Virtual World Project
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1 Virtual World Project Arad Introduction Tel Arad is located in Israel s northeastern Negev desert, about 30 kilometers eastnortheast of Beersheba. The 25-acre site was home to two distinct settlements. The first settlement was the Canaanite city of the Early Bronze Age. The second was the Judean settlement and construction of a fortress on the high mound on the southeastern ridge surrounding the ancient city. A gap of 1500 years separates the two settlements. The Early Bronze Age city has five principal strata, with a duration from ca BCE (Strata V) to 2650 BCE (Strata I). A total of eighteen excavation seasons have been carried out at the Canaanite city under the direction of Ruth Amiran ( , , and ). All revealed Arad during the Early Bronze Period to be an urban center in the Negev with a significant trade relationship with Egypt. The importance of Arad was due to the copper industry and its ability to exploit the copper mines of the Arabah. Stratum V (ca BCE) belongs to the Chalcolithic period. Stratum IV ( BCE) possesses a significant amount of Egyptian pottery, indicating trade between Egypt and Canaan. During Stratum III a city wall, palace, sacred precinct, public buildings, and a reservoir were built, making Stratum III the earliest urban stratum at Tel Arad. Stratum III was destroyed around 2800 BCE and quickly rebuilt in Stratum II. The material culture and architectural style of Stratum II are identical to Stratum III. Stratum I was a sparse settlement, primarily comprised of squatters in the ruined Stratum II city. Arad was finally abandoned in about 2650 BCE and remained uninhabited for nearly 1500 years until the Judean settlement of the Iron Age. Twelve occupation layers or strata were uncovered at the Judean settlement site of Tel Arad during five excavation seasons by Yohanan Aharoni ( , 1967; with Ruth Amiran in 1962). Ze ev Herzog conducted limited excavations after 1977 and has reinterpreted some of Aharoni s original findings. The chronology presented here is based on Herzog s new interpretation of the site. Perhaps the two most interesting finds at the Judean settlement are the Arad Inscriptions and the Judean temple. The first Judean settlement on the eastern hill of the Canaanite city was the Iron IIA, Stratum XII unfortified village. Stratum XI marks the first of the Judean fortresses. Over the next 260 years, the Arad fortress would be rebuilt six times. Stratum XI was a casemate fortress. Stratum X represents a strategic shift with the erection of a solid wall fortress with a new towering gate. Also built during the Stratum X fortress was the Judean temple and the cistern water system. The Judean temple was only in use during Stratum X and IX and it was
2 carefully dismantled and buried. Stratum VIII was very short lived, with its destruction being attributed to Sennacherib s campaign in 701 BCE. Stratum VII was destroyed at the end of the seventh century BCE, possibly due to Edomite encroachment. Stratum VI, the last of the Judean fortresses, was destroyed by the Babylonians in ca. 586 BCE. Fragmentary remains of the Persian period represent Stratum V. A new fortress with a large tower and a casemate wall was erected in the Hellenistic Period (Stratum IV). Stratum III (first century BCE) represents the Roman period and included a new fort that existed for nearly two hundred years. After hundreds of years of abandonment, Arabs resettled Arad in the seventh and eighth centuries CE (Stratum II). Finally, Stratum I of the thirteenth-nineteenth centuries CE was a Bedouin cemetery. Early Bronze City Arad House Standing in a small subsidiary room, one has a good view of a typical Arad house. All of the houses at Arad are similar in type. The basic structure is a single broad room, perhaps with an attached subsidiary room, within a courtyard that may include platforms and storerooms. The only entrance to these houses is on one of the long walls, and the door is always hinged to open inwards, as evidenced by the door sockets. These houses are typically sunken with two or three steps leading down from the courtyard to the floor level. Benches are built along at least two or three of the walls, and a stone base near the center of the room that would have held a wooden pillar to support a flat roof. This particular house is lined with benches along all four walls. The house is preserved to more or less its original height. These houses also appear to have no windows. The excavators found evidence of plaster on the interior walls, benches, and sometimes floors. While there was no evidence of plaster on the outside walls, the excavators argue that it would be reasonable to assume they were plastered. Many of the house complexes also had subsidiary rooms, which were built without bonding to walls of the house. These rooms were not sunken like the main room and their floors were at the same level as the courtyard. The courtyards of the houses were enclosed. This is the main room of the house in what appears to be a residential area in Arad. This room measures 4.9 by 6.6 meters, and the walls are between 65 to 70 centimeters thick. All four walls are lined by benches centimeters wide. On the benches, the excavators found the remains of plaster; they assume that the walls were also plastered. The doorway was in the eastern wall that faces the courtyard. A door socket was found on the bench on the eastern wall to the left of the door, as is typical in the Arad houses. Near the center of the room, there is a dressed stone sunk into the floor that may have been a base for a wooden post to support the roof, also typical in Arad houses. On its southern side, this room contained an installation made of two stone slabs, which was either a worktable or a base for a second post. Near this installation, the excavators also found fragments of clay bins that contained a large quantity of carbonized grain. The excavators found another heap of pottery sherds with a large amount of carbonized grain in the northeastern corner. This is a subsidiary room in the house complex. It is shaped like a trapezoid because it is set in between the available space between the main room, the back wall of the complex, and a stone platform in the courtyard. The doorway is in the eastern wall and opens into the central courtyard. The excavators found the remains of plaster on the roof of the room. Most of the walls are 50 to 70 centimeters thick, although the southwestern wall is only 35
3 centimeters thick because it is built up against the larger courtyard wall. This wall was likely built to support the roof of the room. This is the central courtyard within this house complex. The courtyard slopes down towards the northeast, which corresponds with the natural rock surface. The surface of the courtyard had been leveled by filling in the low spots with gravel and small rocks. The main room of the house is in the northwest corner, and one of the subsidiary rooms connected to it is to the west. To the south there is another small subsidiary room, which the excavators believe might be a kitchen storeroom, although they found no material evidence to support this claim. This courtyard also has a silo and three stone platforms. The silo is to the west between the main room and its connecting subsidiary room and was built of large stones. There is a square platform against the eastern wall of the main room. To the south, there is another square platform. This platform measures 3 by 3.25 meters and is centimeters above the surface. Stone platforms like this one are found throughout Arad. They are mostly round, measuring between 3 and 4 meters in diameter, although some such as this one are square and measure 3 by 4 meters. The sides of the platforms are built of large stones, and filled with various smaller stones. They are between 20 to 50 centimeters high. The platforms appear in Strata III and II, when Arad was urbanized. The excavators argue that these platforms locations suggest some sort of public nature, although Ze ev Herzog does not believe that the platforms were public. They could have been used as the bases of silos, threshing floors or the location of some other form of household work. They also could have been the floors of tents or huts, although the excavators admit that the last possibility is less likely. House beside the Wall This large house next to the wall includes what appears to be a large communal area because it connects to the surrounding streets and open spaces. At its greatest point, this area measures 16 by 7 meters wide. It is bordered to the north by the main and subsidiary rooms of the house and to the south by the city wall that surrounds Arad. The main room to the north measures 5.15 by 7.15 meters. The doorway is in the southern wall, and to the left there is a door socket with three depressions, typical of Arad houses. In the center of the room there is a base for a wooden post to support the roof. West of the post there were carbonized fragments of a wooden log. Near the post, two stone mortars were found. All four walls have benches. In the western corner there is a large silo made of brick that has a foundation that is constructed similarly to the benches and of a similar height to the benches. Near the middle of the northern wall there is a hearth of charred flint slabs. The excavators found three grinding stones: one near the doorway, one in the southwest corner, and one near the base of the post. It appears that the grinding stones had fallen from the benches. Abutting the eastern edge of the southern wall of the main room is a subsidiary room. This room s entrance is on its western side so it opens into the communal area. The floor of this room is at almost the same level as the main room, which is unusual for an Arad house, where typically only the main rooms are sunken. At the southern end of the courtyard, you can see one of the round towers of the city wall, which can be accessed from this area.
4 House in Area K The main room of house measures 4 by 7.6 meters. There is a doorway in the eastern wall that is 70 centimeters wide with a door socket on the left. The western wall contains another narrow opening that is 50 centimeters wide. All four walls have adjoining benches, and in the northern part of the room there is a worked stone in the floor that appears to be the base for a post. Abutting the northern edge of the eastern wall there is a large subsidiary room. It is shaped like an irregular rectangle measuring meters by 5.7 meters. Inside, the excavators found a large basin made of chalk and a silo measuring 35 by 100 centimeters. Fortifications Two main gates in Arad have been found in the western flank of the city. Typical to Early Bronze fortifications, the gates are simple gaps in the city wall. The western gate is between 1.7 and 2.5 meters wide and its threshold is paved, and the southwestern gate is 2.1 meters wide and its threshold is made of beaten earth. Each gate is flanked by a tower; the western gate is flanked by a semicircular tower and the southwestern gate is flanked by a rectangular tower. Smaller gates are scattered throughout the city. These gates were narrow, between 0.7 and 0.8 meters wide. They allowed for increased traffic in and out of the city, but could be blocked quickly if needed. Standing on the city wall, we have a good view of one of the estimated 25 towers built along Arad s wall. To date, 11 towers have been identified. They were first built in Stratum III, when Arad was first urbanized. All of the Stratum III towers were semicircular, but in Stratum II, two of the towers were rectangular. All of the semicircular towers have more or less the same measurements. They project out between 3.1 to 5.2 meters from the wall. The city wall was built first, with gaps for the towers, and the towers were not bonded to the wall. Arad s city wall is 1176 meters long and probably surrounds the entire city. The excavators expect that the wall was built of stone to its full height because there is no evidence of any mudbrick. The wall was built of two outer facings made of large stones filled with smaller field stones and cruder blocks. It ranges from 2 to 2.5 meters thick, relatively thin for an Early Bronze II wall. Palace The excavators argue that this area is a public complex because of its size and location. This complex is large, 925 square meters, and is located off one of the main radial streets. It is also separated from the adjacent buildings by a wall surrounding the complex. In contrast to the excavators, Ze ev Herzog emphasizes that this compound and the neighboring compound the excavators deem a temple have the same structure as compounds in the rest of the city, only larger. For example, the palace uses the same architecture and building materials as the rest of the city, so it makes no attempt at grandeur. He also argues that these complexes are not temples or palaces, but instead could have been created either from the amalgamation of several neighborhoods or from the concentration of power and economic resources by one family over time. This area is the courtyard for the building in the western corner of the compound, as well as a part of a larger central courtyard and the circulation area for the main entrance. In the southwestern corner there is an installation which could either be a platform or a silo. The northwest corner wraps around the northern wall of the main room. This area slopes
5 downward from the west to the east. In its western area, there is a large cooking place made of flint slabs. The cooking place existed in both Stratum III and Stratum II, and it and the surrounding area was covered in ash. This structure is in the western edge of the palace sector. The main room measures 3.7 by 5.65 meters, with an entrance in its eastern wall. The door socket is to the left of the door as we would expect, and the threshold consists of three steps. Benches line all four walls of this room, and in the north and southwest corners the benches are rounded. Slightly off center in the room there is a base for a wooden post to support the roof. This base is worked differently than most post bases at Arad. It is made of a limestone nodule with a shallow depression in the center for a post. The excavators also found a mortar fixed to the floor. In the southwest corner of the room, a box-like container was attached to the bench. Its walls were made of unfired clay, and it was full of carbonized grain. In the northeastern corner there was another clay installation. This installation was circular, and the excavators found sherds of a jar on the floor of the installation. The installation was only preserved to a height of 0.04 meters, but it was likely higher initially and covered the jar. The core building in the central area of the palace is the largest room in the palace, measuring meters by meters. There are benches on all four walls, except for the western edge of the southern wall. The doorway is on the southern wall, with a door socket to the left like all the Arad houses. Opposite the entrance the excavators found a round stone base for a wooden post to support the ceiling. In the southwestern corner there is a table like feature made of hard limestone. The surface is well smoothed, although the center has a rough, shallow depression. In this room, the excavators also found what they call a cult stela. It was found upside down among the stone rubble and brick fragments. Its surface was incised with anthropomorphic figures, and adhered to its back was a small amount of brick material. This suggests that the stele was attached to one of the walls. The anthropomorphic figures perhaps depict the death and renewal of Dumuzi, a vegetation god. This building has an antechamber on its southern side outside its entrance. The antechamber consists of a central large area flanked by two cells. Along the southern wall of the antechamber there is a small semicircular installation that may have been a stand for a large jar. There is also a large mortar made from a square stone inserted flush into the floor. Around the mortar, there was a large amount of carbonized grain. The core building also contains an inner courtyard which funnels all traffic within the palace directly to the innermost room. Large Twin Temple The so-called southern temple hall is a large broad room that the excavators think is part of a large twin temple; Others interpret the temple complex as multiple large residential units. The room s doorway was probably on the eastern wall, but there is no direct evidence of this because this wall had been destroyed. There are benches along all four walls. Their top and sides are covered with a thick layer of limy plaster, and plaster had also probably covered the walls and floor. In the northern half of this building there is a large flat slab for a pillar to hold up the ceiling. In the southern half of this building there is a stone that had been worked on all sides found standing upright sunk into the floor. This stone is in the location of a second pillar, but it does not resemble a pillar. It is a rectangular block of dolomite measuring 17 by 50 by 75 centimeters. Its eastern face is slightly concave and the other side is gently curved. The excavators believe that this stone is a massebah, or a standing
6 stone. They note that there must have been a second pillar nearby this stone, because a hall of this size would have required two pillars to support the roof. In the northeastern and southeastern corners of this room there are small stones jutting 10 centimeters above the surface of the floor. These stones are a remnant of the Stratum III wall s architecture. This hall opens into a courtyard on the eastern side. There is a stone pillar in the middle of the courtyard, opposite of where the excavators believe the entrance to the temple was. The courtyard is at a different elevation than the hall, so there would have had to have been a flight of stairs to reach the floor of the hall. A subsidiary room connects to the eastern wall of the southern large temple hall. It measures 3 meters by meters. Benches line all four walls. On the southern wall, the westernmost stone is large and flat and may have served as a work surface. The bench along the western side is also different form the rest of the benches. On the northern half where the wall curves, the bench is built of larger stones than the smaller stones along the southern half. A mortar was inserted into the floor opposite its entrance. No stone base for a pillar was found inside this room. The northern temple hall of what the excavators call the Large Twin Temple consists of two adjacent halls. These halls were used during Stratum III and II; no Stratum IV remains were found in this area. The northern hall is slightly larger than the southern one. Both buildings originated in Stratum III, and were also used in Stratum II with several modifications. In Stratum II, the northern hall was subdivided and the southern one was slightly enlarged. Each of these halls also has its own courtyard. The excavators argue that this is a separate public area and not a residential block. The rooms are larger and the walls are bigger than the residential buildings at Arad. This area is also separated off from the residential buildings by a wall with a street running along it. Furthermore, the entrances to all the buildings face east, toward the center of this complex, all of which leads the excavators to argue this area is a public area. The northern temple hall is a large broad room measuring 5.1 by 10.2 meters. There are benches along the eastern and northern walls. The excavators found three pillars in this hall, although there could have been a fourth. Two of the pillars did not have bases, rather were sunken into the floor. The entrance to this hall is along the eastern wall, and opens into a large courtyard that the excavators believe was an integral part of the temple plan. This building was destroyed during Stratum III. During Stratum II, the temple hall was rebuilt along the same lines as the Stratum III temple, but the southern end of the hall and an area along the western wall were partitioned off to form interior rooms. In the courtyard of this building, a bamah or high place was added during Stratum II in the northwestern corner. It is a square stone platform measuring 2.9 by 3.4 meters and is 60 centimeters high. The upper surface of this stone had been plastered. Next to the platform is a well-dressed basin sunk into the ground. The basis is around 1.3 meters in diameter and has a depth of little over a meter. It is set within a walled area attached to the platform. Its function is debated. Small Twin Temple This is the courtyard to the east of the southern hall of the Small Twin Temple. It can be accessed from the north and the southeast. There is a platform in the southwest corner made of small, tightly packed stones. The excavators note that it could be an altar, although
7 they are not entirely certain. The remains of a Stratum III building are also visible in the courtyard In the southern Small Twin Temple, the southwestern corner is formed by four partially overlapping walls. During Stratum II, a small niche was added in this corner, which necessitates the additional walls. However, the niche was empty of material finds, so no function can be assigned to it. The excavators believe that this building was a small temple because of a deposit consisting of 5 pottery vessels, a hammer stone, and lumps of bitumen was found underneath the Stratum II floor. These items appear to have been intentionally deposited. This is the northern hall of what the excavators call the Small Twin Temple. The walls of this building are a continuation of the Stratum III structure. This building has four benches along its walls. To the east of this building there is a courtyard, the main feature of which is the platform or altar in the northwest corner. Its southern face is aligned with the northern doorjamb of the main room, and the brim is constructed of three or four courses of large stones filled with compact, medium sized stones. A subsidiary room is located at the eastern end of the temple precinct. Its orientation, size, and character resemble one of the subsidiary rooms of one of the Large Twin Temples. The northern and eastern walls had been destroyed, but they can be reconstructed. All four walls have benches, and the eastern wall has a bench along its outer edge as well. There is a small niche in the northwestern corner. Slightly off center there was a small stone base for a wooden pillar. Ceremonial Hall Attached to the small twin temple complex is a large ceremonial hall, fronted by a large courtyard measuring approximately 100 square meters. The entrance to the courtyard is in the east through the wall encircling the temple area, although the excavators did not find a door socket in the entrance. The ceremonial hall is badly damaged. It measures 4.7 by 11 meters. Its walls were initially only preserved one course high, and the excavators only found a small amount of stone and brick debris. The entrance to this hall is located in the eastern wall. It is 0.8 meters wide and paved with a threshold of flat stones. Typical of Arad buildings, a door socket was found to the left of the entrance. The only known bench in this building is on the northern side of the eastern wall. No stone bases for a wooden post were found, which could mean that the hall was unroofed. The northern part of the hall is occupied by four installations built along the northern wall. There were two more installations in the western part of the building. One of the installations is a wall like fragment constructed of particularly large stones, and the other appears to be a wall that extends from the southern side of one of the northern installations. If this second installation is a wall, then it would be a secondary wall, which would resemble a double back wall found in other Negev temples. It could also have been a part of the northern installations if the other western installation is a part of the hall. To the east of the entrance to the ceremonial hall was a small cell that measures 1.5 by 1.6 meters. This cells appears to have been built to enclose a large, flat rimmed basin. This basin is built of a single oval chalk bolder. The inside of the basin is smoothly carved, although the outside is worked, but still rough. There is another cell to the south of the basin. This cell is large and measures by 6.9 meters. The entrance is between the southern wall of the basin cell and another wall to the east and consists of two downward
8 steps. The excavators found a cup mark set into plaster. This cup mark tells us that the entrance was at least 2 meters wide. Only the southern and western walls had benches. A cooking place occupied the eastern part of the room. It surface is made of small flint slabs, and measures 0.3 by 0.4 meters. The slab and the surrounding area were covered in ash, and the slab is flanked by two larges stones that were used to support a cooking pot above the fire. Water Citadel This building is a unique structure near the city s water reservoir. It has a very different structure from the others buildings excavated thus far at Arad, and no other parallels have been found in other Early Bronze sites. It is a massive rectangular building measuring 9.5 by 18 meters that is subdivided into five long, narrow halls. The outer walls are exceptionally thick, between 1.5 and 1.7 meters thick, and the inner partition walls are between 0.9 and 1.7 meters thick. The stones that make up the walls are mostly large and slightly dressed. No bases for wooden posts to hold up the roof were found as is typical at Arad; posts would not have been needed to support a roof because of the partition walls. The entrance of the building was likely along the southern wall, but the walls to this building are damaged so the excavators are not entirely sure where the entrance was. Also, while no staircase remnants were found, the walls are so thick there could have still been a second story. This building also slopes slightly according to the natural terrain. The excavators named this building the Water Citadel, because they think that it is in some way related to the administration of the city s water supply due to its unusual plan, large size, and proximity to the city s water reservoir. The excavators suggest that it could have been a storehouse for water jars or skins and/or a guardhouse. Very little pottery was found in the building, so if it were a storehouse the water would have been stored in skins. Water Commissioner s House This building is the largest of the dwellings encircling Arad s water reservoir. Houses surround the reservoir to the north, west, and south and these houses were in turn surrounded by a network of streets that separate this area from the rest of the buildings. The excavators call this particular building the Water Commissioner s House, because they argue that this house was the dwelling of the administrator of the water reservoir. They think that this building belongs to the water commissioner because this is the largest dwelling of the ones around the reservoir and by far the most elaborate dwelling unit in Arad. This building is also built to accommodate the steep hill gradation near the reservoir and has three cobblestone courtyards. This complex is triangularly shaped and consists of a main room, two subsidiary rooms, and three courtyards. This is the main room, which is a large room that measures between 5 and 5.5 meters by 5.8 to 6.8 meters. This complex also contains two small subsidiary rooms to the south, both of which enter into one of the courtyards. Neither room contained a base for a wooden post, likely because the rooms were small enough to be roofed without it. The excavators also found brick debris in both rooms, which suggest that the upper courses of these walls were made of brick. Because of the brick walls and the lack of benches or other installations in these rooms, the excavators suggest that these rooms could have been used for grain storage. The three courtyards are to the south and the west of the main room. These courtyards are divided by two partition walls and are paved with flat, chalky stones.
9 Water Reservoir Arad s water supply is based on an open air water reservoir in the center of the city. No springs are located within 30 kilometers of Arad, and the use of cisterns had not developed by the Early Bronze period, so all water had to come from rain and runoff within the city wall. Arad is located in the northern Negev, in an area that separates the dry desert to the south and the Mediterranean like climate to the north, resulting in short and long term fluctuations. The city was first built during a moist period, when the Negev might have even had occasional summer rains, which would have allowed for dry farming. The excavators found substantial amounts of carbonized seeds of cereals and legumes, which could not have been grown in Arad s present climate. Arad s abandonment by the Early Bronze III period was likely influenced by, or even completely due to, a significant decrease in rainfall. The reservoir is located in an artificial depression at the natural low point in the city. Any remains of the Early Bronze water system was destroyed by Iron Age and Herodian activities. During the Israelite period, a deep well was built that was reused during the Herodian period. However, the excavators assume that the reservoir was used in the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze I settlements. The size of the reservoir and the amount of water it could hold leads the excavators to estimate Arad s population between 2000 to 2500 people. Buildings surround the reservoir to the north, west, and south. Due to their proximity to the reservoir, the excavators assume that these buildings would have played an important role in the social and economic life of Arad. There are no buildings on the eastern side of the reservoir, which leads the excavators to assume that a dam was built on this side. A series of radial streets all run to the water reservoir and would have channeled runoff water into the reservoir. Buildings Near Reservoir This is one of the buildings that encircle Arad s water reservoir. During Stratum III, Arad s first period of urbanization, it is a small broad room, measuring 2.2 by 5.2 meters. This room is irregularly shaped because a subsidiary room protrudes into its southeastern corner. During Stratum II, the room became more rectangular. To the left of the entrance in the southern wall is the door socket, with a stone door stopper to the right. The excavators did not find a base for a wooden post in this room. During Stratum III, the subsidiary room to the south was a small, almost square room with an entrance on the southern wall. It became irregularly shaped during Stratum II, measuring by meters, when it surrounds the southeastern corner of the main room. Directly to the south of the main room there is a subsidiary room or antechamber. It measures 4.2 by meters, and has openings in three of its walls. There is also a large courtyard directly to this room s south. This is a large courtyard associated with a structure to its north. It opens into the subsidiary room in its northeast corner, and is entirely open on its eastern side. In the southwestern corner there is a large silo built of medium and large stones. There is also an unusual installation in the southeast corner which may have been a worktable. It consists of three stones fixed to the floor on their sides, with two large flint stones atop them. Originally, there was probably another stone to the south and a flint slab on top.
10 This is the main room to a unit adjacent to Arad s water reservoir. It is long and narrow, measuring 2.15 by 6.5 meters. To the west of this building is the back wall of the western block that separates this area from the rest of Arad. The entrance is in the eastern wall. It has a threshold of small limestone slabs. Its door socket is to the left of the doorway, typical of the buildings at Arad, and has a wedge like stopper to the right. This room has a subsidiary room abutting its northeastern corner. Abutting the southeast corner, there is a relatively small courtyard, measuring 3 by 3.5 meters.
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