likely to cause the disaster (such as building the people of the buildings inside the floods), with central decision-making (which delays confront disaster floods and increases damage to society). The research propose a new conceptual framework to address flood disasters and utilize its water through time factor consists of three stages (pre-event, event and post -event) and location factors (planning zone, influence area and study area) in flood risk management (define risk, hazard risk assessment, leadership engagement, Rehabilitation and training in the face of flood disaster and performance assessment) as shown in Fig. 10. Steps to confront and benefit from floods Fig. 10. Framework which proposed to confront flood disaster in Egypt Source: by the author. 150
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. In the light of a strong legal and regulatory framework, watershed management plays an important role in reducing the risks of flooding and take advantage of water through the integration of social, environmental and economic dimensions and meeting the needs of the community while preserving and optimizing the natural resources, with the participation of stakeholders and transparency among all parties will raise community awareness of the local community, which will help to enhance confront flood risks and benefit from their water in Egypt. REFERENCES 1. Wang, G., Mang, S., Cai, H., Liu, S., Zhang, Z., Wang, L., and Innes, J. L., Integrated Watershed Management: Evolution, Development and Emerging Trends, Journal of Forestry Research, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 968-994, 2016. 2. Debnath, R., A Review of The Sustainability of Recent Watershed Management Programmes in Bangladesh, Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 152-161, 2016. 3. Altamami, A.A., Geographical Evaluation of Wadi El Arish Basin in North Sinai Governorate: A Study in Economic Geography, Journal of the Faculty of Arts, Tanta University, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 53-88, 2013. 4. Ministry of Environment, Egypt State of The Environment Report of Year 2015, Ministry of Environment, Cairo, Egypt, 2017. 5. York University, Watershed Issues in Ontario, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Toronto, Canada, 2016. 6. Livingston, E.H., Florida s Rotating Basin Approach: Towards Better Integration, Coordination, and Cooperation, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida, United States of America, 2016. 7. Wani, S. P., and Garg, K. K., Watershed Management Concept and Principles, Rep. No. 167, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India, 2009. 8. Darghouth, S., Ward, C., Gambarelli, G., Styger, E., and Roux, J., Watershed Management Approaches, Policies, and Operations: Lessons for Scaling Up, Rep. No. 44222, The World Bank, Washington, United States of America, 2008. 9. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Principles of Watershed Management, The Watershed acadamy, Washington, United States of America, 2016. 10. Platt, R.H., Urban Watershed Management: Sustainability, One Stream at a Time, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustinable Development, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 26-42, 2006. 11. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Introduction to Watershed Planning, The Watershed Academy, Washington, United States of America, 2016. 151
W. M. EMAM ET AL 12. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Summary of Integrated Watershed Management Approahes Across Canada, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Canada, 2017. 13. Government of Canada, Integrated Watershed Management, https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/wateroverview/management/integrated-watershed.html, last visited in 2018. 14. Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Development, National Plan for Urban Development of Egypt, Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Development, Cairo, Egypt, 2011. 15. Nazmi, N.M. and Barakat, S.M., Natural Disasters in The World and Its Management, Focusing on The Earthquakes and Floods in Egypt, Proceeding of The 7 th International Conference on Development and Environment in The Arab World, pp. 1-25, Assiut, Center for Environmental Studies and Research, Assiut University, 2014. 16. Omar, M. M., and Moussa, A. M., Water Management in Egypt for Facing The Future Challenges, Journal of Advanced Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 403-412, 2016. 17. General Organization for Urban and Regional Planning, The Environmental Perspective of the Urban Development of the Suez Canal Region, General Organization for Urban Planning, Cairo, Egypt, 2014. 18. Abdel Aziz, M.F., Hydrographological Controls for SEL 2010 in Wadi El Arish Basin Using GIS, Middle East Journal, Middle East Research Center, Ain Shams University, Vol. 29, pp. 413-369, 2011. 19. AbuBakr, M., Ghoneim, E., El-Baz, F., Zeneldin, M., and Zeid, S., Use of Radar Data to Unveil The Paleolakes and The Ancestral Course of Wadi El-Arish, Sinai Peninsula, Egypt, Geomorphology, Vol. 194, pp. 34-45, 2013. 20. Shalaby, W.H., Floods and Their Impact on The Geomorphology of The Lower Reaches of Wadi El-Arish, Middle East Journal, Middle East Research Center- Ain Shams University, Egypt, Vol. 33, pp. 426-379, 2013. 21. General Organization for Urban and Regional Planning, The Environmental Perspective of the Urban Development of the Sinai Peninsula, General Organization for Urban Planning, Cairo, Egypt, 2008. 22. Ali, M.A., Analysis of Rain and Floods on The Red Sea and Sinai, Fifth Annual Conference on Crisis and Disaster Management, pp. 176-189, Crisis Management Unit, Faculty of Commerce, Ain Shams University, Egypt, 2000. 23. Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Egypt Environmental profile of North Sinai Governorate, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Cairo, Egypt, 2007. 24. Consultative Council Report, Report of The Services Committee on a National Plan to Combat Natural or Man-made Disasters, Consultative Council, Cairo Egypt, 1996. 152
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AS A MECHANISM. APPENDIX Appendix 1: United Nations 2015 Summit entitled (Transforming Our World: Sustainable Development Plan 2030) 17 major goals which are goal 1 is end poverty in all its forms everywhere. The goal 2 "end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture", goal 3 "ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages", goal 4 "ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all". The goal 5 "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls", goal 6 "ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" goal 7 "ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all". The goal 8 "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all" goal 9 "build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation", goal 10 "reduce inequality within and among countries, goal 11 "make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, goal 12 "ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. The goal 13 "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts", goal 14 "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development", goal 15 "protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. The goal 16 "promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels, goal 17 "strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. 153
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إدارة مستجمعات المياه كآلية لمواجهة كوارث السيول فى مصر يناا البحث ماامبإدااامسبجمحاتبإلااه بحث اا بث اا بقم اا بإاا بقك إاايب اا بحث بااةبحث ااةب وحث محنببحالجه ع ةبوحالاهص ميةبإ بخاللبحثه رفبعلىبأهدحفا بوإ مئا بحثهيبقهض بحثمادبإا ب إخاا ربحثلاا ملبوحالسااهد متبإاا بإ هااا بثاايبيم ااىبإاادتبأه هااا بفاايبإمحجاااةبكبماا حاثبحثلاا ملبفاايب إصربوحثهيبقل تبفيبحثكث ربإ بحأل حرابعلىبإدتبحثلنمح بحثل ب ةبإعبقم قبحالساهد متبإناا ب ك مامبإ ئيبيلا هيبفايبسادبحث ا بفايبحث امحامبحث ئ اةب اا بثايبياهيبق اقبجمحاتبإلاه بحث ا ب علىبإله عبإ بوحميبحث ريل بوادبحسهنهجبحث ممبج ابع يبث محجاةبحثل ملبوحالساهد متبإناا ب فاايبإصاارب هد اايبجمحاتبإلااه بحث اا حثك اثة بأثن ئا بب اده ببويرقكاا بعلااىبثالثااةبإماا وابوهاايبحث ماامابحث إناايب)ا اايب بوحث مامابحث اا نيب)إن اةبحثك اثاة بإن اةبحثهاثث ر بإن اةبحثهاثثر ببوإماماب إ حرحيبجمحاتبإخ ربحثل ملب)قمديدبحث خ ربحث ب ة بق يبحث خ ربحث ب ة بموابحث ه اعبحث ادنيب فايبإمحجااةبحثكامحاثبحث ب اة ب نا نبااد حا بوقن اةبإاا حا بحث ه اعبعلاىبإمحجااةبحثكامحاثبحث ب اة ب. ب ق يبحألمحن 155