CONTENTS. Chapter 1: Geographic Overview 21. Chapter 2: Human Interactions with India s Environment 44

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2 CONTENTS Introduction 14 Chapter 1: Geographic Overview 21 Relief 23 The Himalayas 23 The Indo-Gangetic Plain 26 The Deccan 27 Drainage 30 Drainage into the Bay of Bengal 30 Drainage into the Arabian Sea 31 Lakes and Inland Drainage 32 Soils 33 In Situ Soils 33 Alluvial Soils 35 Climate 35 The Monsoons 35 Temperatures 37 Plant and Animal Life 38 Vegetation 38 Animal Life 39 Conservation 43 Chapter 2: Human Interactions with India s Environment 44 Settlement Patterns 44 Population Density 45 Rural Settlement 45 Urban Settlement 48 Demographic Trends 49 India s Land Use and Its Economy 50 Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing 52 Resources and Power 57 Manufacturing 60 Transportation and Telecommunications Chapter 3: Major Physical Features of the Subcontinent 64 Himalayas 64 Physical Features 65 People 76 Economy 78 Study and Exploration 81

3 84 Ganges River 82 Physical Features 83 People 87 Economy 89 Thar Desert 91 Land 91 People 92 Economy 92 Chapter 4: Spotlight on India s World Heritage Sites and Other Notable Locations 94 Agra and the Taj Mahal 94 The City 94 Taj Mahal 95 Other Cultural Sites 98 Ajanta Caves 98 Badrinath 98 Bhimbetka Rock Shelters 98 Bodh Gaya 100 Elephanta Island 101 Ellora Caves 101 Fatehpur Sikri 102 Khajuraho 103 Konarak 105 Mamallapuram 106 Red Fort 106 Sanchi 106 Vijayanagar 107 Natural Sites 108 Corbett National Park 108 Gir National Park 108 Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary 109 Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary 109 Kanha National Park 109 Kaziranga National Park 110 Keoladeo Ghana National Park 111 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary 111 Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary 111 Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary 112 Sariska National Park 112 Shivpuri National Park

4 124 Sundarbans 113 Tadoba National Park 113 Chapter 5: The Major Cities of Northern and Northwestern India 114 Delhi 114 Landscape 116 People 118 Economy 119 Administration and Society 120 Cultural Life 122 History 126 Other Important Northern and Northwestern Indian Cities 128 Allahabad 128 Amritsar 129 Ayodhya 131 Gwalior 132 Jaipur 133 Jodhpur 134 Kanpur 136 Lucknow 136 Srinagar 137 Chapter 6: The Major Cities of Northeastern India 139 Kolkata 139 Character of the City 140 Landscape 141 People 143 Economy 144 Administration and Society 145 Cultural Life 147 History 148 Other Important Northeastern Indian Cities 152 Darjiling 153 Gangtok 154 Guwahati 155 Patna 156 Shillong 156 Tamluk 158 Varanasi

5 162 Chapter 7: The Major Cities of Central India 161 Mumbai 161 Landscape 162 People 164 Economy 166 Administration and Society 167 Cultural Life 168 History 169 Other Important Central Indian Cities 171 Ahmadabad 171 Bhopal 173 Indore 174 Jabalpur 175 Nagpur 176 Nashik 177 Pune 178 Surat 179 Vadodara 179 Chapter 8: The Major Cities of Southern India 181 Chennai 181 History 181 The Contemporary City 183 Other Important Southern Indian Cities 185 Bangalore 186 Bidar 187 Hyderabad 188 Kochi 190 Kozhikode 191 Madurai 192 Mangalore 192 Mysore 193 Thanjavur 195 Thiruvananthapuram Chapter 9: Selected Northern and Northwestern Indian States 198 Punjab 198 Land 199 People 200

6 214 Economy 200 Government and Society 203 Cultural Life 204 History 205 Rajasthan 206 Land 206 People 209 Economy 211 Government and Society 212 Cultural Life 213 History 215 Uttar Pradesh 217 Land 217 People 219 Economy 220 Government and Society 221 Cultural Life 222 History 224 Chapter 10: Selected Northeastern Indian States 230 Assam 230 Land 231 People 233 Economy 234 Government and Society 236 Cultural Life 237 History 237 Bihar 239 Land 239 People 241 Economy 241 Government and Society 243 Cultural Life 244 History 245 Sikkim 247 Land 247 People 248 Economy 249 Government and Society 251 Cultural Life 252 History

7 268 West Bengal 253 Land 253 People 255 Economy 255 Government and Society 256 Cultural Life 257 History 258 Chapter 11: Selected Central Indian States 260 Gujarat 260 Land 261 People 264 Economy 265 Government and Society 266 Cultural Life 267 History 269 Madhya Pradesh 270 Land 270 People 272 Economy 273 Government and Society 274 Cultural Life 275 History 278 Maharashtra 280 Land 280 People 282 Economy 283 Government and Society 285 Cultural Life 287 History 288 Chapter 12: Selected Southern Indian States 290 Andhra Pradesh 290 Land 291 People 292 Economy 292 Government and Society 294 Cultural Life 296 History

8 308 Goa 300 Land 300 People 300 Economy 302 Government and Society 303 History 303 Kerala 305 Land 305 People 306 Economy 307 Government and Society 309 Cultural Life 310 History 311 Tamil Nadu 311 Land 312 People 315 Economy 317 Government and Society 318 Cultural Life 320 History 320 Chapter 13: India s Union Territories 323 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 323 Land 324 People 326 Economy 327 Government and Society 328 History 328 Chandigarh 329 History 330 The Contemporary City and Territory 330 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 332 Geography 332 History 333 Daman and Diu 333 Geography 333 History 335 Lakshadweep 335 Land 335 People 337 Economy

9 342 Government and Society 338 History 338 Puducherry 338 Geography 339 History 340 Chapter 14: The Kashmir Region 341 Regional History 343 Kashmir to The Kashmir Problem 344 Chinese Interests 346 Jammu and Kashmir 347 Land 347 People 351 Economy 353 Government and Society Conclusion 357 Appendix: Statistical Summary 359 Glossary 364 For Further Reading 366 Index

10 INTRODUCTION

11 W hen many people imagine India, they think of crowded cities full of people, or of arid plains dotted with banyan trees. They might have mental image of crowds of pilgrims immersing themselves in the Ganges River, or the tranquil serenity of the Taj Mahal. India includes all of that and more. This book will explore the many faces of India, from its coastal fishing villages to the highest peaks of the Himalayas. India is the seventh-largest country in the world by area, encompassing some 1,222,559 square miles (3,166,414 square km). It is roughly triangular in shape, lying primarily within a large peninsula bordered to the west by the Arabian Sea and to the east by the Bay of Bengal. India, along with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Pakistan, is part of a distinct subcontinent, which began colliding with the Asian mainland approximately 50 million years ago. This collision of continental masses formed the Himalayas, the tallest mountain range on Earth, which defines the northern boundary of the Indian subcontinent and effectively isolates it from the rest of Asia. Along this border, India abuts Nepal, Bhutan, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China). The sixth country bordering India is Myanmar, on India s far eastern edge. India s sovereign territory Introduction 15 also includes the union territories of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Within this vast and varied area are a wide diversity of climates and land types. The country s geography is divided into three main geologic regions: the Himalaya ranges in the north; the Indo- Gangetic Plain south of the Himalayas, which extends eastward from northern Pakistan in the west to Assam state in the east; and the peninsular region to the south of the plain, which makes up the majority of the Indian subcontinent. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is formed from an ancient seabed and encompasses the Indus and Ganges river basins with rich soil for farming. On the plain s southwestern edge is found the Thar (or Great Indian) Desert. Peninsular India consists largely of the Deccan uplands in the interior, bordered on the east and west by mountains of the Ghats ranges and, finally, by coastal plains and river deltas along the two coasts. Almost all of India s area is densely populated, and it is the second-most populous country in the world, after China. Even within the Himalayan range, there are a number of fertile valleys, including the Vale of Kashmir, and only the highest peaks are not habitable. Population patterns within the various areas of the Street children in Chennai, India, enjoy a day on Marina Beach, one of the longest beaches in the world. Palani Mohan/Edit/Getty Images

12 16 The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places country are largely dependent on the availability of water, either from irrigation or rainfall. India provides the world s most classic example of a monsoon climate, meaning that the country has distinct rainy and dry seasons. About three-fourths of India s annual precipitation falls during its wet season, which occurs from June through September. In years when rainfall is plentiful, India enjoys bountiful crop yields. If the monsoons do not bring sufficient rain, however, the nation may experience drought and widespread crop failure. The amount of rainfall also impacts the types of vegetation found in different sections of the country. About one-quarter of the country is classified as forest, ranging from tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forests to dry deciduous forests and scrubland. Coconut and other varieties of palm trees range along the tropical coasts. Bamboo can be found over much of the country, particularly in the rainy areas. Animal life also ranges from forest-dwelling species such as monkeys, deer, and the Bengal tiger to the lesser pandas, snow leopards, ibex, and wild sheep of the Himalayas. Wild elephants and Indian rhinoceroses are also indigenous to India and are protected in national parks, as are more than 1,200 species of birds including one of the largest breeding colonies of flamingos. Peacocks are also common and are India s official bird. While relatively young in geological terms, the Indian subcontinent has been the site of some of the oldest and most influential civilizations in human history and is home to several of the world s major religions. It is also home to a significant number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. One of the best known is the Taj Mahal, the beautiful mausoleum built between 1632 and 1647 by the emperor Shah Jahān to immortalize his beloved wife during the brilliant Muslim Mughal Empire. Many of the other World Heritage Sites date back much earlier, however, and are significant for their importance to Buddhist and Hindu religious heritage as well as for the beauty of their art and architecture. Hinduism dates back in India to at least 1500 BCE. Some of the important sites that honour the Hindu gods include Badrinath, a pilgrimage centre for more than 2,000 years; Elephanta Island, where visitors can enter 8th and 9th century cave temples filled with carvings and sculptures depicting the mythology of the god Shiva; and the temple complex at Khajuraho. Sites important to Buddhism include the Ajanta caves dating from the 1st century BCE to the 7th century CE, which are filled with cave paintings depicting Buddhist legends and divinities, and the town of Bodh Gaya where Gautama Siddhartha attained enlightenment and became the Buddha in the 6th century BCE. Even older are the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madya Pradesh, with prehistoric cave paintings dating from roughly 10,000 BCE. Also designated as World Heritage Sites are several wildlife sanctuaries and

13 Introduction 17 national parks in India, including the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaziranga National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Sundarbans National Park, and (designated together) Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers national parks. In all, India has created 96 national parks and more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries to protect its natural heritage. The first national park in India was Corbett National Park in the foothills of the Himalayas, originally established in 1935 primarily to protect the local tiger population, but also to provide habitat for langurs, sloth bears, mongooses, elephants, and a wide variety of other wildlife. Gir National Park in Gujarat state, on the western coast of India, protects the endangered Asiatic lion and includes a breeding program to repopulate the species. Visitors can go on Lion Shows and take guided tours in protected vehicles to see these wild creatures. Elephants are used for transportation in Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh state during the monsoon season, and animals from barking deer to langurs can be found there. Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary in West Bengal state was established to protect the great Indian rhinoceros. Other wildlife sanctuaries protect wild birds, woodlands, swamps, and other flora and fauna. This book will explore these and many of the other important national parks throughout the various regions of India. Always a nation of contrasts, India also boasts three of the largest and most densely populated urban areas in the world: Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi. Delhi contains the capital of India and is the most important city of the north-central region. Located in its own national capital territory, it is home to approximately 16 million people. The city is divided into two sections: Old Delhi in the north and New Delhi (the national capital) to the south. Delhi has been an urban centre since at least the first century BCE and was the capital city for many generations of Mughal emperors. It flourished during the period of British rule and also served as the national capital in the later part of that period. The city s neighbourhoods today reflect its history, with narrow winding streets and traditional architecture characterizing Old Delhi and wide avenues and spacious bungalows in the colonial sections. The many flowering trees give people in the hot, dry city shade and beauty. Today, Delhi s economy is based largely on trade, finance, and professional services, as well as on government activities. Kolkata, formerly known as Calcutta, was the capital of British India from 1772 to 1911, when the capital was moved to Delhi. It is now the largest city in and capital of the West Bengal state in the northeastern part of the country and is one of India s major ports on the Bay of Bengal. With a population slightly smaller than that of Delhi, it is the dominant urban centre of eastern India. Kolkata s climate is subtropical, with high heat and humidity for most of the year and monsoon rains

14 18 The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places from June to September. Its location along a swampy area near the mouth of the Hugli River has restricted the city s ability to expand, causing a significant housing shortage and overcrowding in many sections of the city. In spite of these circumstances, Kolkata continues to be a major hub of manufacturing as well as trade, although unemployment is high as migrants from even poorer rural areas continue to stream into the city. Kolkata is also important for its rich cultural history and continues as a centre of literature, music, and other artistic pursuits. Mumbai, formerly Bombay, is the largest city in India by population, with some 12 million inhabitants on an island of about 239 square miles (619 square km) and a regional population of 19 million. In fact, it is one of the largest and most densely populated cities in the world. The city is located on Bombay Island in the Arabian Sea just off the coast of Maharashtra state, of which it is the capital. Mumbai is the economic hub and commercial and financial centre of India as well as an important hub for both air and rail transport. The literacy rate in Mumbai is much higher than that of the country as a whole and the city is home to many educational institutes and colleges. Mumbai s history, like that of all of India, is closely tied to the years of British rule. It was in this city that the Indian National Congress met and in 1942 passed the Quit India resolution demanding independence for India from British rule a goal that was achieved five years later in India is divided into 28 states in addition to the Delhi national capital territory and 6 union territories. Punjab province is the homeland of India s Sikh population. Gujarat, which until 1960 was joined together with neighbouring Maharashtra province, has a long history as a trading region. Maharashtra s diverse landscape ranges from the west coast, home of Mumbai, to the high, dry volcanic traps in the Western Ghats mountain range. In the south, tiny Goa, on the west coast, was founded by the Portuguese and still has a strong Portuguese influence today. Kerala is famed for its long, beautiful beaches, its renowned Hindu monuments, and its spicy food. Moving back up north, Uttar Pradesh has been central to the ancient civilization of the Hindus. The great Indian epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata had their origin here. In the foothills of the Himalayas on the east, India s northeastern states include Assam, which is famed for its tea and its beautiful but treacherous landscape. Not only are earthquakes common, but because it is one of the rainiest places in the world (some parts in the east get more than 120 inches [300 mm] a year), flooding can be widespread during the summer monsoon. Another northeastern state, Sikkim, is in a deep basin surrounded on three sides by high mountain walls. One of them, at an elevation of 28,169 feet (8,586 metres) is Kanchenjunga, the third-highest mountain in the world. India is still changing since it was formed as a republic in 1950.

15 Introduction 19 Three states Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttaranchal (since 2007 Uttarakhand) were formed out of other states in But the road to independence was not entirely smooth, and it continues to have rough sections today. When the British agreed to leave, British India divided into two nations, India and Pakistan. Pakistan was formed from the primarily Muslim areas of the subcontinent, dividing the former province of Punjab in the northwest between the two countries. The partition also nearly separated the eastern state of Assam from the remainder of India, with Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) carved out of the prior province of Bengal. It also led to multiple wars over the region of Kashmir on the far northwestern border and its eventual partition between the two countries as well. The location of Kashmir s northern border with China is also a subject of dispute between those two nations. Today, India has one of the largest and most highly diversified economies in the world. Its highly educated middle class make India a major centre for technology, trade, and finance and an exporter of skilled labour in high-technology industries and medicine. The cities of Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad are among the world s fastest-growing locations for high-tech businesses. However, it is estimated that less than one-fifth of the population is employed in this organized sector of the economy. The vast majority of India s workforce is employed in small-scale agriculture, service, commercial, and craft enterprises. On a per capita basis, India remains among the poorest nations. From its diversity of lands and climates to its people, economy, and cultures, India is a country of contradictions and surprises that is well worth your exploration. Enjoy the journey!