FLIGHT OPERATIONS ENGINEERING Introduction to Navigation IN, Page 1
Introduction To Navigation Methods and Equipment Procedures Navigation and the FMC IN, Page 2
Navigation Knowing: Where you are Where you want to go About how much fuel and time it will take to get there IN, Page 3
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Pilotage Identification of present position and direction of flight by visual contact with terrain IN, Page 5
Latitude and Longitude Measured in degrees, minutes, seconds Latitude refers to parallels, and is measured north or south of the equator (90 south to 90 north) Longitude refers to meridians, and is measured east or west of the Prime Meridian passing through Greenwich, England (180 west to 180 east) 60 minutes equals 1º 60 seconds equals 1minute One minute of latitude, measured on the earth s surface, is equal to one nautical mile. IN, Page 6
Latitude and Longitude continued Right now, you are here N47 27.45 W122 14.01 IN, Page 7
Dead Reckoning Application of laws of physics to estimate position Calculation of basic flight parameters necessary to safely get from point A to point B Basis for air navigation HEADING + TAS WIND TRACK and GRND SPD IN, Page 8
HEADING Versus TRACK Heading - direction airplane is pointed Track - direction airplane is moving HEADING TRACK IN, Page 9
MAGNETIC VARIATION There is a difference between true and magnetic north True North + Magnetic Variation = Magnetic North East is least and west is best IN, Page 10
Who am I? IN, Page 11
NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON Sends the same signal in all directions Limited operating range Strongly affected by weather Used by automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment Limited usage in US IN, Page 12
VOR Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range Magnetic North Uses two phased signals to generate radial-specific information Behaves like 360 different signals 3 letter identifier Limited to line-of-sight Sensitive to terrain interference 315 45 270 090 0 225 180 135 IN, Page 13
Web-based VOR Tutorial Tim s Air Navigation Simulator: http://www.visi.com/~mim/nav/ IN, Page 14
777 Nav Display - Full VOR Mode IN, Page 15
777 Nav Display - Expanded VOR Mode IN, Page 16
DME Distance Measuring Equipment Required for operation above FL240 Ultra-high frequency IN, Page 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
DME Operation VOR is passive, no input required from plane DME is active, requires transmitter and receiver at each end (plane and DME) Plane must send a signal to DME to activate it IN, Page 18
VOR/DME, TACAN, and VORTAC All have both a VOR and DME VOR/DME is for civilian use only TACAN uses same civilian DME but has a different VOR for military use VORTAC is a combines VOR/DME and TACAN facility, the two systems are physically located next to each other DME and VOR frequencies are paired IN, Page 19
DME Accuracy Varies with each DME Most are accurate to within 0.2 NM at all distances Some are accurate to within 0.1 NM at all distances Least accurate are within 3% of total distance IN, Page 20
Slant Range Error DME measures distance between plane and the DME, not distance along ground The closer the plane is to the DME the greater the error is 4 NM 6.4 NM 10.8 NM 15.5 NM 0 NM 5 NM 10 NM 15 NM IN, Page 21
Inertial Navigation Systems Self contained Very accurate Start from a known point Use accelerometers and gyros to track changes in acceleration and direction Position updates from VOR/DME, GPS... Use this information to track position IN, Page 22
Multiple Iru Installations Some airplanes have 3 Inertial Reference Units (IRUs) When 3 IRUs are installed, they vote to determine airplane position 2 closest win IN, Page 23
Global Positioning System Global Positioning System 24 satellites, 3 spares 4 required to determine position, usually 8-10 used Passive system, unlimited number of users IN, Page 24
Web-based GPS Tutorial Trimble GPS Tutorial: http://www.trimble.com/gps IN, Page 25
GPS Error Sources Typical Error Budget (in Meters) Per Satellite Accuracy Standard GPS Differential GPS Satellite Clocks 1.5 0 Orbit Errors 2.5 0 Ionosphere 5.0 0.4 Troposphere 0.5 0.2 Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3 Multipath (Reflections) 0.6 0.6 Selective Availability (SA) 30.0 0 Typical Position Accuracy Horizontal 50 1.3 Vertical 78 2.0 3-D 93 2.8 IN, Page 26
Instrument Landing System Outer Marker ILS 3 to 6 Inner Marker Middle Marker 3 IN, Page 27
777 Primary Flight Display (PFD) IN, Page 28
BOARDING PASS Passenger Names: Fundamentals Course Students Seats: Destination: San Francisco IN, Page 29
How do we get from Seattle to San Francisco? IN, Page 30
Route Planning Can I fly direct? Is there an airway? Are there special considerations for departing and arriving at those airports IN, Page 31
Great Circle Shortest distance between 2 points Plane between the 2 points and center of the Earth Dist = 60 x cos -1 [sin(lat 1 ) x sin(lat 2 ) + cos(lat 1 ) x cos(lat 2 ) x cos(long 2 -long 1 )] IN, Page 32
Departure SID s or DP s Standard Instrument Departure or Departure Procedures Set by governing authority IN, Page 33
J 73 JET and VICTOR Airways Network of airway routes based on the VOR/DME system Victor airways below FL180 (low altitude) Jet airways from FL180 to FL450 (high altitude) J 501 V 199 IN, Page 34
Approach STAR s Standard Terminal Arrival Routes Set by governing authorities IN, Page 35
Preferred Routes Published by flight planning services High and low altitude For Seattle to San Francisco: J70 Elmaa J589 RBG J143 PYE??? IN, Page 36
ELMAA SIX Departure (SID) IN, Page 37
ELMAA SIX SID (Text) Rwys 16 L/R: Intercept and proceed via SEA R-158, cross D5 SEA at or above 3000', then turn right to a 250 heading to intercept and proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int. This SID requires a minimum climb gradient of 550' per NM to 3000'. IN, Page 38
ELMAA SIX SID (Chart) IN, Page 39
How Does the SID Relate to the Preferred Route...proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int. J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE SEA R-227 is J70 J70 intersects J589 at Elmaa IN, Page 40
Getting To KSFO Follow the recommended route: J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE ELMAA Six SID got us to J589 J589 ends at Roseburg (RBG) J143 starts at Roseburg (RBG) J143 takes us to Point Reyes (PYE) IN, Page 41
KSFO Arrival (STAR) Golden Gate Four Arrival (For use by turbojet aircraft only) Arrival: From over ENI VOR via ENI R-146 and PYE R-325 to PYE VOR thence via SFO R-303 to SFO VOR. Expect vectors to final approach course. IN, Page 42
Welcome to San Francisco IN, Page 43
Other Airways North Atlantic Organized Track System Pacific Organized Track System IN, Page 44
Area Navigation (RNAV) IRS VOR/DME ILS/Localizer GPS + = RNAV IN, Page 45
Area Navigation (RNAV) continued Destination Destination RNAV Ground-based Navigation aids Origin Origin IN, Page 46
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) A statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace. (International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO) Consists of a distance, in nautical miles, accompanied by a probability, in % IN, Page 47
Example: RNP 10 Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time 10 nm Desired Path 10 nm IN, Page 48
Example: RNP 10 Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time Desired Path 10 nm 10 nm 95% probability IN, Page 49
RNP Containment Region IN, Page 50 Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%) Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%) Route Centerline RNP (95%) RNP (95%)
Reduced Separation Optimized buffers for airspace separation POPP RNP 4 RNAV 60-100 NM Mitigates Navigation errors, Navigation Performance, Route, Traffic Density, Surveillance, Communication, ATC Performance Assurance Region 4.0 NM 4 x RNP (16 NM) PLMN PWVG Legend PLWX Defined Path RNP 95% Threshold Containment Limit IN, Page 51
RNP Operations RNP, Takeoff to Landing: Departure Enroute RNP4 RNP12 Approach Cat I and II RNP.3 RNP.5 RNP1 RNP2 RNP2 RNP1 RNP.5 RNP.1 Low Visibility Takeoff RNP.3 Cat II or III Landing RNP Profile Plan View IN, Page 52
Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) A real-time calculation of the airplane s estimated position error (95% probability), based on current and past navigation inputs, according to a statistical model in the Flight Management Computer Sure could use a GPS position update about now RADIO NAVAIDS IRS POSITION IN, Page 53
Demonstrated ANP Examples of Minimum Demonstrated ANP s*: Demonstrated ANP (NM) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 737 747 757/767 777 LNAV with Autopilot engaged LNAV with Flight Director Manual Control with Map Display * Airplanes equipped with GPS IN, Page 54
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Position Initialization (POS INIT) page: GPS Ref Airport Gate Last Position IN, Page 56
Route page 1 of 2 (RTE 1/2) : Manual Company Route Data Link IN, Page 57
FMC IN, Page 58
Datalink (ACARS) IN, Page 59
Route page 2 of 2 (RTE 2/2) : End Points IN, Page 60
Departures Page SID s Runways IN, Page 61
Legs Page: Current leg shown in magenta Name of waypoint Distance to waypoint Speed and altitude restrictions IN, Page 62
Arrivals Page STAR s Approaches IN, Page 63
Progress Page 1 of 2: Distance to go Est. time of arrival Est. fuel remaining IN, Page 64
Progress Page 1 of 2 (continued): Can check distance to and ETA for other enroute waypoints IN, Page 65
Progress Page 2 of 2: Wind, head and cross wind components Lateral and vertical track error TAS, static outside air temperature Fuel Quantity from Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) and as calculated by FMC IN, Page 66
Position Report: Actual time of arrival and altitude at last waypoint ETA for upcoming waypoint Temperature and wind IN, Page 67
Reference Navigation Data Page: Gives information about navaids Frequency Location Magnetic variation Elevation IN, Page 68
Reference Navigation Data Page (continued): Can also give information on runways IN, Page 69
Position Reference Page (2 of 3): Page 1 is POS INIT page Shows calculated airplane position IN, Page 70
FMC Display of RNP/ANP FMC displays both RNP and ANP ANP must remain less than RNP for continued operation RNP-based procedures include required crew actions if ANP exceeds RNP IN, Page 71
Mission Planning Issues Winds and temperatures Fuel requirements Redispatch Alternate planning IN, Page 72
Wind and Temperature Statistical Data PCWINDTEMP Provides statistical enroute wind and temperature information for specific great circle or waypoint routes, as a function of: Season/month (e.g. Summer) Reliability (e.g. 85%) Cruise airspeed and altitude Also calculates Equivalent Still Air Distance (ESAD) IN, Page 73
Wind and Temperature Documents Winds on World Air Routes* Winds on US Domestic Routes* Temperatures on World Air Routes* Temperatures on US Domestic Air Routes* Airport Temperatures (CD-ROM, 2002) * These documents not been updated since 1991, because of the release of PCWINDTEMP IN, Page 74
Statistical Wind/temp Represents Single average head/tailwind or temperature that produces the same effect on flight planning as the expected variation of winds/temps during the trip Tailwind is defined as positive Probability X means wind/temp will be as predicted or better X% of the time IN, Page 75
Seasonal Winds/Temps Data can be calculated for the four seasons, individual months, or annual Season represents three month period (e.g. Winter = Dec, Jan, Feb) IN, Page 76
Annual Winds/Temps Winds based on average of all four seasonal winds Can be calculated for any reliability IN, Page 77
PCWINDTEMP Demo Seattle (KSEA) to London Heathrow (EGLL) Cruise altitude FL350 (35,000 ft) Mach 0.84 (= 484 KTAS) Calculate wind and ESAD for: Great circle routing All four seasons 50%, 75%, and 85% reliability IN, Page 78
PCWINDTEMP Results IN, Page 79
Airport Temperatures Similar data available for temperatures Average daily minimum, maximum, and average Monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, and yearly IN, Page 80
Fuel Requirements Is it a domestic flight? Is it an international flight? FAA? ICAO? Other? IN, Page 81
FAA Domestic FAR 121.639 A B C (A) Fly to the airport to which it is dispatched (B) Thereafter, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport (where required) for the airport to which dispatched; and (C) Thereafter, to fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption IN, Page 82
FAA International FAR 121.645 A B C D (A) To fly to and land at the airport to which it is released (B) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time required to fly from the airport of departure to, and land at, the airport to which it was released (C) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an alternate is required; and (D) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport (or the destination airport if no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions IN, Page 83
FAA Island Reserves FAR 121.645, continued No alternate specified in release Must have enough fuel to fly to airport and thereafter to fly for 2 hrs at normal cruising fuel consumption IN, Page 84
ICAO International ICAO Annex 6-4.3.6.3 C A B 4.3.6.3 Aeroplanes equipped with turbojet engines. 4.3.6.3.2 A) When an alternate aerodrome is required: to fly to and execute an approach, and a missed approach, at the aerodrome to which the flight is planned, and thereafter: (A) To fly to the alternate aerodrome specified in the flight plan; and then (B) To fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 450m (1,500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome under standard temperature conditions, and approach and land; and (C) To have an additional amount of fuel sufficient to provide for the increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the potential contingencies specified by the operator to the satisfaction of the state of the operator. (Typically a percentage of the trip fuel - 3% to 6%). IN, Page 85
Basis for Redispatch Reserve/contingency fuel is a function of trip length or trip fuel burn Originally designed to cover errors in navigation, weather prediction, etc... Navigation and weather forecasting techniques have improved, decreasing the chance that contingency fuel will actually be used IN, Page 86
Benefits of Redispatch Reduce required fuel load Increase payload IN, Page 87
How Redispatch Works Cruise Redispatch point Climb Descent Origin Initial Destination Final Destination IN, Page 88
Fuel Savings Redispatch point Fuel saved Fuel Saved Fuel required Distance IN, Page 89
Off Track Initial Destination Origin Initial Destination Redispatch Point Final Destination Origin Redispatch Point Final Destination Initial Destination IN, Page 90
Alternate Airports Items to consider when choosing an alternate airport: Size and surface of runway Weather Hours of operation, lighting Facilities Fire fighting, rescue equipment IN, Page 91
When Do You Need an Alternate? FAR 121.621 (Flag Air Carriers) No person may dispatch an airplane... Unless there is at least one alternate airport for each destination airport in the dispatch release, unless - The flight is less than 6 hours old and for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after ETA, weather reports and/or forecasts indicate the ceiling will be: IN, Page 92
Ceiling Will Be... Far 121.621 Flag Air Carriers At least 1500 ft above lowest circling minimum descent altitude (MDA) if circling approach is required at least 1500 ft above the lowest ILS approach minimum OR 2000 ft above airport elevation which ever is greater visibility at airport will be at least 3 miles OR 2 miles more than the lowest visibility minimums for ILS IN, Page 93
When Do You Need an Alternate? If no alternate is available, relief is in island reserves (FAR 121.645) IN, Page 94
Please don t get lost! IN, Page 95