EDUCATION AND STATUS OF WOMEN IN VOJVODINA PROVINCE, NORTH SERBIA

Geographica Timisiensis, vol. 19, nr. 1, 2010 (pp. 99-113) EDUCATION AND STATUS OF WOMEN IN VOJVODINA PROVINCE, NORTH SERBIA Branislav S. DJURDJEV, Gordana VUKSANOVIC, Andjelija Ivkov- DZIGURSKI University of Novi Sad Abstract. Basically, this chapter gives a conclusion that a fast, growing expansion of literacy and education of people with specialist and professional knowledge is present in the past 50 years, i.e. in just two generations. Those who are responsible for the development of Vojvodina Province can mainly find support in the labour force with professional high school degree as a potential for routine work. It must be considered that fast development of the education system was politically assisted: the new government has been creating their own specialist labour force intensively as well as the intellectuals, thus exterminating illiteracy on the way. Rezumat. EducaŃia şi statutul femeilor din Provincia Vojvodina, nordul Serbiei. Practic, acest capitol oferă o concluzia că extinderea tot mai mare a alfabetizării şi educarea persoanelor cu cunoştinńele profesionale de specialitate s-a făcut rapid, în ultimii 50 de ani, adică în doar două generańii. Cei care sunt responsabili pentru dezvoltarea Provinciei Voivodina pot găsi sprijin, în principal, în forńa de muncă cu grad profesional de liceu ca un potenńial pentru munca de rutina. Trebuie să se considere că dezvoltarea rapidă a sistemului de învăńământ a fost asistată politic: obiectivul noului guvern a fost crearea propriei forńe de muncă specializată intens. Key words: Education, transition, women, Vojvodina, Serbia Cuvinte cheie: educańie, tranzińie, femei, Vojvodina, Serbia Introduction Two basic elements of the population structure relevant for education are literacy and level of educational attainment. Having observed the data of the last six censuses (1953-2002) it can be said that both in the absolute and relative sense the proportion of illiterate persons is decreasing. The data of the last 2002 census show that 2.4% of the population in Vojvodina (aged 10+) are illiterate, which, according to the global standard (3% and less), can be considered as exterminated illiteracy (see Table I). The decreasing trend of illiteracy characterizes both sexes, whereas the illiteracy among female population is still high and decreases relatively more slowly than among male population. In 2002 the rate of illiteracy among female population was 3.7% and among males only 1.0%. The expected trend of decrease in number and proportion of the illiterate was disturbed by the unexpected trend of deepening differences between the sexes: in the 1953 census the illiterate women made 69.4% of the total number of illiterate, and in the

100 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia next fifty years that part was steadily increasing from census to census and in 2002 the proportion of women reached even 80.1% of the total number of the illiterate. Table I Illiterate population aged 10+, 1953-2002. Census Total Male Female Number % Number % Number % 1953 180861 12.9 55354 8.5 125507 17.0 1961 172721 11.3 48753 6.6 123968 15.6 1971 152528 9.0 41381 5.1 111147 12.8 1981 101713 5.8 26659 3.1 75054 8.3 1991 72612 4.1 15940 1.9 56672 6.2 2002 44090 2.4 8787 1.0 35303 3.7 Group of Authors, 1984, Population in Households in the SR of Serbia, RSO in CDI, Belgrade, p 88; Svetlana Radovanovic, editor, 1995, Population in Households in SR of Yugoslavia according to СР 1991 census, RSO; CDI, Belgrade, p 175-176. According to age, the highest concentration of illiterate women is in the age group 65+, representing 2/3 or 66.9% of all illiterate women, while illiterate men of the same age category make slightly more than a third or 35.9%. This means, though, that sex differences will gradually be decreasing. In addition to this, we have data from the census 2002 which show that there are more illiterate men aged 25. Still, the proportion of the illiterate is less than one per cent in the total population of both sexes aged 40, and above that age category illiteracy among female population is over one per cent, and in the age group 65+ it is even higher than 12.5%. Illiteracy among men is over one per cent in the age group 60+, but it reaches maximum of 2.5% in the age group 65+. The decrease in number and proportion of people without primary school degree can be best illustrated by the expansion of school degrees (see Table II): in 1991 the number of such population was over half a million or more than one third of all people aged 15+. In 2002 population with primary school degree reached 24.9%, with high school degree 43.9%, with higher school or university degree made 9.5% of people aged 15+. This last category has most quickly been increasing, comparing to those in 1953, the numbers have increased even 23 times in 2002, from 6 982 to 162 081. The latest census shows that educational structure has changed fastest in the last period between censuses, between 1991 and 2002. The number of people without a degree and primary school drop-outs (1-3 and 4-7 grade) is lower, the number of people with primary education is the same and the number of people with high school degree is significantly higher as well as the number of people with higher and university degree. Even though educational structure has improved, we still need to emphasize that even every fifth citizen of Vojvodina aged 15+ is without primary school degree. This massive contingent can, because of limited knowledge, become subject to manipulation and limit the rate of change. Unfavourable status of women in education was also observed in the census 2002. For 52.5% of women the highest degree is completed or incompleted primary school. Most

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 101 men have high school degree, 50.3%. However, this difference disappears in the category of higher and university degrees, where there are 10% men and 9% women. Contributing to the equality and even change of the prevailing sex structure of higher degrees is the fact that most graduates of the University of Novi Sad are women. Illiteracy in Central Serbia has always been much higher than in Vojvodina and despite faster decrease it is still a problem, because there are 3.8% of illiterate persons aged 15+, and the proportion of women is especially high - 6.4%. The situation was also unfavourable in Romania and Croatia where there were 3% of illiterate persons, except for the fact that the percentage of women was even 5%. Only in Hungary the situation was better with females, only 1% of men and 2% of women were illiterate. Equal opportunities The analysis of equal opportunities of the sexes will be shown according to the proportion of both sexes in the administration/government and according to the proportion of sexes in the school system. The proportion of women in administration/government For the purpose of creating a mid-term plan of economic development of AP Vojvodina, data have been collected regarding sex proportion in administration/government in 17 provincial secretariats (from the total of 18) and from 42 municipalities in Vojvodina (from the total of 45) showing the situation at the end of 2002. The data have shown a significantly higher proportion of women: out of 4 581 employees by the end of 2002 the proportion of women was 62.7%. We should be cautious about the fact that there are 2/3 of women in professions which are high on the social hierarchy ladder. This data does not have to reflect a real picture and the precedence of women in internal hierarchy. The proportion of women in the school system Evidence of the current statistics has shown that the proportion of women employed in the school system has been decreasing following the increase of the level of school institutions. Thus the proportion of female teachers working in primary schools in 1999/2000 was even 76.2% (in Central Serbia 68.7%), in high schools 60.8% (Central Serbia 58.2%), and at the university level only 40.8% (Central Serbia 37.3%). Percentage of young people at universities and sex structure of students If we compare the number of students in the school year 1999/2000 with the number of young people (aged 0-19 according to the census 2002), we can see that the percentage of those who are studying is 7.2%. However, if we compare the number of those who study with the age category 20-24 (which is closest to the age category of students), the percentage is 23.4%. Table III shows sex structure of pupils/students in the school year 2000/2001. From given data we can see that female proportion in the educational process is larger at higher schools or universities (54.4%), high schools (50.9%), whereas male population is larger in primary education (51.4%). School success Unfortunately, we do not have statistical data on the final success of students during the educational process. At Novi Sad University, there are 53.2% graduates out of the total number of students enrolled, with 63.4% females.

102 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia Table III. Number and sex structure of pupils and students in 2000/2001. Female Pupil/Student School Type Total Pupils/Students Proportion Number (in %) Primary School 208712 101457 48.6 High school 82351 41952 50.9 Higher and University Education 36724 19987 54.4 Source: Statisticki godisnjak Srbije - SGS (2000) (Beograd, Republicki zavod za informatiku i statistiku) and Statisticki godisnjak Srbije - SGS (2001), (Beograd, Republicki zavod za informatiku i statistiku). Employment Labour force, undoubtedely, represents one of the most significant factors for future development planning. Since 1990 demographic characteristics of labour force in Vojvodina are under strong influence of natural and mechanical movements of the population. In the observed time period we can see a steady decrease in the number of employees. In 1990, 628 000 people in Vojvodina were employed, and in 2002 only 493 000 2. Changes in the total number of employees are, partly, under influence of the status of female labour force on the job market. The employment of women is showing social and economic development in a number of factors. The scale and qualitative characteristics of the employed women, in addition to general employment opportunities, are influenced by the characteristics of the female labour force, the status and role of women in families and the society, and domestics chores sharing. Difficulties regarding employment of women, compared to men, are influenced by their reproductive ability in the fertile period, at the age when women have peaked not only their reproductive but also their working abilities. Idea about the importance of female employment in order to change their social status leads toward a simplified conclusion that their economic activity determines their status. Empirical studies have shown a long time ago that employed women are faced with a series of problems, but that they are "problems of the entire society: women and men, i.e. only with the participation of everyone, the entire society, social problems of women can be solved" (Tomic, 1974: 152). Female employment, however, is only a prerequisite in the process of their individual and social emancipation. The degree of social and economic development determines the diversity and availability of institutions and services which should enable the satisfaction of children needs during the absence of parents, as well as the fulfillment of domestic chores. During 1970s and 1980s, there have been observed a high correlation between the economic development of a region and the satisfaction of women with the network of preschool establishments. (Tomic, 1974:141). In the conditions of strong economic crisis, low income, instability of employment and high unemployment, an idea of socializing family functions is acceptable for a small number of people. Instead of higher employment rates, there have been a decrease in the number of employed women and, probably, the increase in their employment in the grey sector. That is why it should be considered that the statistical analysis of the employment does not take into account a large share of the total activity of female population. In the observed period (see Table IV), the number of the employed women on the territory of Vojvodina is between 198 000 (1992) and 255 000 (1990). There was a sudden fall in the total number of employed women in the period 1991-1992, from 250 000 to 198 000. The

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 103 explanation can be found in the total destabilization of SFRY, and consequently Vojvodina, which happened after the outbreak of the civil wars in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to data for 2002, 212 000 of women were employed which makes 43.0 % of the total number of employees. However, during the entire observed period the number of women employed in the private sector has continually been increasing, it increased from 11 000 in 1990 to 47 000 in 2002 3. If we consider some negative aspect of work in the private sector (arbitrary duration of employment, salaries which are often inadequate to the invested work), it can be seen that women are increasingly present in the sectors where labour force is still exploited, and the length of employment duration depends on the self-will of the employer. The experience from the social sector has shown that firms with female employees are more easily manipulated with, so a large number of private employers chooses female employees, probably because of the same reasons. Table IV. Female employees, annual average (in thousands) Year Total Vojvodina Private sector Proportion of employees of the private sector in the total number of employees 1990. 255 11 4.3 1991. 250 22 8.8 1992. 198 23 11.6 1993. 239 24 10.0 1994. 236 28 11.9 1995. 233 33 14.2 1996. 231 35 15.1 1997. 230 40 17.4 1998. 227 39 17.2 1999. 220 40 18.2 2000. 219 42 19.2 2001. 217 42 19.3 2002. 212 47 22.2 Source: from 1990 to 2000:SYS, 2001: 78; for 2001 and 2002: Announcement about employees, ZP 20, Statistical Office of Serbia, Belgrade, 2002. Among employees there is a large number of those who are outside labour process. For instance, in 1999 3.5 % of the total number of employees in Vojvodina were outside labour process because of illness, child care or a family member care. Although we do not have available data referring to the sex structure of employees compared to the reasons for absence, we can assume that in this category female labour force prevails. Age structure of the employees Age structure of the employees in Vojvodina (see Table V) shows higher concentration in younger age groups 4. More than 1/3 of employees (35.5 %) are aged 30 to 39. This favourable total average is present because of young female labour force. At the age 25 to 49 there are 4/5 (81.8 %) of women. It should be mentioned that lower number of female labour force is present in the age group 25 29 (13.8 %) than in older age groups. For example, 1/5 of women are aged 35 39.

104 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia Table V. Employees by age and sex, Vojvodina Employees % Proportion of Age women in the Total Women Total Women total number of employees by age Total 599641 242587 100.0 100.0 40.4 15-19 5356 2786 0.9 1.1 52.0 20-24 45330 18403 7.6 7.6 40.6 25-29 79298 33480 13.2 13.8 42.2 30-34 101063 45487 16.8 18.8 45.0 35-39 112305 50096 18.7 20.6 44.6 40-44 102545 44999 17.1 18.5 43.9 45-49 62068 24405 10.4 10.1 39.3 50-54 55576 15896 9.3 6.5 28.6 55-59 26760 4650 4.5 2.0 17.4 60-64 5732 1049 1.0 0.4 18.3 65+ 2079 701 0.3 0.3 33.7 Unknown 1529 635 0.2 0.3 41.5 Source: PS 91, Population Book (Employees - Part one, data according to municipalities, republics and provinces), SOS, Belgrade, 1995, pp 214, 248. Activity Changes in the activity of the population in Vojvodina will be given for the period 1981 1991 5 (see Table VI). Analysis of this time period enables a clearer observation of the influence of the disturbed age structure of the population in Vojvodina 6 on the changes in its activity. In addition to this, year 1981 is prior to the intensive economic and political disturbances, both on the territory of former SFRY and Vojvodina, which instigated not only territorial movements of the population in the region but also leaving the country, and at the same time changes in the structure according to the activity. In the period 1981 to 1991 the proportion of the active population in the total number did not change significantly (43.8 % in 1981; 44.3 % in 1991). The situation of relative stagnation regarding the activity is caused by the increased female activity. In 1981, 30.6 % of women out of the total number are active and 33.7 % in 1991. The number of active men decreases both absolutely and relatively. However, the proportion of men in the total number of active population is significantly higher than the proportion of women (1981: 64.1 % men and 35.9 % women; 1991: 60.9 % men and 39.1 % women). Activity within the labour contingent is also higher with men than with women. According to census 1991, 77.5% of men aged 15-64 are active. In the female labour contingent aged 15-59, 54.6 % of women are active. If agriculture represents a bases for future economic prosperity of Vojvodina, than a special attention should be given to the activity of the agricultural population. Although Vojvodina offers huge opportunities for agriculture, the number of agricultural workers is continually decreasing. If we consider a rapid increase in the number of unemployed, on the one hand, and depopulation of rural settlements and agricultural production, on the other hand, than overcoming of these problems can be achieved by enabling the unemployed to start agricultural production, if they are interested.

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 105 Table VI. Population by activity and sex, based on censuses, Vojvodina Activity 1981. 1991. Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1969181 958626 1010555 1966367 955137 1011230 Active 862337 552933 309404 871704 531012 340692 People with personal income 225067 110173 114894 323256 153244 170012 Supported 881777 295520 586257 771407 270881 500526 structure in Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Active 43.8 57.7 30.6 44.3 55.6 33.7 People with personal 11.4 11.5 11.4 16.5 16.0 16.8 income Supported 44.8 30.8 58.0 39.2 28.4 49.5 Source : SGS, 2001: 49 Professional Activities In Vojvodina about ¼ of employees work in other sectors, and over ¾ in the economical sector (see Table VII). The largest number of people is employed in the processing industry (36.1 %), than agriculture, forestry and hydro-industry (11.3 %), public health and social welfare (10.9 %), education (8.6 %) etc. According to the available data, which refer to the sex structure of the employees according to their professional activities, in 1998 in Vojvodina, women comprise more than 1/3 (34.6 %) of the employees in industrial activities and over 2/3 (68.7 %) of the employees in other sectors (SB 2274, 2001: 28). The differences in personal income of men and women, because of the lack of data, can be analyzed based on the proportion of men and women in certain sectors of the industry and differences in income within those sectors. Average income per employee according to sector shows that women prevail in the sectors with lower personal income per employee. For instance, in January - February 2002, total average personal income per employee in Vojvodina was 9 938. Simultaneously, employees in the catering sector earn on average 5 872 dinars, and in trade 7 245. Average income in the educational sector is almost on the level of the general average 9 401, but it is significantly lower from the income in the sector of electricity, gas and water supply, or those employed in the mining and quarrying sector, i.e. lower than the income in the sectors where male labour force prevails (Announcement No. 239, 2002: 3, 5). In addition to the prejudice about more frequent leave of absence among women, they are favourable labour force in the sectors with lower income. Table VII. Employees by sectors, annual average Sector Vojvodina 2003 Total 100.0 Agriculture, forestry, hydro-industry 11.3 Fisheries 0.2 Mining and quarrying 0.6 Processing industry 36.1

106 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia Electricity, gas and water supply 2.4 Construction 4.7 Whole sale and retail trade, repairs 6.3 Hotels and restaurants 1.1 Transport, storage and communications 6.6 Investments 2.3 Real estate, renting 1.7 Administration and social insurance 4.5 Education 8.6 Public health and social welfare 10.9 Other public and personal services 2.7 Source: Vuksanovic, 2003 : 69. Unemployment The deepening of the economic crisis during the last decade has consequently caused a steady increase in the number of employees. From 1990 to 2002, the number of unemployed persons has steadily been increasing in Vojvodina. In 1990, it was 127 962, and in 2002 it was 275 091. The decrease in the number of unemployed happened only in 1997 which can be partly explained by the higher employment rate in the private sector. Among the unemployed, there is an increase in the number of those who are seeking employment for the first time. We can assume that the largest number of them are young people who have finished school and are trying to fulfill their right to work. From 1990 to 2002, their number increased from 54 309 to156 088. In 1990 people seeking job for the first time made 42.4 % of the total number of the unemployed, and in 2002 they made 56.7 %. According to data, in 2000 there were 117 unemployed persons per 1000 in Vojvodina (Municipalities in Serbia 2001, 2002 : 117). Two years later, in 2002, their number increased to 135. The increase of the number of unemployed happened mostly due to the fact that there was an increase in female unemployement (see Table VIII). In the same period, 1990-2002, the number of unemployed women in Vojvodina increased in total 69 968, from 77 484 to 147 452. In 1990, women made 60.5 % of the total number of unemployed persons. After this year, their proportion in the total number of the unemployed has always been falling under 50 % and fluctuates from 51.7 % (in 1996) to 56.1 % (in 1991). Among those, we can assume, there is a significant number of women who were left without work because of the liquidation of firms, or have become redundant in the atmosphere of the unstable economy, ownership transformation, and changes in the production structure. Many of them have, probably, worked part time, but in the situation of the closed market they could not continue to work. The quilfications structure of the unemployed women contributes to the justification of this assumtion. Out of the total number of unemployed women in Vojvodina in 2002 more than 1/3 (37.2 %) was unqualified, which, undoubtedly, makes it more difficult to find a job. Among the unemployed women, only 2.3 % have a university degree. If we consider the fact that the participation of women in the social distribution of work is a prerequisite for the equality among the sexes, and fulfilment of several other so-called human rights, we can assume that because of the contunuous increase of the unemployed women there is a

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 107 gap for different forms of discrimination, both on the family level and in the entire society. Table VIII. Unemployed population, women, annual average Vojvodina Year Women in total Women % 1990. 77484 60.5 1991. 89722 56.1 1992. 100678 53.5 1993. 107422 53.2 1994. 111971 52.8 1995. 118286 52.5 1996. 125834 51.7 1997. 114472 54.3 1998....... 1999....... 2000. 127191 55.0 2001. 134188 54.4 2002. 147452 53.6 Source: 1990 to 1997: Labour market and Migration Office of Serbia and Montenegro; SYJ 2000, SOSM, Belgrade, 2000, p 98; In 2000, (December 31st 2000): Municipalities in Serbia 2001, 2002: 117; Data for 2001 and 2002 for Vojvodina have been obtained from Labour MarketOffice of Serbia - branch office Novi Sad; Note: Since 1998 Labour Market Office of Serbia announces data only for the Republic of Serbia. Although the number of unemployed persons is continually growing, the unemployment in Vojvodina is not characteristic in the period of ownership transformation and emphasized decentralization in the economy. Practically, as well as theoretically, the problem of unemployment represented a subject of discussion in the period of socialism. In 1971, the unemployment rate, the proportion between the number of unemployed and the total number of employees is 6.7 % (Petrovic-Zmijanovic, 1972: 26). According to the same source, the total unemployment rate, including the temporarily unemployed in agriculture and without the number of employees working abroad, is about 15%. Analysis of unemployment is based on the data on registered unemployment, i.e. data on the number of people outside labour process seeking for employment and regularly registering with the employment office. Based on the detailed insight of the scope and structural characteristic of the (un)employed people in Vojvodina it can be assumed that real unemployment is much higher than the registered one. There are still disagreements about the fact who should be considered unemployed. In practice, there are three dominant opinions: (Mandic, 1977: 1020): According to the first, all members of the active population who are completely unemployed and partially employed should be considered unemployed, regardless of the fact if they are registered with the employment office. According to the second, speaking in legal terms, "unemployed is every person who is not fully employed, or not owning a private professional firm, if registered with the employment office.

108 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia The third opinion points out the fact that not everyone wants to register with the employment office, and even that not everyone registered with the employment office should be considered unemployed. Available data show that these considerations, although created almost thirty years ago, are still relevant. Not everyone from the active population, even if given a chance, is ready to become employed, and that is why they do not register on the labour market. Contrary to the voluntary unemployed people, forced unemployment consists of persons who are active, seeking for employment, are willing to work but cannot find a job. The question remains if people who partially use their labour potential should be considered unemployed? How should new form of (un)employment in the grey sector, particularly developed in the countries in transition, should be recorded? Age and sex structure of the unemployed Age structure of the unemployed on the territory of Vojvodina shows that, according to numbers, there are three age groups among the unemployed people (see Table IX). According to 2002 data, a significant number of unemployed persons are aged 19 to 25 (23.1 %). Based on their age, we can assume that those are the people who have just completed educational process, have registered on the labour market, i.e. they are seeking employment for the first time. Secondly, according to their number, are aged 31 to 40 (22.9 %), whereas on the third place are persons aged 50+. Their proportion in the total number of unemployed persons is also more than 1/5 (21.0 %). The analysis of the age structure of unemployed women shows the same irregularity. Among unemployed population, without persons younger than 18, there is the smallest number of people aged 26 to 30 (13.5 %). Also, among the unemployed women, the smallest number is aged 26 to 30-14.8%. The proportion of women in the total number of unemployed persons is 53.6 %. Table IX. Unemployed persons by age and sex, in 2002, Vojvodina Unemployed persons Unemployed persons Proportion of women Age in the total number of Total Women Total Women unemployed persons Total 274525 147216 100.0 100.0 53.6 Younger than 18 5048 2564 1.8 1.7 50.8 19-25 63316 33596 23.1 22.8 53.1 26-30 37009 21852 13.5 14.8 59.0 31-40 62853 36044 22.9 24.5 57.3 41-50 48694 25395 17.7 17.2 52.1 50+ 57605 27765 21.0 19.0 48.2 Source: Labour Market Office of the Republic of Serbia - branch office Novi Sad, December 31st, 2002. Conclusions about age structure of unemployed people can be drawn indirectly, based on the length of job waiting. For example, based on the 2002 data 7, the length of job waiting shows that among unemployed persons of Vojvodina there is the largest number of those who are waiting for jobs for less than one year (29.3 %). We can assume that those are young people who have just completed educational process. The largest number of employees - 56.6% are those waiting for a job from 1 to 3 years. With the increase of the number of waiting years there is a decrease in the number of the unemployed. There is a

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 109 sudden increase in the group "above ten years". Out of the total number of unemployed persons 11.9 % are waiting for a job for more than 10 years. It should be borne in mind that this category includes people who are not seeking a job, but have registered on the labour market in order to fulfill their right for health care. Among the unemployed who are waiting for a job for more than ten years there are mostly women, 65.8 %, which is 14.6 % of the total of unemployed women. Level of educational attainment of unemployed population Among the unemployed there is the smallest number of those with the highest educational level, (Level VIII), i.e. holding a PhD (see Table X). Their proportion in the total number of unemployed persons is 0.003 %. Persons with the lowest educational level, i.e. unqualified, represent 36.3 % of unemployed population. The analysis of the level of educational attainment shows that in 2002, compared to 2001, there was an increase in the number of unemployed persons at all levels of educational attainment, except for level VI-2 8. This level of educational attainment, regarding the total number of unemployed population in Vojvodina, has index 92.05. Changes in trends of the level of educational attainment of unemployed women does not significantly differ from the trends of the level of educational attainment of the the total population. The analysis of absolute values shows that both in the total number of unemployed population and in the number of unemployed women, the smallest proportion goes to persons with level VIII of educational attainment, PhD (0.003 %), than with level VI -2, persons who have completed first degree of the relevant faculty and gained higher educational level (0,03 %), as well as persons with level VII-2 of educational attainment, completed high education and postgraduate studies (0.03%). More than 1/3 (36.3 %) of unemployed people are those without qualifications (level I of educational attainment), whereas qualified (level III of educational attainment) comprise over 1/4 (26.3 %) of the unemployed. The highest proportion of women among the unemployed are those with level IV and VI-1 of educational attainment, i.e. among highly qualified persons and those with higher education, 64.4 % and 63.1 %. Structure and level of salaries The last and the only availaible data on pure personal income levels 9 of employees by sex refer to 1976 and 1986 (see Table XI). In both years pure personal income of male employees in the social sector was higher than pure personal income of females. This can be explained, above all, by the fact that women are dominant labour force in the sectors with lower income, such as public health, education, and textile industry. In addition to this, a significantly smaller number of women are holding executive positions which comprise higher personal income. With the increase of age, because of the years counted for the pension, personal income is increased. Table X. Pure personal income per employee in the social sector by age, in dinars Age Vojvodina 1976. 1986. Total 3 677 84 099 Men 3 929 90 351 Women 3 201 73 146 Young 3 050 68 212

110 Education and status of women in Vojvodina province, north Serbia Up to 19 2 488 53 464 20-24 2 892 66 176 25-27 3 317 72 752 Others 3 895 87 943 28 and 29 3 585 76 177 30-34 3 764 79 889 35-39 3 901 84 896 40-44 3 987 88 105 45-49 3 986 90 613 50-54 4 015 94 286 55-59 4 073 99 234 60+ 3 958 106 949 Source: SGJ 1918-1988, 1989: 79, 81 Since there are not any immediate data on the level of personal income of males and females, we can draw conclusions only according to the proportion of men and women in certain sectors of economic activity and the differences in the level of personal income in those sectors. Out of the total number of female employees, most of them work in industry and mining, followed by women working in public health and social welfare sectors, trade etc. 10 However, in the last three sectors women represent dominant labour force. For instance in Vojvodina, out of the total number of employees in public health and social welfare sectors, 77.4% are women, in education and culture women are present with 64.1%, in trade with 52.4%, in catering with 60.6% etc. Level of average income per employee by economic activities shows that women are dominant in the activities with lower average income per employee (see Table XII). Table XI. Average income per employee by economical activity in the period January - September 2002, in dinars Economical activity Index of real Income income IH/VIII without taxes 2002 Total 9938 94.65 Industry 9800 96.51 Non-industrial activity 10381 89.55 Agriculture, forestry and hydro-industry 9094 93.85 Fisheries 11685 105.92 Mining and quarrying 15843 96.81 Processing industry 9513 96.40 Electricity, gas and water supply 13311 102.28 Construction 9799 104.10 Wholesale and retail trade, repairs 7245 96.91 Hotels and restaurants 5872 98.00 Transport, storage and communications 10919 94.99 Investments 15566 83.15 Real estate, renting 12106 100.29

B.S. DJURDJEV, G. VUKSANOVIC, A. IVKOV- DZIGURSKI 111 Public administration and social insurance 11286 97.79 Education 9401 102.42 Public health and social welfare 10327 80.57 Other communal, social and private services 10699 98.86 Source: Announcement No. 239, Employment Statistics, Statistical Office of Serbia, Belgrade October 23rd 2002, pp 3, 5. CONCLUSION In the period after World War Two new communist government has tried to quickly develop educational system and thus create new personnel and intelligence and to exterminate illiteracy on the way. Thanks to those efforts, current pillars of the development in Vojvodina can mostly count on the population with middle level of educational attainment as a potential for routine work. Still, the expansion of literacy and growth of education of persons with specialist and professional education in the last fifty years, i.e. in just two generations did not manage to diminish gender, generational, ethnic and territorial differences in literacy and educational level. Whereas with higher and university degrees gender differences are no longer prominent, we can still see a large proportion of illiterate women in the total number of the illiterate. Furthermore, we can see too many women in lower educational categories, and that problem is particularly present in villages. Consecutive census data in the last fifty years show that a possible direction of development, is in the decrease of illiterate proportion on the level below one per cent and the disappearance of gender, generational, ethnic and territorial differences in education. Social and psychological consequences of unemployment can be analyzed from the aspect of unemployed person, family, society. Bearing in mind the scope of the negative influence of unemployment, it is necessary to redefine notions of employment, i.e. unemployment, so that social action can be oriented towards those who really need help, and based on more reliable data, towards the creation of programmes of further development. If full employment is a situation that cannot be attained, then action should be aimed at greater employment. REFERENCES Acsady, I. (1896) Magyarorszag nepessege a Pragmatica Sanctio koraban 1720-1721. (Budapest, Magyar Statisztikai Kozlemenyek XII). Announcement 31 (2002) Final Results of the 2002 Census. (Belgrade, Statistical Office of Serbia). Breznik, D. (1991) Population of Yugoslavia. (Titograd, Chronos). Curcic, S. (1996) Number of Inhabitants in Vojvodina (Novi Sad, Matica srpska). Demographic Statistics 1991 (1993) (Belgrade Federal Statistical Office). Djurdjev S. B (1986) Progress of External Migrations in Vojvodina. Proceedings of Matica srpska for social studies, 80, pp. 109-127. Djurdjev S. B (1988) Demographic Distortion of the Population in Vojvodina. Proceedings of Matica srpska for social studies, 85, pp. 67-82. Djurdjev S. B (1994) Peopling of the Vojvodina Province after the Second World War. The

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