TABLE OF CONTENTS...

Transcription

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v xi INTRODUCTION THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION The Phoenician expansion: problems and state of research Exchange in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic The semantics of terminology: Phoenician vs Levantine and colonial vs indigenous Classification of western Phoenician ceramics xiii xv xvii xix CHAPTER 1 THE HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS The historical and archaeological contexts The historical context: Phoenicia and Phoenicians in the Early Iron Age.. 1 The archaeological context: the Phoenician expansion in the central and western Mediterranean Phoenician ethnicity and material culture in the Mediterranean Chronology CHAPTER 2 CULTURAL CONTACTS AND TRADE IN COLONIAL SETTINGS: THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION On colonisation, colonialism, middle grounds and terrae nullius Colonisation vs colonialism: the rhetorics of a post-colonial archaeology... 9 A terminological dead-end? Ancient economy, trading posts and Phoenician trade Ancient trade and trading posts Structures of the Phoenician economy

2 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 EARLY EXCHANGES IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN: ON PRE-COLONIAL TRADE, GIFTS AND THEIR PERPETRATORS Introduction Pre-colonial exchanges in the western Mediterranean: on trade, gifts and their perpetrators Motives for the expansion, early contacts and the issue of aristocratic exchange 15 Exchanges in the central Mediterranean: Sardinia and the connections between East and West East-West early contacts: from the pre-colonial period to enoikismoi Greek pottery in the western Mediterranean and its carriers in the pre-colonial period Early exchanges: the question of an elite gift-exchanging koine, travelling artisans and indigenous markets CHAPTER 4 THE COLONIAL FRONTIERS IN IBERIA. FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction Settlement patterns in Iberia Pre-Phoenician and contact-time territorial organisation Phoenician or Tartessian? Modern artificial lines in settlement patterns The topography of the Phoenician towns, trading posts and sanctuaries in Iberia Settlements, trading posts and sanctuaries in Iberia: culture and society The emergence of urbanism? Settlement types, urban-layout and architecture 59 Sanctuaries and cults in Iberia Language and cultural identity Burial customs and society Phoenician society in Iberia: social organisation, culture change and culture continuity 77 CHAPTER 5 THE COLONIAL FRONTIERS IN NORTH-WEST AFRICA: FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction Settlement patterns and topography in north-west Africa Settlements and trading posts: spatial organisation, material culture and cultural identity

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Burial customs and culture Phoenician society in north-west Iberia: social organisation, culture change and culture continuity CHAPTER 6 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES. TRADE PATTERNS AND INTERACTION MECHANISMS IN IBERIA AND NORTH-WEST AFRICA Introduction The use of agricultural land and trade in agricultural products The issue of agriculture Evidence for exploitation of agricultural land and trade in agricultural products 99 The question of timber exploitation Pastoralism and the exploitation of marine resources Animal husbandry The exploitation of marine resources The evidence for Phoenician involvement in the production and distribution of metals in Iberia Documentation, questions and problems Geological formation and mining exploitation techniques Evidence for metalworking at Phoenician settlements The procurement and processing of ores Shipwrecks The evidence for Phoenician involvement in the production and distribution of metals in north-west Africa Organisation of production and trade: colonial and market economies South Spain and the trade in manufactured products Imports, copies and local developments A Phoenician trade in luxury products or local artisans? Trade in the frontiers of Phoenician settlement in Iberia: central/north-east Spain. 116 The Valencian and Catalonian region: imports at indigenous sites Trade patterns in the Valencian and Catalonian regions Trade in Atlantic Iberia Andalusian imports in Atlantic Iberia Trade in Atlantic Iberia: aims and organisation Trade in north-west Africa: Morocco and Algeria Phoenician settlements and traded commodities Exchanges in north-west Africa: Cerne island, exotic goods and Mogador Trade with the Greek world in the late 8 th and the 7 th c. in Iberia and north-west Africa The question of Greek trade Greek pottery in Iberia, ca BC Greek pottery in north-west Africa

4 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS The evidence in the central Mediterranean Greek toponyms and trade routes Interaction mechanisms: modes and mechanism of commercial exchanges The articulation of power Coercion: military operations and asymmetrical exchanges An agricultural revolution? Commercial networks and the articulation of power An organic expansion and the specifics of power articulation: a working hypothesis CHAPTER 7 PHOENICIAN SOCIETY IN CENTRAL NORTH AFRICA: FROM SETTLEMENT PATTERNS TO SOCIAL ORGANISATION Introduction Settlement patterns and territorial organisation in central north Africa Topography, urban layout and material culture Burial grounds and society The Carthaginian necropoleis: the egalitarian outlook of society in the 8 th c., the shift of the 7 th BC and the question of Egyptian cults The sanctuary of Tanit at Salammbô: a contextual reconstruction and the debate on chronology The necropoleis of Utica: cultural origin and social hierarchies The tophet at Hadrumetum: chronology and cult The tophet and the issue of ritual infanticide Phoenician society in Carthage, Utica and Hadrumetum: social organisation and social change The foundation of Carthage and the formation of the early population Social implications of the tophet: an early civic institution? Population synthesis and relations with the indigenous communities: Utica, Hadrumetum and Lepcis CHAPTER 8 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES. TRADE PATTERNS AND INTERACTION MECHANISMS IN CENTRAL NORTH AFRICA Introduction The exploitation of natural resources and the artisanal production Agriculture Animal husbandry and the exploitation of marine resources Other natural resources

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix Craft production Trade Carthaginian maritime trade Utica and maritime trade Maritime trade and the foundation of Lepcis Phoenicians in central north Africa: trading circuits and a heterogeneous process of expansion CHAPTER 9 COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES AND EVOLVING SOCIETIES: INTEGRATION PATTERNS MERCHANTS, GUILDS AND FOREIGN LANDS: THE ORIGINS OF THE PHOENICIAN EXPANSION REVISITED Agents and structure of commerce: guilds, the temple and metropolitan Tyre Structures of commerce Agents of commerce Frontiers of expansion and cultural contacts: between permanent settlements and ephemeral outposts Only commerce? The other factors behind the Phoenician expansion Inter- and intra-phoenician identities: Phoenicians and others CONCLUSIONS APPENDIX Sardinia Sant Imbenia Spain Huelva Cádiz/Gadir Castillo de Doña Blanca Las Cumbres Cerro del Prado Cerro del Villar Toscanos Cerro del Mar Morro de Mezquitilla Trayamar Chorreras Lagos Almuñécar Cerro de San Cristóbal (Laurita)

6 x TABLE OF CONTENTS Puente de Noy Adra/Abdera La Fonteta Sa Caleta Puig de Mollins Ceuta Portugal Castro Marim Tavira Alcácer do Sal: el Castillo Alcácer do Sal: the necropolis of Olival do Senhor dos Mártires Abul Lisbon Quinta do Almaraz Alçácova de Santarém Santa Olaia Morocco Lixus Kach Kouch Sala Mogador Tangier Peninsula: necropoleis Algeria Rachgoun Tunisia Utica Carthage Hadrumetum Libya Lepcis TABLES FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY